Introduction
1. The gestation of the Macedonian phalanx is comprehensively discussed in C. Matthew, An Invincible Beast.
2. Most recently proposed by J.D. Grainger in Alexander: The Great Failure.
3. Arrian, Anabasis, 7 2.
Chapter One
1. Herodotus, 5 34-40.
2. Arrian, Indica, 18.
3. Pseudo-Lucian in Macrobii.
4. Plutarch, Alexander, 40.
5. Diodorus, 19 57.
6. Pausanias, 1 13.
7. Polyperchon had allied against Cassander with both Olympias and her cousin Aeacides, king of the Molossians, to restore her to power in Macedon as guardian of Alexander’s son, but after she was killed at Pydna and the war lost, both found refuge in Aetolia.
8. Plutarch, Demetrius 17.
9. Diodorus, 19 64.
10. Diodorus, 19 67.
11. Ibid.
12. Diogenes, Laertius, 5 79.
13. Strabo says that the harbour of Aulis could only hold fifty ships, and that therefore the Greek fleet must have assembled in the other ports in the neighbourhood.
14. Flavius Josephus, Against Apion, 1 21.
15. A.B. Bosworth in The Legacy of Alexander demonstrates this description of them is not strictly accurate.
Chapter Two
1. Polybius, 18 11.
2. Diodorus, 20 45.
3. Plutarch, Demetrius, 9.
4. Diodorus, 20 45.
5. Diogenes, Laertius, 5 79.
6. These two heroes had slain Hipparchus, the brother of the tyrant Hippias in 514, who was himself overthrown four years later preparing the way for the introduction of democracy.
7. Plutarch, Demetrius, 11.
8. Plutarch, Demetrius, 13.
9. Diodorus, 20 102.
10. Diodorus, 20 103.
11. Plutarch, Demetrius, 25.
12. Diodorus, 20 110.
13. Frontinus, 1 5 11 describes a camp constructed by Lysimachus: ‘Fearing that the enemy would attack from above, he dug a triple line of trenches and encircled these with a rampart. Then, running a single trench around all the tents, he thus fortified the entire camp.’
14. Arrian, Anabasis, 1 3.
15. Strabo, 9 5.
Chapter Three
1. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 8.
2. Diodorus, 19 105.
3. Diodorus, 20 28.
4. Pausanias, 9 7.
5. Cartledge, Thebes, p.247.
6. Athenaeus, 1 34.
7. Justin, 12.
8. Pausanias, 1 15.
9. Pausanias, 1 9.
10. Appian, Syrian Wars, 10 64.
11. Diodorus, 19 73.
12. Diodorus, 19 106.
Chapter Four
1. Plutarch, Demetrius, 24.
2. Plutarch, Demetrius, 31.
3. Polyaenus, 4 12.
4. Plutarch, Demetrius, 32.
5. Plutarch, Demetrius, 20.
6. Plutarch, Demetrius, 33.
7. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 3.
8. Herodotus, Book 2, 55-57.
9. Homer, Iliad, Book 16.
10. Justin, 16.
11. Plutarch, Demetrius, 38.
12. Plutarch, Demetrius, 53.
13. Diodorus, 19, 53.
14. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 10.
Chapter Five
1. Justin, 9.
2. Plutarch, Demetrius, 43.
3. Plutarch, Demetrius, 41.
4. Plutarch, Aratus 31 and 32.
5. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 11.
6. Pausanias, 1 26.
7. Plutarch, Demetrius, 46.
8. Pausanias, 1 11.
9. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 12.
10. Appian, Illyrian Wars, 2 7.
11. Justin, 16 2.
12. Pausanias, 1 10.
13. Pausanias, 1 9.
Chapter Six
1. Diodorus, 20 19; Justin 15.
2. Polynaeus, 4 12 3.
3. Diodorus, 21 13.
4. Memnon, 5.
5. Ibid.
6. Memnon, 13.
7. Appian, Syrian War, 63.
8. Memnon, 4.
9. Ibid.
10. Memnon, 8.
11. Justin, 24.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Austin, The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest, 270.
15. Justin, 24.
16. Strabo, 7 5.
17. Justin, 24.
18. Ibid.
Chapter Seven
1. Arrian, Anabasis, 7 15.
2. Xenophon, Hellenica, 7 20.
3. Polyaenus, 7 42.
4. Barry Cunliffe, The Ancient Celts.
5. Livy, 38 16 3.
6. Memnon, 11.
7. Justin, 24.
8. Polyaenus, 7 35.
9. Pausanias, 10 19.
10. Pausanias, 1 4.
11. The epitaph left a Thermopylae to commemorate the 300 Spartans and the king who died there in 480.
12. Habicht, Athens from Alexander to Antony, p.132.
13. Pausanias, 10 21.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Pausanias, 10 22.
19. Homer, Odyssey, Book 19.
20. Justin, 24.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. Propertius, The Elegies, 3 13.
25. Pausanias, 10 23.
26. Pausanias, 1 25.
27. Justin, 24.
28. Stabo 4 1; Dio Cassius, Frag, 90.
Chapter Eight
1. Plutarch, Demetrius, 53.
2. Ibid.
3. Plutarch, Demetrius, 49.
4. Justin, 24.
5. Memnon, 4.
6. M. Austin, The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation, 259.
7. Memnon, 10.
8. Justin, 25.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Syll. 207 = Michel 1482.
13. Justin, 24.
14. Diogenes, Laertius, 2 142.
15. Polyaenus, 4 17.
16. Justin, 25.
17. Diodorus, 22 5.
18. Ibid.
19. Polyaenus, 4 18.
20. Pausanias, 2 30.
21. Frontinus, 3 6-7; Polyaenus, 2 29.
22. Aegium took over the territory of nearby Helike, which was both destroyed by an earthquake and buried by a tsunami in 373 BC, and is suggested as a possible origin for Plato’s Atlantis.
23. Polybius, 2 41, 13-15.
24. Polyaenus, 4 6.
Chapter Nine
1. Justin, 25.
2. Plutarch, Pyrrhus 26; Pausanias, 1 13.
3. Pausanias, 14 9.
4. Polyaenus, 6 6.
5. Pausanias, 1 13.
6. Polybius, 5 19.
7. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 27.
8. Pausanias, 1 13.
9. Homer, Iliad, Book 5.
10. Pausanias, 1 13.
11. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 31.
12. There are many tales about King Inachus for whom the river is named and his daughter Io, from Aeschylus to Ovid.
13. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 26.
14. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 31.
15. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 32.
16. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 33.
17. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 34.
18. Pausanias, 2 22 8.
19. Athenaeus, 13 578.
Epilogue
1. D. Karunanithy, Macedonian War Machine, p.27.
2. Plutarch, Moralia, 119c.
3. Polybius, 9 35.
4. Plutarch, Aemilius Paulus, 28.
5. Agesilaus II of Sparta campaigned with some success in Achaemenid Asia Minor from 396 to 395.
6. Plutarch, Aemilius Paulus, 19.
7. Appian, Syrian Wars, 4.
Bibliography
Ancient Sources:
Appian, Roman History
Arrian, Anabasis and Indica
Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists
Cassius Dio, Roman History
Diodorus Siculus, Universal History
Frontinus, Stratagems
Herodotus, The Histories
Homer, The Iliad and Odyssey
Flavius Josephus, Against Apion
Justin, Epitome of Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus
Livy, The History of Rome
Memnon of Heraclea
Pausanias, Guide to Greece
Plutarch, Parallel Lives and Moralia
Polyaenus, Stratagems
Polybius, The Histories
Strabo, The Geography
Xenophon, Hellenica
Modern Sources:
Adcock, The Greek and Macedonian Art of War (Berkeley, 1967)
Anson, E.M., The Siege of Nora: A Source Conflict (Historia 37, 1988)
Austin, M., The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest (Cambridge, 2006)
Austin, M., Hellenistic Kings: War and Economy, in CQ 36 (1986)
Bennet and Roberts, The Wars of Alexander’s Successors, Vol. I and II (Pen & Sword, 2008)
Billows, Antigonus the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State (Berkeley, 1990)
Bosworth, A.B., The Legacy of Alexander (Oxford University Press, 2002)
Browne, E.L., Antigonus Surnamed Gonatus (Arktouros Hellenic Studies, 1979)
Burstein, Stanley M., The Hellenistic Age from the Battle of Ipsos to the Death of Kleopatra VII, Translated Documents of Greece and Rome, Series Number 3, paperback, 26 September 1985
(Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 7, Part 1, The Hellenistic World, 1972)
Campbell, Duncan B., Greek and Roman Artillery (Osprey, 2003)
Campbell, Duncan B., Siege Warfare in the Ancient World (Osprey, 2006)
Carey, B.T., Warfare in the Ancient World (Pen & Sword, 2005)
Carney, E.D., Arsinoe Before she was Philadelphus (Ancient History Bulletin 8, 1994)
Carney, E.D., The Curious Death of the Antipatrid Dynasty AM, VI (Thessaloniki, 1999)
Cartledge, Paul and Spawforth, A., Hellenistic and Roman Sparta (Routledge, 1989)
Cartledge, Paul, Thebes (Picador, 2020)
Champion, Jeff, The Tyrants of Syracuse, Vol. II (Pen & Sword, 2012)
Champion, Jeff, Pyrrhus of Epirus (Pen & Sword, 2009)
Chaniotis, A., War in the Hellenistic World (Oxford, 2005)
Connolly, Greece and Rome at War (Frontline Books, second edition, 2016)
Cunliffe, B., The Ancient Celts, Second edition paperback (OUP, Oxford, 26 April 2018)
Ellis, J.R., The Assassination of Philip II (Studies in honour of Charles Edson, London, 1981)
Errington, R.M., Diodorus Siculus and the Chronology of the Early Diadochi 320– 11 BC (Hermes 105, 1977)
Ferguson, W.S., Hellenistic Athens (London, 1911)
Fox, Robin Lane, Alexander the Great (Penguin, 1973)
Gabbert, J.J., Antigonus II Gonatus (Routledge, 1997)
Gabbert, J.J., The Career of Olympiodorus of Athens (The Ancient World 13, 1986)
Gardiner, R. (ed.), The Age of the Galley (Conway Maritime Press, 1995)
Garoufalias, Petros, Pyrrhus (Stacy International, 1979)
Grainger, John D., Alexander the Great: Failure (Hambleton Continuum, 2007)
Grainger, John D., The Galatians (Pen & Sword, 2019)
Grainger, John D., Antipater’s Dynasty (Pen & Sword, 2019)
Grainger, John D., Seleukos Nikator (London and New York, 1990)
Grant, Michael, The Hellenistic Greeks (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1982)
Green, P., Alexander to Actium (London, 1991)
Griffiths, G.T., The Mercenaries of the Hellenistic World (Cambridge, 1935)
Habicht, C., Athens from Alexander to Antony (Harvard University Press, 1997)
Hammond, N.G.L., The Macedonian State (Clarendon Paperbacks, 1992)
Hammond, N.G.L., Alexander the Great (London, 1981)
Hammond, N.G.L. and Walbank, F.W., History of Macedonia, Vol. III (1988)
Hanson, The Western Way of War: Infantry Battles in Classical Greece (Oxford, 1989)
Hanson, Hoplites (Routledge, 1993)
Head, Duncan, Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars 359–146 BC (Wargames Research Group, 1982)
Heckel, W., The Marshals of Alexander’s Empire (London and New York, 1992)
Heckel, W., The Last Days and Testament of Alexander the Great (Historia Einzelschriften 56, 1988)
Hornblower, Jane, Hieronymus of Cardia (Oxford University Press, 1 January 1982)
Karunanithy, D., The Macedonian War Machine (Pen & Sword, 2013)
Leon, C.F., Antigonus Gonatus Rediscovered (Ancient World 20, 1989)
Lund, H.S., Lysimachus (Routledge, 1992)
Manolis, Andronicus, The Royal Tombs and Other Antiquities (Athens, 1984)
Matthew, C., An Invincible Beast (Pen & Sword, 2015)
McCurdy, G., Hellenistic Queens (Baltimore, 1932)
Rankin, H.D., The Celts and the Classical World (London and Portland, OR, 1987)
Rosen, K., Political Documents in Hieronymus of Cardia (Acta Classica 10, 1967)
Rostovtzeff, M., Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, Vol. 3 (Oxford, 1953)
Scullard, H.H., The Elephant in the Greek and Roman World (London, 1974)
Shipley, G., The Greek World after Alexander (London and New York, 2000)
Simpson, R.H., The Historical Circumstances of the Peace of 311 (JHS 74, 1954)
Simpson, R.H., Antigonus the One-Eyed and the Greeks (Historia 8, 1959)
Tarn, W., Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments (Cambridge, 1930)
Tarn, W., Antigonus Gonatus (Argonaut, 1912)
Tarn, W., Heracles, Son of Barsine (JHS 41, 1921)
Usher, S., The Historians of Greece and Rome (Hamish Hamilton, 1969)
Walbank, F.W., The Hellenistic World (Fontana History of the Ancient World, paperback, 24 September 1992)
Waterford, R., Dividing the Spoils (Oxford, 2011)
Wilkes, J., The Illyrians (Blackwell, 1992)
Woodhead, A.G., Athens and Demetrius Poliorcetes at the end of the Fourth Century BC (Studies in honour of Charles Edson, London, 1981)
Worthington, Ptolemy I (Oxford, 2017)