CHAPTER TWELVE
VALENTINIAN I A.D. 364ñ375
A.D. 364ñ367: SOLE REIGN
A.D. 367ñ375: SENIOR AUGUSTUS
(WITH GRATIAN)
Ruling in the East:
VALENS (364ñ378) AND Procopius (365ñ366)
BROTHER OF VALENS
HUSBAND OF SEVERA AND JUSTINA
FATHER (BY SEVERA) OF GRATIAN AND (BY JUSTINA) OF VALENTINIAN II AND GALLA
FATHER-IN-LAW OF THEODOSIUS I AND CONSTANTIA (d. OF CONSTANTIUS II)
GRANDFATHER OF GALLA PLACIDIA
GREAT-GRANDFATHER OF VALENTINIAN III AND HONORIA
Flavius Valentinianus, A.D. 321ñ375. Valentinian I was hailed emperor at Nicaea on February 26, 364, just ten days after the accidental death of Jovian, in whose army he was a commander of a division of spearmen. His elevation came only after long discussion, and much like the elevation of his predecessor, seems to have been arrived at for a lack of better options. Valentinian hailed from peasant stock in Pannonia, though his father had become a general in the army, and thus he was able to receive a good education. He had many enviable talents, which were not limited to administration and soldiering, but apparently included painting and sculpting. His temperament was rigid, and he was not lenient when it came to pronouncing punishment or seeking revenge. But on balance the bad qualities he had were few, and in any case were well-suited to survival as emperor.
Valentinian spent much of his youth in Africa, and later in his career served in Mesopotamia under Constantius II. He was dismissed from a similar position by Julian II, who banished him to Egypt for his Christian beliefs. However, Valentinian was recalled from his exile by the next emperor, Jovian, who sent him to Gaul to help restore order in the West. His success in that task earned him yet another commander position in the army. Instead of continuing the failed policy of ruling the Empire alone, Valentinian soon made his younger brother Valens co-emperor and split the Empire, with his brother ruling in the East and Valentinian ruling in the West. He chose the West because it was in greater need of attention than the East, and so he decided to take on the task himself. Although the concept of dividing the Empire between East and West was nothing new, in this case the policy endured virtually undisturbed until the collapse of the West in 476.
As emperor of the West, Valentinian made his capital at Milan, but did not have the luxury to reside there, as he devoted himself almost exclusively to frontier defense. With the exception of delivering relief to Britain in 367 (which had been overrun by Saxons), Valentinian focused on stabilizing the German nations. Indeed, he spent seven consecutive years in Germany constructing fortifications and doing his best to keep the existing rivalries between Germanic nations alive and active. As if this were not enough to occupy him, the Eastern part of Europe became a problem, for in 374 Germans and Sarmatians crossed the Danube and invaded Raetia. Valentinian once again moved his headquarters, this time to Sirmium so he could launch offensives across the Danube himself.
To pay for his peaked military demands, taxes were raised in the Empire. Perhaps because he and his family had risen from humble origins, Valentinian was especially moderate on the underprivileged and took care to keep the tax burden from affecting the poor too severely. Further, he created a political apparatus through which the poor could seek justice through officers known as Defenders of the People. The wealthy class must not have enjoyed the consequences of Valentinianís regime, but at least his energetic frontier warfare spared them invasion and the like.
Valentinian was married throughout his reign, initially to Marina Severa, by whom he sired Gratian. He divorced Severa in 368 and married Justina (the widow of Magnentius), with whom he had yet another son, Valentinian II. These step-brothers were destined to become emperors, and indeed they shared leadership of the West for eight years. Aware of a decline in his own health, Valentinian in 367 had appointed his eldest son Gratian (then 8 years old) as co-emperor in the West. He did this with great pomp and circumstance, and purposely tied his dynasty to the army, in hopes that when he passed, the army would support his legacy. Indeed, the ìdynastyî he established (often called the House of Valentinian) lasted nearly a century. Though Valentinian himself reigned less than 12 years, his was perhaps the last successful principate in the West. He died at his military headquarters at Bregetio on November 17, 375, from a rage-induced stroke while receiving a delegation sent by the Quadi.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Valentinian and Valens took a hard line on the devaluation of the solidus and the silver coinage when in 366/7 they introduced a law to reduce the problem of taxes being paid in underweight, impure or false solidi. In its most extreme circumstances, this law required the coins used for payment to be melted down into bars of pure gold. This effort stabilized the solidus at a very high purity and weight (72 to the Roman pound), for in some cases it had fallen below 95 percent pure, and was being struck at lower weights. This proved to be a wise venture, for it made Roman coinage the high standard by which all other currencies were judged, and gave Romans more bargaining power with their enemies, federates and army.
GRATIAN A.D. 367ñ383
A.D. 367ñ375: JUNIOR AUGUSTUS
(WITH VALENTINIAN I)
A.D. 375ñ383: SENIOR AUGUSTUS
(WITH VALENTINIAN II)
Ruling in the East:
VALENS (364ñ378), THEODOSIUS I (379ñ395)
AND ARCADIUS (383ñ408)
SON OF VALENTINIAN I (AND SEVERA)
HUSBAND OF CONSTANTIA (d. OF CONSTANTIUS II)
NEPHEW OF VALENS
HALF-BROTHER OF VALENTINIAN II AND GALLA (w. OF THEODOSIUS I)
Flavius Gratianus, A.D. 359ñ383. Gratian, the eldest son of Valentinian I and Marina Severa, was born at Sirmium five years before his father became emperor, and later in life was well known for his preference for barbarian clothing and his passion for hunting. His other strong devotion was to Christianity, in the name of which he was an avid persecutor of pagans.
While aged only 7, Gratian was named consul ó an appointment which was merely symbolic, and to those who still held the senate in high esteem, must have been insulting. But more was to come, because Gratianís father, whose health was failing, proclaimed him junior Augustus on August 24, 367, at a lavish ceremony at Ambiani. Father and eldest son had jointly held the titles of Augustus in the West for more than eight years when Valentinian I died suddenly on the Danubian frontier in 375. Thus the Western Roman Empire fell into the hands of 16-year-old Gratian as would be expected. But only five days later the army hailed Gratian s 4-year-old half-brother, Valentinian II, as co-emperor of the West. A brief power struggle involving several important military men ensued, but with little serious consequence, peace was restored. It is much to the credit of Gratian that civil war was averted, for he behaved charitably and suggested his young brother establish his court in Illyria while he set out to manage affairs in the less-stable western provinces.
Because of his youth, Gratian was strongly influenced by his former tutor, the poet Ausonius, and his Master of Infantry, Merobaudes. Ausonius worked hard to restore good relations with the senate, which had been alienated by the harsh policies of Gratianís father. Gratian established his court at Trier, from which he was able to direct campaigns against the Alemanni from 376 to 378. In 378 or 374 (opinions vary) he married Constantia, the 16-year-old daughter who was born posthumously to Constantius II and his third wife, Faustina. Constantia (in whose name no coins were struck) died in 383, and was able to produce only one son, who died in childhood.
But in 378 the Romans suffered perhaps their greatest defeat in history. The Visigoths had been making overtures of war in the East (for the province of Thrace, though European, belonged to the East), and the emperor Valens had led an army to deal with this tense situation. In August Valens apparently grew tired of waiting for Gratianís army to arrive, or was eager to defeat them single-handedly, and so launched an offensive before Gratianís reinforcements arrived. Indeed, we are told that Gratian arrived at Adrianople only in time to witness the aftermath of the virtual destruction of the Eastern army, and the death of his uncle, Valens.
Gratian had now inherited the whole Empire, which he theoretically shared with his 7-year-old half-brother. Even though Valentinian II would have ruled only in name for at least the first decade, it would have been simple enough for the brothers to divide the Empire between themselves. But instead of pursuing that disastrous option, or taking on more than he could handle, Gratian eventually decided to appoint a cousin of his by marriage as the replacement of his slain uncle. After the Eastern throne had remained vacant for about six months, the general Theodosius (who recently had been recalled from Spain to take charge of the Danubian frontier) was hailed Augustus in the East in January of 379.
Together Gratian and Theodosius I kept the Goths and the Alans in check, but in 383 Gratianís attention was required in Britain, where a commander named Magnus Maximus had revolted, and subsequently crossed the channel. When Gratian neared Paris his army deserted for lack of monetary incentive, and left the 24-year-old emperor to flee for his life. Gratian was overtaken near Lugdunum and was executed there on August 25, 383, exactly 16 years and one day after he had ascended the throne.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Gratian was the first emperor to drop pontifex maximus from his titulature, for he perceived it to be a relic of the pagan age.
VALENTINIAN II A.D. 375ñ392
A.D. 375ñ383: JUNIOR AUGUSTUS
(WITH GRATIAN)
A.D. 383ñ392: SOLE REIGN
Ruling in the East:
VALENS (364ñ378), THEODOSIUS I (379ñ395)
AND ARCADIUS (383ñ408)
SON OF VALENTINIAN I (AND JUSTINA)
BROTHER OF GALLA (w. OF THEODOSIUS I)
HALF-BROTHER OF GRATIAN
NEPHEW OF VALENS
BROTHER-IN-LAW OF THEODOSIUS I
UNCLE OF GALLA PLACIDIA
Flavius Valentinianus, A.D. 371ñ392. Five days after the sudden death of his father, the 4-year-old Valentinian II was hailed co-emperor (November 22, 375) with his older half-brother, Gratian, who had nominally held that title with their father for more than eight years. This symbolic act was engineered by Valentinianís mother, Justina (a devout Arian who formerly was the wife of the usurper Magnentius), the Frankish Master of Infantry Merobaudes, and the Danubian commander Equitius. Both Justina and Merobaudes took advantage of dissatisfaction among the Danubian soldiers, who had tired of the Germans making the important decisions.
Power was now shared in the West by Gratian and the adults who represented the child Valentinian II. The division of the West was formal, with the court of Valentinian II having authority in Italy, western Illyria and Africa. That Gratian did not respond to this lawless elevation with force, and indeed that he did not resent his sibling, is much to his credit. When Gratian was killed by Magnus Maximus in 383, Valentinianís court moved from Illyria to Milan. A temporary peace was arranged between Valentinian II and the usurper, which lasted for nearly four years.
While at Milan, the influence of the emperorís mother was greatly diminished because of her loss of a religious dispute with St. Ambrose. But more serious matters were at hand, for Magnus Maximus was still in control of the westernmost provinces, and in 387 he launched an invasion of Italy. In fear of his life, Valentinian II (now about 16 years old) and his mother fled Milan and sought refuge in Thessalonica. Indeed, it was through his motherís efforts that the Eastern emperor Theodosius I agreed to invade Italy and to restore her sonís rule. Regrettably, she was unable to enjoy the fruits of her labor, for she died in 388.
Having taken part in the campaign against Magnus Maximus, Valentinian II was able to maintain his principate. However, his authority in the West was greatly diminished, for Theodosius I remained in Italy for nearly four years thereafter. Throughout this period, young Valentinian was at odds with the Frankish Master of Infantry Arbogast, whom Theodosius had endowed with great authority in the West. At one point Valentinian tried to oust the Frankish soldier, but found that when Arbogast refused to resign, he could not forcibly retire him.
Their tense joint-rulership ended on May 15, 392, when the 21-year-old Valentinian (held against his will at Vienna in southern Gaul) died, either by his own hand or by strangulation on the orders of Arbogast. This treacherous act brought about the extinction of the luckless House of Valentinian. Three months later Arbogast installed the usurper Eugenius on the throne in Rome, and through him ruled in the West for the next two years.
MAGNUS MAXIMUS A.D. 383ñ388
A.D. 383ñ387: SOLE REIGN
A.D. 387ñ388: SENIOR AUGUSTUS
(WITH FLAVIUS VICTOR)
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS I (379ñ395) AND
ARCADIUS (383ñ408)
FATHER OF FLAVIUS VICTOR
Flavius Magnus Clemens Maximus, d. A.D. 388. The Spaniard Magnus Maximus was a distant relative and comrade-in-arms of Count Theodosius, the illustrious father of Theodosius I, the emperor in the East at the time of Maximusí revolt.
Maximus earlier had served in North Africa, and had become the commander of the Roman army in Britain, where he was fighting the Picts and the Scots when his soldiers hailed him emperor in July of 383. He quickly moved into Gaul and also claimed Spain for himself. The rightful emperor of the West, Gratian, traveled west to crush Maximusí rebellion, but when he reached Gaul his troops abandoned him and the 24-year-old emperor fled, only to be overtaken and killed at Lugdunum on August 25. Theodosius I (struggling with the Sasanians in the East) and Valentinian II (helpless in Milan) were not able to combat Maximusí insurrection.
The usurper was able to extend his territories, and to enlist the help of the infantry commander Merobaudes. In the summer of 384 Theodosius I met with envoys of Maximus and there found it practical to recognize Maximus as a de facto emperor (co-regent of the West), thus dividing the Empire into three distinct portions. In 387 Maximus took advantage of the undefended Alpine passes and invaded Italy in May of 387. The 16-year-old Valentinian II escaped with his mother to Thessalonica, where they sought the protection of the Eastern emperor Theodosius I.
Maximusí unlawful cause found some ardent supporters in Italy, including the renowned orator and consul Quintus Aurelius Symmachus. At this time Maximus raised his young son, Flavius Victor, as his junior co-emperor. In the following year, however, Theodosius patched up a peace with the Sasanians and then led his army of Romans, Huns and Visigoths on a fast march through the Balkans. Maximus stayed in Aquileia and sent an army toward the Balkans to combat Theodosius, but his legions were defeated several times, and Theodosius marched into Italy, where he found Maximus at Aquileia. Despite his pleas for mercy, the usurper was finally defeated and then beheaded in July or August, 388.
His son, Flavius Victor (who may have been with him or remained in Gaul), was captured and executed by the Frankish Master of Infantry Arbogast. Having gone to great expense to restore peace in the West, Theodosius remained in Italy for more than three years and placed young Valentinian II under the tutelage of Arbogast. A fanatical Orthodox Christian, Maximus was quite active in his religious persecutions, and even found a place in Welsh legend. Indeed, it would have been an interesting Empire had Maximus succeeded in ruling the West, as the entire Empire would have been ruled by Spaniards, who no doubt would have created a Spanish dynasty with their sons.
FLAVIUS VICTOR A.D. 387ñ388
JUNIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH MAGNUS MAXIMUS)
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS I (379ñ395) AND
ARCADIUS (383ñ408)
SON OF MAGNUS MAXIMUS
Flavius Victor, d. A.D. 388. The young son of Magnus Maximus, Flavius Victor was proclaimed co-emperor by his father sometime in the middle of 387, when the latter was wresting Italy from Valentinian II. The coinage is careful to show his youth and small stature, indicating he was subordinate to his father.
Flavius Victor, whose age is not known (indeed he may have been only an infant), was emperor for only about a year before he was executed after his fatherís defeat by Theodosius I. It is not entirely certain whether he was left in Gaul while his father occupied Italy, or if he accompanied him, though the former seems likely. In any case, his death came in August of 388 at the hands of the general Arbogast, either with his father or shortly thereafter.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Flavius Victorís coins were struck at Trier and the newly captured Italian mints of Milan and Aquileia. The reverse inscription on his rare solidus Bono Reipvblice Nati, meaning ìborn for the good of the state,î is among the most charming in the Imperial series.
EUGENIUS A.D. 392ñ394
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS I (379ñ395) AND
ARCADIUS (383ñ408)
Flavius Eugenius, d. A.D. 394. History records very little of Eugenius, who on August 22, 392, was chosen to replace Valentinian II more than three months after the latter had been murdered. Making this choice was Arbogast, a Frankish general whom the Eastern emperor Theodosius I had named co-regent with Valentinian II. Eugenius was well-suited for the job because he was only a middie-ranking court official who had formerly been a professor of rhetoric and Latin.
Eugenius was the ideal puppet emperor, for he was not likely to defy the authority of the court officials and military commanders who had installed him. Although a Christian himself, Eugenius was bearded and tolerated a brief revival of paganism in Rome in an effort to gain support against Theodosius I. After all, it was Theodosiusí relentless persecution of pagans and heretics that provided a spark for revolution. By the spring of 393 Eugenius had moved East to occupy Italy, and it must have angered Theodosius that he had to lead an army to defend Italy for a second time in just a few years. Arbogast continued to rule the Western Roman Empire through Eugenius until Theodosius I routed their army near Aquileia (or along the Frigidus river in Pannonia) on September 5ñ6, 394. After their defeat, Eugenius was captured and executed and Arbogast fled, only to take his own life a few days later.
HONORIUS A.D. 393ñ423
SOLE REIGN
(EXCEPT 421, WITH CONSTANTIUS III)
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS I (379ñ395), ARCADIUS (383ñ408)
AND THEODOSIUS II (408ñ450)
SON OF THEODOSIUS I AND AELIA FLACCILLA
BROTHER OF ARCADIUS
BROTHER-IN-LAW OF AELIA EUDOXIA
UNCLE OF THEODOSIUS II AND AELIA PULCHERIA
HALF-BROTHER OF GALLA PLACIDIA
Flavius Honorius, A.D. 383/4ñ423. Born at Constantinople, Honorius was the younger son of the reigning emperor Theodosius I and his first wife, Aelia Flacilla. Honoriusí reign was one of the most tragic and mismanaged in all Roman history. Honorius was hailed emperor in January, 393, which raised the number of emperors in the East to three: Theodosius I (age 46 or 47), Arcadius (age 16), and Honorius (age 8). However promising this might have seemed, it soon became apparent that Honorius and his brother had inherited none of their fatherís talent, and that both were destined to be ruled by their generals.
Honoriusí reign began in the midst of a tragedy, for at that time the West was in the hands of the usurper Eugenius (392ñ394). The last legitimate emperor of the West, Valentinian II, had been killed eight months earlier, and so the task of restoring order in the West fell squarely on the shoulders of Theodosius I. Thus, when Theodosius left Constantinople in 394 to oust Eugenius from Italy, he left his eldest son, Arcadius, in the East to oversee matters during his absence.
Though Theodosius was successful in defeating Euguenius and his supporters, the great emperor himself died in 395, leaving the 18-year-old Arcadius emperor in the East, and the 12-year-old Honorius emperor in the West. Both boys had ambitious generals as their advisers, the one appointed to Honorius being the half-Vandal Master of Soldiers Flavius Stilicho. His position was secure, for not only had he been appointed by Theodosius I, but he was married to a niece of Theodosius, and had wed both of his own daughters (first Maria then, after her death, Thermantia the Younger) to Honorius.
The death of Theodosius was particularly damaging to relations between East and West, as the generals Stilicho (regent in the West) and Rufinus (regent in the East) fought for control of Illyria, an important province which provided a steady supply of army recruits. Their private quarrel caused an uprising by the Visigoths under their chieftain Alaric. Though the Goths ravaged much of the Balkans and Greece from 395 to 397, the two generals were more concerned with their own struggle than with sparing Greece from destruction. The conflict ended in treachery when Stilicho (in what seemed to be a peaceful gesture) had Rufinus assassinated. When Stilicho refused to cooperate in the war against Alaric, he was declared a public enemy in 397 by Arcadius, and tensions between East and West rose to a new height.
A revolt in North Africa proved equally dangerous, for the leader of the rebellion sought to ally himself with Arcadius in the East. Fortunately the crisis ended, and disaster was narrowly averted. But the woes of the Western Roman Empire were just beginning, and the remainder of Honoriusí reign is a virtual laundry list of catastrophe. The close proximity of the Goths convinced Honorius that his current capital at Milan was vulnerable to fast invasion, and so in 404 he moved his court further south to Ravenna, a city with easy access to the sea and natural protection afforded by its marshy environs. The measure proved wise, because in 405 a confederate army led by the Ostrogoths invaded Italy, and was repelled by Stilicho.
Riding the tide of this recent victory, the ambitious Stilicho planned for his invasion of Illyria, and tried to gain the cooperation of the Visigoth Alaric in his enterprise. But he was foiled when a Germanic invasion was launched across the Rhine in 406. Even though Germany, Gaul and Britain were laid waste to on an almost inconceivable scale, Stilicho was still preoccupied with his desire to recapture Illyria, and offered no substantive help to the depleted legions in the far West. Thus, the legions supported a rebellion that began in Britain and spread into Gaul and Spain. Though the first two leaders of this revolt were quickly murdered and replaced by their own soldiers, it signaled the beginning of nearly a decade of chaos in the westernmost provinces, which continued virtually unabated from 406 to 415.
During this period, the Roman armies were divided among loyalists and usurpers, and thus were ineffective against the Germans, who poured across the Rhine to settle in Gaul and Spain. The details are sketchy and intricate, and are presented in the biographies of Constantine III (407ñ411), Constans II (410ñ411), Maximus (409ñ411), Jovinus (411ñ413), Sebastianus (412ñ413) and Priscus Attalus (second reign, 414ñ415). In the meantime, Italy and eastern Europe were equally chaotic, for Alaric and his Visigoths were being kept at bay only through the payment of huge sums of gold.
The year 408 was especially important, for Honoriusí older brother Arcadius, emperor in the East, died on May 1. He was replaced by his 7-year-old son, Theodosius II, who had been hailed Junior Augustus in 402. But Stilichoís ambition was unbounded, and he claimed the right of regency over East as well as West, only to be arrested on August 22 by his own mutinous soldiers, who had been told he was planning to overthrow Honorius and install his own son, Eucherius, on the throne. The shortsighted senate was fed up with German generals, and drove a great many German soldiers out of Italy. But this purge (which kept another German from holding such a position for the next half-century) was a Pyrrhic victory, for most of the Germans joined the Visigoths.
With the loss of Stilicho and the western provinces in open revolt, Alaric, in October, led his Visigoths on a second invasion of Italy ó and this one proved effective. Alaric blockaded Rome from 408ñ410, and their siege was so effective that they avoided sacking it in the first year only because they were paid a vast sum of gold by the senate. But in 409 they renewed their pressure, captured Romeís port, and forced the senate to declare a candidate of their own, Priscus Attalus, as emperor in place of Honorius. But Alaric soon tired of his arrangement with Priscus Attalus and arranged to meet with Honorius near his court in Ravenna. During the process, however, his delegation was attacked by a hated compatriot, Sarus. Alaric suspected it was no coincidence, and that Honorius had arranged it. So Alaric broke off negotiations and engaged in some treachery of his own, through which the gates opened for him.
The Visigoths poured into Rome in August of 410 and sacked the Eternal City for about three days. In addition to booty, the invaders took captives, including the emperorís beloved half-sister, Galla Placidia. This event shocked the Roman world, but the news was not immediately understood by the dull-witted Honorius, who was then residing at his court in Ravenna. The historian Procopius informs us that when he was told that ìRome had fallen,î he first thought that his pet cock ó named Roma ó had died. His perplexed response, ìÖ and I was only just feeding him,î reveals his simplistic nature. The sack of Rome also did little for the Visigoths, whose leader died later that year during his southward trek, from which he had hoped to invade North Africa. Their subsequent fate in Spain and southern Gaul was luckless, after which they decided to return to central Gaul and settle.
Though Rome had not been sacked in almost eight centuries, the Western Roman Empireís misfortunes did not end there. The next five years were plagued with continued rebellion in the westernmost provinces. Some good luck, however, did come to Honorius in the form of a valiant general named Constantius (better known as Constantius III), who was able to quell revolts in the West, defeat the Visigoths, and recover Honoriusí half-sister, Galla Placidia, whom he made his reluctant wife in 417. Since Honorius was ever-reliant on his generals, he must have felt good about this new arrangement with Constantius III. However, in February of 421, he hailed his prize general as his co-emperor, a decision which seemed to please neither Honorius or his nephew, Theodosius II (who refused to recognize the elevation). As unwilling as Honorius was to share his office, he no doubt was saddened when a few months later (September, 421) Constantius III died of what seemingly were natural causes.
The childless Honorius was thus robbed of an immediate heir, but in turn received a future one, for Constantius III and Placidia had had two children, one of whom was the future emperor Valentinian III. Ancient historians tell us of another part of Honoriusí personality, for he was unnaturally fond of his half-sister. His public expressions of this love, which appeared blatantly incestuous to those observing, caused riots between various political factions in the streets of Ravenna. However, their love became strained and turned sour, causing Honorius to banish Galla Placidia and her children in 422 or 423. After an exhausting and luckless reign of more than 30 years, Honorius ó then aged 39 ó died of natural causes shortly thereafter on August 25, 423. His death incited yet another revolt, in which power was seized by a faction backing a usurper named Johannes, who ruled for 18 months until he was deposed in 425 by an army sent from Constantinople. In his place, the rightful emperor, the 6-year-old Valentinian III, was installed.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: There are imitations of Honoriusí solidi, tremisses, siliquae and half-siliquae attributed to the Visigoths (see RIC X, pp. 451ñ2); of his solidi and siliquae attributed to the Suevi (see RIC X, p. 465); and of his siliquae, half-siliquae and Æ4ís attributed to the Vandals and N. Africa in general (see RIC X, p. 467ff.).
CONSTANTINE III A.D. 407ñ411
A.D. 407ñ408: SOLE REIGN
A.D. 408ñ409/410: AUGUSTUS
(WITH CONSTANS II, AS CAESAR)
A.D. 409/410ñ411: SENIOR AUGUSTUS
(WITH CONSTANS II)
Ruling in the East:
ARCADIUS (383ñ408) AND THEODOSIUS II
(408ñ450)
FATHER OF CONSTANS II
Flavius Claudius Constantinus, d. A.D. 411. During the early 5th Century, Britain was slowly denuded of its legions because of more pressing needs on the continent. The general Stilicho withdrew most Roman troops from Britain and Gaul to repel an Ostrogothic army led by Radagaisus that penetrated northern Italy late in 405. (Stilicho defeated the Ostrogoths, but only with the aid of the Huns and by keeping Alaricís Visigoths in line with large sums of gold.)
Though disaster was averted in Italy, the provinces of Britain and Gaul were unprotected. A great invasion of Gaul was launched across the frozen Rhine by Burgundians, Vandals, Alans, Alemanni, Franks and Suevi, which not only devastated Germany and Gaul, but also incited the Picts to ravage Britain. This led to chaos and disaffection within the army, which was not impressed with the feeble efforts of Stilicho, and so in 406 took matters into its own hands by raising three men in quick succession as emperor: Marcus, Gratian and Constantine III. The first two were rapidly deposed by their own soldiers, and of them we have no coins.
Constantine III was a common soldier, and in 407 he wrote to Honorius explaining his hesitance, but none-the-less he asked for confirmation. He mobilized his depleted army and quickly moved into Gaul, where he established his court at Aries. In 408 he raised his eldest son, Constans II, to the rank of Caesar, and his youngest son, Julian, to Nobilissimus (ìmost nobleî). Regrettably, no coins were struck in the name of Julian. However, we do have coins in the name of Constans II, whose principal task was to conquer the north of Spain, which he did briefly.
In 409 the Visigoth Alaric launched his invasion of Italy, and as a result Constantine III was able to gain temporary recognition from Honorius, with whom he held the consulship in that year. This did not please Theodosius II in Constantinople, who did not agree to the pact, which in part involved Constantine III providing help to Honorius in repelling the Visogoths. However, in the same year treacherous actions by his own general Gerontius cost Constantine III his recently acquired territories in northern Spain.
Instead of coming under the protection of the Roman armies, Spain was now being ravaged by Vandals and other Germans with whom Gerontius seems to have made a pact. Then in 409 the rebellious general raised a man named Maximus (perhaps his own son), as emperor in Spain. Thus, at the very peak of its nominal achievement, the Empire of Constantine III began to collapse. He recalled his son, Constans II, from Spain in 410 and hailed him co-emperor, perhaps in preparation for an invasion of Italy (in 410) that never materialized. Early in 411, Constans II was besieged and executed by Gerontius at Vienne, and later in the same year Constantine III himself was besieged by Gerontius at Aries. With him, and sharing his fate, was his youngest son, Julian. But his turncoat general had to abandon his venture because an army led by Honoriusí general, Constantius (the emperor of 421, later called Constantius III), was fast approaching.
Thus Gerontius fled and Constantius III renewed the siege of Aries. In September, Constantine III was captured just after he had taken the vows of priesthood. But this act was futile, and did not spare his life as he had hoped. Constantine III was executed on orders of Honorius while being transported to Ravenna. Though his rebellion (and the offshoot rebellion of Maximus in Spain) were crushed, a new Gallic revolt led by Jovinus was sparked in the same year.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: This rebelís most interesting coins ó inscribed VICTORIA AAAVGGGG ó were struck only at Lugdunum. Though once believed to represent Honorius, Theodosius II, Constantine III and Constans II, hoard evidence has shown that they were struck before Constans II was hailed co-emperor; therefore, they are dated to 407ñ408, and must refer to Honorius, Arcadius, Theodosius II and Constantine III.
CONSTANS II A.D. 409/10ñ411
A.D. 408ñ409/10: CAESAR
(UNDER CONSTANTINE III)
A.D. 409/410ñ411: JUNIOR AUGUSTUS
(WITH CONSTANTINE III)
Ruling in the East:
ARCADIUS (383ñ408) AND
THEODOSIUS II (408ñ450)
SON OF CONSTANTINE III
Constans, d. A.D. 411. As might be expected, the historical information on Constans II ó who we are told was a monk before being hailed Caesar ó is incomplete, and in some cases contradictory. We do know he was associated with his fatherís revolt during its second year, but probably with the rank of Caesar. One source, Olympiodorus, tells us Constans was first made Caesar, and was elevated to the rank of Augustus in 409 (or later) when he was recalled from Spain by his father. More than likely he was given the rank of Augustus in 410, either because of a host of new problems which his father faced, or because of a planned invasion of Italy.
The first task entrusted to Constans II was to add Spain to his fatherís fugitive kingdom. This goal he achieved in 408 and 409 with the help of the general Gerontius. However, the territorial gain was short-lived as the Spanish soldiers guarding the pass at the Pyrenees revolted, allowing the Vandals and other Germanic migrants to flow directly from Gaul into Spain. Unable to control the situation he had been sent to remedy, Constans II fled back to Gaul, leaving the Roman citizens with no choice but to take refuge within the walled cities of Spain.
Historians tell us that a severe famine forced many of them to resort to cannibalism. Constantine III blamed Gerontius for the treachery of the Spanish soldiers, and thus the general made a pact with the Vandals in hopes it would preserve his life. As part of the pact, Gerontius declared Maximus (who perhaps was his own son) as emperor of Spain.
From all this chaos in Spain, Constans II was recalled to Gaul by his father, where he was hailed co-emperor. But Gerontius proved to be a fatal thorn in the side of young Constans II, for early in 411 he besieged him at Vienne and soon executed him. Only a few months later, Gerontius proceeded to besiege the boyís father Constantine III at Aries. Constans II had a younger brother named Julian (for whom no coins were struck) who was hailed Nobilissimus (ìmost nobleî) when Constans II was made Caesar.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Constans II is most often referred to only as ìConstans,î but in this catalog he is designated ìConstans IIî to easily distinguish him from the earlier emperor of the same name who reigned from 337ñ350. His extremely rare coinage (of which there are Cigoi forgeries) seems to be limited to silver siliquae of Trier with the standard Romaseated reverse, all bearing the mint marks KONT or SMTR.
MAXIMUS A.D. 409ñ411
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS II (408ñ450)
SON OF GERONTIUS(?)
Maximus, d. A.D. 422(?). The rebellion of Constantine III occurred out of desperation, for Germans were pouring across the Rhine in numbers not thought possible. The legions stationed in the West were receiving no help from the emperor Honorius, who had his hands full keeping the Visigoths out of Italy.
The leading general in this rebellion was Gerontius, who was as versatile as he was talented. In 408 he and Constantine IIIís son, Constans II, conquered northern Spain. However, the gain was short-lived as Vandals and Suevi poured through Gaul and directly into Spain. Historians suspect Gerontius spared his own interests by coming to secret arrangements with the invaders. While this may have been a sensible course of action, it did not please Constantine III, who recalled his son after he learned that Gerontius had appointed a certain Maximus as emperor in Spain.
The identification of Maximus has been a point of considerable debate. Some suggest he was Gerontiusí son, but perhaps more likely he was his senior household officer (domesticus). Maximusí reign lasted into 410, a year when six men claimed the title Augustus in the Roman Empire (the other five being Honorius, Theodosius II, Priscus Attalus, Constantine III and Constans II).
In 411, however, the western provinces were being reclaimed by Honorius. In that year not only had Constantine III and Constans II been killed, but Maximusí supporter Gerontius had been forced to commit suicide. Maximus had apparently been with Gerontius at the siege of Aries, and also had fled when he learned that Honoriusí general Constantius III was fast approaching. But instead of choosing suicide, Maximus sought protection among his barbarian allies in Spain, at which point his reign of about two years ended. Maximus was officially deposed by Honorius and allowed to retire to an obscure, private life in Spain. It is possible (but not certain) that he is the same Maximus try annus who rebelled in Spain in about 420, only to be captured. That particular Maximus was paraded in the streets of Ravenna in 422 during Honoriusí tricennalia, and subsequently executed.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The coins struck by Maximus designate only three Augusti, which presumably are meant to be Honorius, Theodosius II and himself, thus denying recognition of the Visigothic puppet emperor Priscus Attalus and of the Gallic usurpers Constantine III and Constans II, with whom he was at odds. All of his coins were struck at Barcelona, and all bear the mint mark SMBA. Though Maximusí coin portraits are always bearded, Cigoi forgeries exist on which he is unbearded.
PRISCUS ATTALUS FIRST REIGN A.D. 409ñ410
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS II (408ñ450)
Priscus Attalus, c. A.D. 350ñafter 417. A Roman senator of Ionian Greek origin, and a pagan follower of Symmachus, Priscus Attalus came into the political limelight in 408, when he took a leading role as representative of the senate in negotiations with Alaric the Visigoth, who had begun a siege of Rome. During this tumultuous period Attalus served as count of the sacred largess (comes sacrarum largitionum), city prefect (praefectus urbi) and consul. When the Visigoths captured the cityís granaries in 409 and threatened to starve the Romans out, the senate bowed to the Gothic demands by appointing Priscus Attalus emperor in opposition to Honorius (who was currently reigning at Ravenna).
As part of his installation, Attalus had to be baptized, and so he was, by an Arian bishop. The western emperor Honorius was probably regretting the execution of his best general Stilicho only a year before. Despite Stilichoís lust for power, he had managed to keep the Visigoths in check. But all that had changed, and the Visigoths, led by their chieftain, Alaric, had gained the upper hand in Italy.
Attalus served as Alaricís agent in Rome until the Visigoths failed to take Ravenna in 410, when fresh armies arrived from Theodosius II in the East. Thus, Alaric renewed his focus on Rome, where in June he deposed Attalus, who received a pardon from Honorius. When the Visigoths entered Rome in August (24th through the 26th) of 410, it was the first time the city had been sacked in eight centuries. Attalus was immediately taken hostage by Alaric, and subsequently led away as a prisoner when the Visigoths left. The coins Priscus Attalus struck prior to this traumatic event are the height of irony, for their inscription Invicta Roma Aeterna (ìthe unconquerable, eternal Romeî) could not have been further from the mark. This seemingly permanent reversal, however, is only half of Attalusí story, for he reigned yet a second time at the behest of the Goths, from 414 to 415. For details of the second reign, refer to that separate biographical entry.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The coins struck by Priscus Attalus during his first reign at Rome are well known and indicate an issuance of respectable size. More controversial, however, are his non-Rome-mint issues, which offer a host of possibilities for both mint location and reign (first or second). Especially thorny is an issue of siliquae of greatly inferior style and weight (c. 1.00 grams) which almost certainly are of Gallic origin. They bear the same types as the RESTITVTIO REIP issue attributed to Attalusí second reign, except that the inscription is VICTORIA AAVGG (or AVGGG) and the mint mark is PSRV. Based on the mint mark, some authorities assign this issue to Ravenna (a city which Attallus besieged, but never controlled) during the first reign, but the authors of RIC consider these coins to be non-Imperial issues of the Visigoths (see RIC X, p. 450), listed under the heading of ìPseudo-Ravenna/Aries coinage.î
JOVINUS A.D. 411ñ413
A.D. 411ñ412: SOLE REIGN
A.D. 412ñ413: SENIOR AUGUSTUS
(WITH SEBASTIANUS)
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS II (408ñ450)
BROTHER OF SEBASTIANUS
Jovinus, d. A.D. 413. Just at the point when the Western Roman Empire appeared to be recovering from its ill fortunes of 407ñ411 (during which Rome was sacked by the Visigoths and the westernmost provinces fell to the usurpers Constantine III, Constans II and Maximus), a new revolt was sparked against Honorius. This time it was supported by the Germans along the Rhine, and led by Jovinus, the most powerful nobleman in Gaul.
Jovinus was proclaimed emperor in 411 either at Mainz or Mundiacum (Muntzen) by the Alan king, Goar, and the Burgundian king, Gundahar (Guntiarus). Soon after the revolt had formed, the Visigothic king, Athaulf, was persuaded by Priscus Attalus (the Gothic puppet emperor in Rome from 409ñ410) to join in the cause of Jovinus.
All seemed to be moving in the right direction for Jovinus, until he curried the support of Sarus (who was disliked by Athaulf) and then in 412 appointed his brother, Sebastianus, as co-emperor ó a move which caused Athaulf to withdraw his support. Athaulf secretly began negotiating with Honorius, offering to betray Jovinus. With the help of Honoriusí Gallic prefect Dardanus, Athaulf defeated Sebastianus and beheaded him. Next they besieged Valentia, the Gallic city to which Jovinus had fled for refuge. After a confused reign of about two years, Jovinus surrendered to Athaulf and Dardanus. But soon after Jovinus had been transferred to the Romans, he was executed at Narbonne by Dardanus, after which his head was delivered to Honorius at Ravenna on August 30.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Jovinus struck at Trier, Lugdunum and Aries. Cigoi forgeries of Jovinusí siliquae exist.
SEBASTIANUS A.D. 412ñ413
JUNIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH JOVINUS)
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS II (408ñ450)
BROTHER OF JOVINUS
Sebastianus, d. A.D. 413. Very little is known of this ephemeral emperor. Sebastianus was made co-emperor by his brother, Jovinus, about a year after the latter had been declared emperor by the Alans and Burgundians. But his inclusion in the revolt proved to be its undoing, for Jovinusí ally, the Visigothic king Athaulf, did not approve of Sebastianusí appointment. After a reign which probably lasted less than one year, Sebastianus was betrayed and executed by Athaulf, who had conspired with the legitimate Western emperor Honorius and his Gallic prefect Dardanus. Sebastianusí severed head was then delivered to Honorius as proof of Athaulfís loyalty. Jovinusí death at the hands of Athaulf and Honorius came shortly thereafter (see the preceding biography).
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Sebastianusí coins are of the greatest rarity, and indeed no hoard evidence has come to light to support their authenticity, as the provenances of the extant specimens are not known. There are perhaps fewer than a dozen specimens recorded, most of which, it seems, are of dubious authenticity. The reported specimens all are siliquae of a single emission from Aries.
PRISCUS ATTALUS SECOND REIGN, A.D. 414ñ415
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS II (408ñ450)
Priscus Attalus, d. after A.D. 417. Though this shadowy character had earlier proven ineffective as a puppet emperor of the Visigoths in 410 (see his earlier biographical entry), he had been taken as a prisoner by King Alaric. Much like the royal lady Galla Placidia, Attalus remained in Visigothic hands under Alaricís successor, Athaulf, who brought him to Gaul in January of 414. There he composed verses to honor his kingís marriage to Placidia at Narbonne, and in the following year, 415, was hailed for yet a second time as emperor in opposition to Honorius (with whom Athaulf had cooperated ó without satisfaction ó to defeat the rebels Jovinus and Sebastianus).
Attalusí second reign was a virtual repeat of his first, for he proved virtually useless as an ally, and his ill-gotten principate was short-lived (and was terminated in the same year that his sponsoring Gothic king died). However, this time his benefactor did not die of natural causes, but at the hands of the Roman commander (and future emperor), Constantius III.
After an embarrassing career as puppet king to the Goths, Attalus was captured by Honoriusí soldiers in April or May of 416 (though he may have been deposed by Athaulf in 415) and taken to Rome, where he was paraded through the streets. Since his execution might have enraged the senate, the usurper was instead banished to the Lipari islands where he lived out the rest of his days. But before he left Rome, Honorius cut off one of Attalusí thumbs and forefingers so he could never again draw a bow, and thus could never lead a revolt. The fall of Attalusí regime signaled the end of nearly a decade of war between Germans, Romans and usurpers of every extraction. Although far from stable, the westernmost provinces finally returned to a state of relative peace.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The possibility that Priscus Attalus struck coins during his second reign, in Gaul, has been acknowledged by many authorities. The candidates, however, are excessively rare and at present do not offer incontrovertible proof that such a coinage existed. The most likely issue is a solidus with the mint mark COMOB below NB (certainly = Narbonne). Regrettably, this coin is cited by Banduri as being in the French royal collection, and cannot be confirmed. The other likely candidate is a siliqua with the (perhaps) incomplete mint mark SV which is of lighter weight than those struck at Italian mints (see the note to Attalusí first reign for siliquae with the mint mark PSRV, which have led some to ìexpandî this coinís mint mark to PSRV, and thus to speculate that it too belongs to Attalusí first reign). Interestingly, both the solidus and siliqua discussed above bear the reverse inscription RESTITVTIO REIP, an inscription that does not occur on Attalusí earlier coins of Rome, and one which is particularly appropriate for a ìsecond reignî coinage.
CONSTANTIUS III A.D. 421
JUNIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH HONORIUS)
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS II (408ñ450)
SECOND HUSBAND OF GALLA PLACIDIA
FATHER OF VALENTINIAN III AND HONORIA
HALF-BROTHER-IN-LAW OF HONORIUS AND ARCADIUS
FATHER-IN-LAW OF LICINIA EUDOXIA
GRANDFATHER OF PLACIDIA THE YOUNGER (W. OF OLYBRIUS)
Flavius Constantius (III), d. A.D. 421. A Danubian soldier of exceptional skill, Constantius III came into the limelight in 411, when he suppressed the Gallic revolt of Constantine III and his son, Constans II. His efficiency and skill earned him the office of Magister utriusque militae (Master of Both Branches of Soldiery) by that same year. He held that post for a decade under Honorius, and exerted great authority in Imperial affairs.
Constantiusí most important campaign was his vigorous naval blockade of Spain and Gaul in 415, which resulted in the murder of the Visigothic king Athaulf. In the process Constantius III was able to negotiate the return of the emperorís half-sister, Galla Placidia, who had been forcibly married to Athaulf. As a result of his actions, Constantius III earned her hand in a forced-marriage consummated on January 1, 417, upon which his second consulship began (his first being in 414). This political union transformed the Danubian military commander into a member of the Theodosian royal family. The strength of his position was increased with the birth of their first child, Honoria, and in 419 with the birth of their only son, the future emperor Valentinian III.
Constantius III took another step toward the principate in 420, when he was appointed consul together with the eastern emperor Theodosius II. Though his brother-in-law Honorius may have been senior Augustus, he was also incompetent and childless. So on February 8, 421, Honorius reluctantly declared his brother-in-law Constantius III as his co-emperor, and in effect adopted his son Valentinian III as heir. The elevation of Constantius was well-received in the West where his achievements were known, but it was not acknowledged by the eastern emperor Theodosius II. This created the possibility of civil war, about which Constantius III was already bellowing.
It seems that becoming emperor did not suit his personality, for C onstantius III did not take well to the formal atmosphere of the court in Ravenna, and perhaps as a consequence became avaricious (which he apparently was not before his elevation). We are told he was an affable host at dinner, but was extremely conscious of the dignity of his appearance before his soldiers and the public.
However, the new emperorís health did not long hold out. After a reign of less than seven months, the promising leader died, probably of natural causes, at Ravenna on September 2, 421. Though not accepted by Theodosius II during his lifetime, he was posthumously recognized as a legitimate emperor by Theodosius in 425, the year that he restored the western throne in the name of Constantiusí son, Valentinian III.
In the last years of his life it must have been apparent to Constantius that his wifeís affection for her half-brother Honorius was bordering on incest. As such, some contemporary sources suggest that Constantiusí death was not the result of illness, but rather of murder. Honorius, after all, had much to gain from Constantiusí death: avoiding a civil war with his nephew, Theodosius II, freeing the hand of his beloved Galla Placidia, and ìinheritingî his son, Valentinian III, as an heir to the throne. Indeed, young Valentinian III proved to be the legacy of Constantius IIIís brief reign, for the boy had the only legitimate claim to the western throne after the death of Honorius.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The coinage of Constantius III is limited to gold solidi (rev. VICTORIA AVGGG, emperor standing, foot on captive, holding standard and globe topped with Victory) and gold tremisses (rev. VICTORIA AVGVSTORVM, Victory advancing right, holding wreath and globus cruciger). Both issues were struck at Ravenna, which is identified by the RV in the reverse field. Scholars dismiss variant issues (sometimes with the reverse type of a votive in wreath, or the obverse inscription D N CONSTANTIVS AVG OR CONSTANTIVS AVG) as Germanic imitations. Seventeenth century forgeries of a fictional half-siliqua with the reverse type Victory advancing left (and with the mint mark SMN = Nicomedia) are known.
GALLA PLACIDIA
AUGUSTA, A.D. 421ñ450
DAUGHTER OF THEODOSIUS I (AND GALLA)
WIFE OF ATHAULF (THE VISIGOTH) AND CONSTANTIUS III
MOTHER (BY CONSTANTIUS III) OF VALENTINIAN III AND HONORIA
HALF-SISTER OF ARCADIUS AND HONORIUS
MOTHER-IN-LAW OF LICINIA EUDOXIA
GRANDDAUGHTER OF VALENTINIAN I (AND JUSTINA)
(Aelia) Galla Placidia, A.D. 388/90ñ450. Few Roman ladies had lives more eventful than that of Galla Placidia. She endured many tragedies that individually would have been sufficient to ensure her place in history.
Her first role of note was as a hostage, for she was captured when the Visigoths sacked Rome in 410. Although captured by their king, Alaric, she remained a hostage under his successor, Athaulf, who married her in an attempt to unite the fortunes of the Goths and the Romans. Hardly a better choice existed, for she was the daughter of Theodosius I and the half-sister of the reigning western emperor, Honorius. The wedding occurred in 414 at Narbonne, and Placidia was soon with child. But the union failed to have its intended effect, for Athaulf was blockaded by the Roman commander Constantius III, and in 414/5 was murdered along with his infant son Theodosius by a rival chieftain at Barcelona. Fully aware of the value of this royal lady, the Visigoths ransomed her to the Romans for the princely sum of 600,000 measures of grain and the right to return (from coastal Spain and Gaul) to central Gaul with federal status.
Now freed from captivity at great expense, Placidia was forced by her half-brother Honorius to marry his prize general, Constantius III, on January 1, 417. It was not a happy union, but it produced two children: a daughter named Honoria in 417/8, and the future emperor Valentinian III in 419. Four years later, in 421, Constantius III became co-emperor with Honorius, and Placidia was hailed Augusta (a title that was not recognized in the East until 423, and which she apparently held until her death 29 years later). Her unfortunate husband, however, died within the year.
After this tragic event, Placidia s already warm relationship with her half-brother grew to become incest. His public expressions of affection (which we are told were blatantly incestuous to the observer), enraged court officials and caused riots between various political factions in the streets of Ravenna. Foremost in opposition to Galla was the Master of Soldiers Castinus. What began as love between Honorius and Placidia soon turned into hatred, and the emperor banished her in 423. She fled with her two children to Constantinople, where she received asylum in the court of her nephew, Theodosius II. But her absence from the West was not lengthy. Honorius had been replaced by a rebel named Johannes, who in about 18 months was ousted by an army sent from Constantinople.
Placidia returned to Italy to have her son, Valentinian III, crowned emperor of the West. For the first dozen years of her childís reign, Placidia was the dominant influence in the courts, and in essence ran the government of the West (incompetently, according to Cassiodorus). But as her son grew, so did the authority of the general Aetius, whom Placidia herself had appointed Master of Soldiers in 429. Placidiaís attempt in 430 to replace Aetius with Boniface failed, and from that point onward her influence over her son was greatly reduced. In her declining years Placidia devoted herself to civic projects. After having survived many ordeals, Placidia died in Rome on November 27, 450, less than five years before her son fell victim to assassins and Rome was sacked for a second time.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Galla Placidiaís coinage can be divided into two phases: 421ñ422 (struck at Ravenna in association with her husband, Constantius III, who died in 421) and 424ñ450 (which includes both Italian and Constantinopolitan coinage). The coins with the inscriptions AEL PLACIDIA AVG and GALLA PLACIDIA AVG were struck exclusively at Constantinople under Theodosius II, whereas those with D N GALLA PLACIDIA P F AVG (by far the most common variety) were struck at western mints under Honorius, Theodosius II and Valentinian III.
JOHANNES A.D. 423ñ425
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS II (408ñ450)
Johannes (John), c. A.D. 380ñ425. Little is known of Johannes, except that he may have been of Gothic origin, and that he had risen in Honoriusí court to become a high-ranking civil servant, the primicerius notariorum (senior notary).
The last of the western usurpers associated with the reign of Honorius, Johannes was installed in September or November 423, shortly after the unexpected death of Honorius (whose only legitimate heir, Valentinian III, was living in exile with his mother, Galla Placidia, in Constantinople). Providing Johannesí support was the Master of Soldiers Castinus, who had been instrumental in the banishment of Galla Placidia and her son. Johannes ruled in Castinusí name for more than a year before the eastern emperor Theodosius II sent an army West. In the meantime, Johannes had tried to gain approval from Theodosius II, who would not even allow his embassy to plead his case.
Although Theodosius II had objected to the elevation of the childís father, Constantius III earlier in 421, he supported the claim of his grandchild, Valentinian III, no doubt because he believed restoring him and his mother would give him greater control over events in the West.
Early in 425 Theodosius II sent an army by sea to end the rebellion of Johannes. In the meantime Johannes had sent one of his generals, Aetius (the future Master of Soldiers), to raise an army among the Huns. But his mission did not materialize, and indeed, its failure was the cause of Johannesí downfall. Even when the Constantinopolitan fleet was partially ruined off the coast of Italy (with one of its two commanders, Ardaburius the elder, being taken hostage after he washed ashore near Ravenna) Johannes did not act decisively because the Hunnic reinforcements had not arrived. Meanwhile, the other commander, Ardaburiusí son, Aspar, landed and managed to enter Ravenna unopposed early in May or in June of 425. Asparís journey through the marshes and easy entry to Ravenna were attributed by some contemporaries to the guidance of an Angel. After a reign of only 18 months, Johannes was promptly arrested and condemned to death by Galla Placidia. Johannes was reportedly taken to Aquileia where before he was executed he was mutilated and paraded around the circus on the back of a donkey before cheering crowds.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The portraits of Johannes are perhaps the most extraordinary on coinage of late antiquity. Unlike the clean-shaven portraits of his contemporaries, Johannesí image recalls the glorious aspects of art more akin to Phidiasí work in 5th Century B.C. Johannes also issued gold coins at Ravenna in the name of the eastern emperor Theodosius II in hopes of gaining his recognition. In his own name, Johannes struck gold at Ravenna and Milan, silver at Ravenna, and Æ4ís at Rome (principally) and Aries.
VALENTINIAN III A.D. 425ñ455
A.D. 424ñ425: CAESAR
(UNDER THEODOSIUS II)
A.D. 425ñ455 SOLE REIGN
Ruling in the East:
THEODOSIUS II (408ñ450) AND
MARCIAN (450ñ457)
SON OF CONSTANTIUS III AND GALLA PLACIDIA
FIRST HUSBAND OF LICINIA EUDOXIA
FATHER OF EUDOCIA THE YOUNGER AND PLACIDIA THE YOUNGER (w. OF OLYBRIUS)
BROTHER OF HONORIA
SON-IN-LAW OF THEODOSIUS II AND AELIA EUDOCIA
HALF-COUSIN OF THEODOSIUS II AND AELIA PULCHERIA
BROTHER OF HONORIA
HALF-NEPHEW OF HONORIUS AND ARCADIUS
GRANDSON OF THEODOSIUS I (AND GALLA)
GREAT-GRANDSON OF VALENTINIAN I
Flavius Placidus Valentinianus, A.D. 419ñ455. As the only son of Constantius III and Galla Placidia, young Valentinian belonged to the Theodosian family by virtue of his mother. Though his political legacy lie in the West, he spent his early years in exile in Constantinople with his mother.
The revolt of Johannes in 423 launched Valentinian s career at an early age, as he and his mother were sent west in 424 so they could be in Italy when Johannes was overthrown. En route, Valentinian III was hailed Caesar at Thessalonica on October 23, 424. When the eastern fleet ousted Johannes early in May or in June of 425, the path was cleared for the 6-year-old Valentinian, who sailed with his family to Italy, where he was hailed emperor of the West on the one-year anniversary of his being hailed Caesar. This occurred with the full approval of the eastern emperor, his future father-in-law, Theodosius II. At long last, order was restored in the West.
In 437, when Valentinian III had reached his 18th year, he married the beautiful Licinia Eudoxia, presumably at the urging of his mother, who still wielded great authority. Although his reign was devoid of usurpers, many disheartening events occurred during his three decades on the western throne. Of great concern was the unchecked growth in the power of the Visigoths in southwestern Gaul.
Equally disturbing, if not more so, was the emigration of the Vandals to North Africa. In 429 (the year that Aetius was promoted to Master of Soldiers) the Vandals, under the leadership of Gaiseric, crossed from Spain into North Africa and continued to move east. By 439 they had taken Carthage, and three years later had forced Valentinian III to recognize their possession of the wealthiest portion of North Africa. This complicated the importation of grain (grown locally) and gold from the trans-Saharan caravans. Furthermore, it proved to be the staging ground for the invasion of Italy and the sack of Rome that followed Valentinianís death in 455.
Also of grave concern was Attila the Hun, whose mounted warriors had unraveled Roman security in both the East and West. Early in Valentinianís reign, his top general, Aetius, used the Huns to combat the Visigoths and Burgundians. But this policy was reversed when Attila later made aggressions of his own. Indeed, it was a confederation of Roman and Visigothic armies led by Aëtius that in June, 451, routed Attila at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (in the heart of modern France). Although the Visigothic king Theoderic I died in the battle, Attila was driven across the Rhine.
Attila was not easily deterred, though, and he returned to the center of Europe in 452, sacking many cities, including Aquileia, which he leveled completely. The Hunnic chieftain stopped short of sacking Rome itself, not for a lack of strength, but out of fear that the victory would bring him bad fortune, as it had done 42 years earlier to Alaricís Visigoths. Fortunately for Romans both in the West and the East, Attila died of natural causes in 453.
Even in the Eastern Roman Empire Valentinian found trouble. When his cousin Theodosius II died in 450 without an heir, the right to appoint the new emperor belonged to Valentinian. However, Theodosius IPs widow and the Master of Soldiers Aspar took matters into their own hands, and appointed a soldier named Marcian. Although this was hardly constitutional, there was nothing Valentinian III could do to oppose it.
Just when Valentinian had rid himself of Attila and had grudgingly acknowledged Marcian, another foe emerged from within his ranks. It seems his Master of Soldiers Aëtius had grown all-powerful, and had threatened the lives of the emperor and his chamberlain Petronius Maximus. Thus, on September 21, 454, Valentinian III mustered his courage and personally murdered his prize general with the thrust of a dagger. This act was viewed in dim light by his contemporaries, one of whom told the emperor ìwith your left hand you have cut off your right hand.î
Less than a year later, on March 16, 455, the 36-year-old Valentinian III was assassinated by two former bodyguards of Aetius, who were motivated by Petronius Maximus to avenge their generalís death. The pair of senseless acts cleared the path of succession for Petronius Maximus, who either arranged, or at the very least encouraged both murders. Valentinianís reign was yet another signpost in the decline of the Western Roman Empire, and constituted the extinction of the Theodosian line in the West.
Historians tell us that Valentinian was a skilled archer and horseman, and that he was a good sprinter. However, we are also told that he was effeminate, superstitious, kept company with astrologers and magicians, and was a rampant adulterer. No doubt, these character flaws were instrumental in his downfall. His hedonistic and aloof demeanor cost Rome its claims to Gaul, Spain and North Africa, and immediately after his death, led to the sack of Rome itself. Furthermore, had superstition and an untimely death not conspired against Attila the Hun, Valentinian almost certainly would have lost what remained of his diminished Empire.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The weight of copper nummi (Æ4s, which often are called nummi minimi), which had been modest but attractive coins under Arcadius, was reduced by 25 percent in 425. The result was a pitiful coin that was tariffed at the rate of 25 pounds of coined nummi to the gold solidus. Twenty years later a government edict was required to stabilize the nummus at 7,000/7,200 to the gold solidus in Rome. There are imitations of Valentinianís solidi, semisses, tremisses and siliquae attributed to the Visigoths (see RIC X, pp. 453ñ6). Some of his solidi and tremisses are attributed to the Burgundians or Franks (see RIC X, pp. 463ñ4), and some of his tremisses are attributed to the Suevi (see RIC X, p. 466).
HONORIA
AUGUSTA, A.D. 426(?)ñ450(?)
SISTER OF VALENTINIAN III
DAUGHTER OF CONSTANTIUS III AND GALLA PLACIDIA
HALF-NIECE OF HONORIUS AND ARCADIUS
HALF-COUSIN OF THEODOSIUS II AND PULCHERIA
SISTER-IN-LAW OF LICINIA EUDOXIA
AUNT OF EUDOCIA THE YOUNGER AND PLACIDIA THE YOUNGER (w. OF OLYBRIUS)
GRANDDAUGHTER OF THEODOSIUS I (AND GALLA)
Justa Grata Honoria, A.D. 417/8ñ454. Though Honoria was born in the West, her early years were spent in exile in Constantinople with her mother and brother. By 425 she had returned to the West, for her brother had been installed as the new emperor in Ravenna. Honoriaís life is largely a mystery: not only is she scarcely mentioned, but even when she is, the information is often contradictory. We cannot be certain when she was hailed Augusta, though one inscription suggests it was shortly after she arrived in Italy, and thus 425 or 426 are possibilities. Some researchers, however, suggest she was not hailed until she was age 13 or 16.
Little is known of how Honoria and her younger brother, the emperor, got along early in their lives, but their relationship collapsed when Valentinian discovered that his sister was with child as a result of an adulterous affair. Her enraged brother perhaps suspected a plot was at hand, and executed the man responsible (a court official named Eugenius, who managed her estates). Not surprisingly, the sources disagree on the date of this event, which may have occurred in 434 or 449, though the latter seems far more likely. Honoria did not escape punishment. We are told that Valentinian also arranged her marriage to a certain Herculanus Bassus, a man of consular rank and of good character.
Honoria was so enraged at her brotherís actions that in 450 she messengered a secret appeal to Attila the Hun, who construed it as a marriage proposal, and who in June of that year demanded half of the Empire as a dowry. The eastern emperor Theodosius II (who died only a few weeks later) advised Valentinian to hand his impudent sister over to Attila, but Valentinian did not follow his cousinís advice, perhaps out of fear it would legitimize Attilaís fraudulent claim to half of the Empire. Attila proceeded to invade the western Roman provinces to take by force that which he was denied, but he was repelled in 451 at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. Honoria was nearly executed for her treachery, was stripped of her title Augusta (either at the time of her disgrace in 449 or certainly by the time of the crisis of Attila) and may have been exiled as well. She seems to have been forcibly married to Herculanus and to have died before 455.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: All of Honoriaís coins were struck by her brother Valentinian III at Ravenna and Rome.
LICINIA EUDOXIA
AUGUSTA, A.D. 439ñc. 490
WIFE OF VALENTINIAN III AND PETRONIUS MAXIMUS
DAUGHTER OF THEODOSIUS II AND AELIA EUDOCIA
MOTHER OF EUDOCIA THE YOUNGER AND PLACIDIA THE YOUNGER (w. OF OLYBRIUS)
DAUGHTER-IN-LAW OF CONSTANTIUS III AND GALLA PLACIDIA
SISTER-IN-LAW OF HONORIA
NIECE OF AELIA PULCHERIA
GRANDDAUGHTER OF ARCADIUS AND AELIA EUDOXIA
Licinia Eudoxia, A.D. 422/3ñc. 490. Yet another late Roman lady who was celebrated for her great beauty was Licinia Eudoxia, the daughter of Aelia Eudocia and Theodosius II, the ineffective but long-reigning emperor of the East. In 424, while still an infant, she was betrothed to the 5-year-old Valentinian III, who was then living in exile in Constantinople. On October 29, 437, when Licinia Eudoxia had reached her 15th year, she was wed to her betrothed, who was now an effeminate 18-year-old and emperor in the West.
The union was ideal, as it literally wed the fortunes of East and West. Valentinian traveled to Constantinople for the royal wedding, which occurred on October 29, 437. The newly weds wintered in Thessalonica, and then made a ceremonial entry into their capital of Ravenna early in 438. On August 6 of the following year (seemingly after the birth of her first daughter) Licinia Eudoxia was proclaimed Augusta, a title she retained for the remainder of her tumultuous life. Though Valentinian III reportedly engaged in open, adulterous affairs, their union endured. Together they produced two daughters, neither of whom are represented on coinage. The first was Eudocia the younger (the future daughter-in-law of Petronius Maximus) in 438 or 439, the second Placidia the younger (the future wife of Olybrius) in c. 441/2. No coins were struck in the names of her children.
Upon the murder of Valentinian III in March of 455, the widowed Eudoxia favored Majorian (who later was installed by Ricimer) as her husbandís replacement. But instead she was forcibly married to Petronius Maximus, the man who had engineered the downfalls of Aetius and Valentinian, and in the process had claimed the throne for himself. But it was Licinia Eudoxia who had the final revenge against her unwanted husband, for it is believed that she summoned the Vandal king Gaiseric to her aid. Not only was this course of action sure to get results, but Eudoxiaís daughter, Eudocia the younger, had been engaged to Gaisericís son Huneric. (Even this had been stolen by Petronius Maximus, who forced her to be betrothed instead to his own son, Palladius, who had been raised to Caesar.)
Though the advance of the Vandal army did cause the murder of her unwanted husband, it also resulted in the sack of Rome itself in June of 455. Licinia Eudoxia paid a high personal price for her act, for she and her two daughters were subsequently taken to Carthage as captives of Gaiseric. They remained captive for seven years until, in 462, her release was secured by the eastern emperor, Leo I. Though one account suggests she returned to Rome, the overwhelming evidence suggests she went to Constantinople, where she spent the remainder of her life. The date of her death is not recorded, though it probably was in the very early 490s.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Licinia Eudoxiaís coins were struck by her husband Valentinian III, her father Theodosius II, and his successor Marcian. They may be divided into three further categories based on the obverse inscriptions. Used only at Italian mints were D N Elia Evdoxia P F AVG (exclusively on tremisses and half-siliquae) and Licinia Evdoxia P F AVG (almost exclusively on the facing-head solidi). Her more common inscription, Ael Evdoxia AVG (used only on gold of Constantinople), however, is a source of confusion because it is the same one that was used by her grandmother, Aelia Eudoxia (in fact, it was the only inscription used by Aelia Eudoxia). Fortunately, this inscription is shared only on certain solidi and tremisses, each of which may be distinguished by aspects of their reverses. On the solidi it is the actual design that provides the diagnostic, for the grandmother Aelia Eudoxia exclusively used a seated Victory (and Licinia Eudoxia did not use that design at all). On the tremisses, however, both women employ identical types, so we must rely on the mint mark: Aelia Eudoxia used CON, and Licinia Eudoxia used Conob*.
PETRONIUS MAXIMUS A.D. 455
Ruling in the east:
MARCIAN (450ñ457)
SECOND HUSBAND OF LICINIA EUDOXIA
SON-IN-LAW OF THEODOSIUS II AND AELIA EUDOCIA
Flavius Anicius Petronius Maximus, c. A.D. 396ñ455. Hailing from what apparently was an important family, Petronius Maximus became one of the most renowned senators in Rome during the reigns of Honorius and Valentinian III, and amassed a great personal fortune in the process. In addition to other high posts, he twice served as consul (433 and 443), prefect of Italy (435 and 439/41), and prefect of Rome (420/1 and 433). But his lust for power, history shows, greatly outstripped his ability to maintain it.
In essence, Petronius Maximus custom-designed a plot to replace Valentinian III, who is said to have seduced his wife. First, he so greatly poisoned Valentinianís relationship with his prize general, Aetius, that in 454 Valentinian III murdered the very man who had preserved his throne. In turn, it seems, Petronius Maximus encouraged two of Aëtiusí former bodyguards to exact revenge by murdering their emperor. Then, in an act of supreme impudence, Petronius Maximus not only claimed the office of emperor for himself, but also forced Valentinianís widow, Licinia Eudoxia, to marry him. In addition, he forced Eudoxiaís eldest daughter, Eudocia the younger, to marry his own son, Palladius, who had been given the rank of Caesar (but for whom no coins were struck).
The degree of plotting is almost inconceivable, yet Petronius Maximus achieved it with great precision, as he was even able to out-maneuver Majorian, a high-ranking soldier who was a more desirable candidate (and who would rule two years later). Petronius Maximus usurped the throne of the Western Roman Empire on March 17, 455, but his reign was destined to decline quickly, for it lasted a mere 76 days. All of his underhanded plotting had so enraged his unwilling bride, Licinia Eudoxia, that she called upon Gaiseric, the king of the Vandals in Carthage, to intervene.
News of Gaisericís acceptance of her invitation reached Rome early in May, and instead of organizing a defense, Petronius Maximus readied himself for escape. While on his horse and attempting to flee the doomed city on May 31, 455, he was killed by a mob of angry Romans who pelted him with stones. As was customary for rogue emperors in Rome, his body was mutilated and tossed into the Tiber. On June 1, Gaisericís Vandals entered Rome and sacked it, until the 16th, removing most every portable item of value. Among the loot was Licinia Eudoxia and her two daughters, Placidia the younger and Eudocia the younger, who became honored captives. When they reached Carthage, Eudocia the younger married Gaisericís son, Huneric, as had been arranged before the usurpation of Petronius Maximus.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Only solidi are known for Petronius Maximus. Indeed, the first issues of his brief reign were created from existing dies of Valentinian III on which the obverse inscription was re-engraved. Only one reverse type, depicting the emperor placing his foot on a human-headed serpent, was employed. He did strike at Ravenna (with the mint mark RV above Comob), but the majority of his production was at Rome (RM above Comob). Forgeries by Cigoi are easily distinguished by the obverse inscription, which is unbroken as compared to the genuine issues, upon which MAXIMVS is broken either after the first M or the A.
AVITUS A.D. 455ñ456
Ruling in the East:
MARCIAN (450ñ457)
Marcus Maecilius Flavius Eparchius Avitus, d. A.D. 456. The sack of Rome by Gaisericís Vandals was far more complete than that of the Visigoths in 410, as most every portable item of value was removed. After an interregnum of about 40 days, the Visigothic king Theoderic II appointed his old friend Avitus, a native of southern Gaul, to the vacant office of emperor in the West.
Avitus hailed from a senatorial family from the Auvergne and had held most of the important governmental posts in Gaul. Among his close friends was Theoderic I, the Visigothic king who died in battle against Attila the Hun in 451. Indeed, just before he was hailed, he was serving as Petronius Maximusí personal envoy to the Visigoths, and he only learned of the latterís murder when he was in Gaul. His elevation to emperor occurred at Toulouse on July 9 or 10, 455, at the behest of Theoderic II, the new king of the Visigoths, and was ratified by an assembly of Gallo-Roman nobleman in August.
Later that year Avitus made his way back to Italy, after which his elevation was acknowledged by Marcian in Constantinople. The two emperors joined forces to curb the pirating of the Vandals, which at first was ineffective, but in 456 resulted in a victory off the coast of Corsica by a commander named Ricimer, who Avitus promptly named his new Master of Soldiers. The son of a Suevian father and a Visigothic mother (daughter of the Visigothic king Wallia), Ricimer would prove to be the most important man in the West for nearly a generation. He was to hold absolute power in Rome for the next 16 years, making and deposing the long list of emperors that followed Avitus.
Life in Italy was especially treacherous for Avitus, who was unpopular among the local aristocracy and the senate because of his provincial origins and his personal indulgences. Complicating his plight was a severe famine in Rome, about which there was little he could do. With all of these strikes against him, Avitus also suffered from a loss of support by his Visigothic allies, who had committed their military might to a war against the Suevi and were ravaging what remained of Roman Spain.
Avitus was soon forced to dismiss his Gallic advisers and his Gothic bodyguards, which made him an easy target for the team of Majorian and Ricimer. In order to pay off his Gallic and Gothic compatriots, Avitus was forced to sell quite a few bronze statues, which did not endear him to Romans who were familiar with the works of art. With the popularity of Avitus at an all-time low, he was vulnerable to Ricimer, who was being hailed as the Deliverer of Italy because of his naval victory over the Vandals.
After Avitus had reigned only about 15 months, Majorian and Ricimer openly rebelled, and deposed him on October 17, 456. He fled Rome in hope of surviving the rebellion, but was overtaken by Ricimer, who defeated him in battle and made him bishop of Piacenza. Avitus died shortly thereafter en route to Gaul, either while on a pilgrimage or while in flight after learning that the senate desired his execution. The supremacy of Ricimer thus began with the deposition of Avitus.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The vast majority of Avitusí coinage was solidi struck at the re-opened Gallic mint of Aries. His rare tremisses may belong to Aries, though most attribute them to Milan. There are imitations of Avitusí solidi and tremisses attributed to the Visigoths (see RIC X, p. 457).
MAJORIAN A.D. 457ñ461
Ruling in the East:
LEO I (457ñ474)
Flavius Julius Valerius Majorianus, d. A.D. 461. After Avitus was deposed, there was a tense interregnum of more than five months during which the eastern emperor Marcian died and power was peacefully transferred to Leo I. Meanwhile, matters in the West were being attended to by the Master of Soldiers Ricimer, who had selected Majorian as his first candidate for the throne.
Majorian hailed from an accomplished military family. His maternal grandfather (after whom he was named) had been Master of Soldiers in Illyria under Theodosius I, and his father was a top financial minister in Gaul for the general Aëtius. Indeed, when the emperor Valentinian III was murdered in 455, his widow, Licinia Eudoxia, had favored Majorian as his replacement. But she and Majorian were outmaneuvered by Petronius Maximus, who not only seized the throne, but also forced marriage upon Licinia Eudoxia.
During the brief reign of Avitus (455ñ456), Majorian allied himself with Ricimer, the Master of Soldiers who was by then calling the shots in the Western Roman Empire. Together they openly rebelled and ousted the unpopular Avitus. Not surprisingly, Majorian was Ricimerís choice as the new emperor, and they lobbied Constantinople for approval. The man of letters Sidonius Apollinaris reported that the interregnum occurred because Majorian was reluctant to take the high office that he was offered. However, the concerns Majorian may have had were put aside when news reached Italy that the eastern emperor, Marcian, had died. Majorian was hailed emperor of the West on April 1, 457, and was installed officially on December 28.
It is uncertain whether Majorianís appointment was approved by Leo I in Constantinople. In any event, Majorian established his court at Ravenna, and at the end of 458 shifted to Gaul so he could deal with the Visigoths and Burgundians. He remained there through 459 and, with the help of the Gaulish magister militum Majorian defeated the Visigothic king Theodoric II (A.D. 453ñ465) in battle and convinced him to sign a peace agreement.
His next task was to free his Empire of the Vandal threat, which had been a cause of terror for a generation or more. His first encounter with the Vandals was in Campania, where a raiding party had landed and begun to pillage. Majorian caught them by surprise and drove them back to sea without their booty, and without the Gaisericís brother-in-law, who was one of the many casualties. By 460 he had assembled a fleet of about 300 warships in Spain with which he hoped to attack the Vandals. However, through treachery on the part of some Romans, the entire fleet was captured by the Vandals while in port, before it could even be launched. Now without a fleet, the Romans had to agree to humiliating terms to maintain the peace.
Majorian returned to Italy in 461, where his popularity had greatly eroded and his benefactor Ricimer had turned against him. After a reign of more than four years he abdicated his throne after he was captured in Northern Italy on August 2. Five days later, on August 7, Majorian was executed (or allowed to commit suicide) at Tortona, though some sources report that dysentery was the cause of death. The Western Roman Empire then entered a second interregnum, this time of slightly more than three months, while Ricimer lined up his next candidate.
Majorianís principate was a great success until an episode of treachery caused the destruction of his fleet. The ancient sources tell us that Majorian was a man of exceptional talent, and his record proves that he was determined to restore the glory of Rome in the West. No doubt these virtues constituted a threat to Ricimer, who only too eagerly pounced upon Majorian during his moment of vulnerability so that he could install a less ambitious candidate.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: With very rare exception, the solidi of Majorian are of an ornate obverse type showing his helmeted and cuirassed bust facing right, holding a spear and a shield inscribed with a Chi-Rho. This type originated with a rare issue of Honorius from Ravenna, but was produced in quantity only by Majorian, whose successor abandoned it. He struck prodigious issues of gold tremisses and nummi (Æ4ís), the latter of which are unusually heavy for the period; most (if not all) of his silver was struck in Gaul. There are imitations of Majorianís solidi and tremisses attributed to the Visigoths (see RIC X, pp. 458ñ9).
LIBIUS SEVERUS (SEVERUS III) A.D. 461ñ465
Ruling in the East:
LEO I (457ñ474)
Libius (or Livius) Severus (also called Severus III), d. A.D. 465. The western throne remained vacant for more than three months after the abdication and death of Majorian. Though the Master of Soldiers Ricimer had seized the opportunity to overthrow Majorian, he apparently had not yet lined up his next candidate. Eventually he decided upon a shadowy character named Libius Severus, whom he installed on November 19, 461.
Severus hailed from Lucania in south-western Italy, a region that was especially vulnerable to Vandal raiders. Though he reigned for almost exactly four years, he remains a historical blank page, and clearly was no more than a puppet emperor.
The Western Roman Empire was firmly in the hands of Ricimer, who managed every aspect of its finances, foreign relations and defense while Severus was in office. It should come as no surprise that historians disagree about whether Libius Severus ever gained the approval of Leo I in Constantinople. The traditional historical view (based largely on the writings of Jordanes) is that he did not. However, he struck many coins in the name of Leo I at Italian mints, and there are inscriptions that suggest he did gain approval in the East. Thus, there is ample reason to reconsider the traditional view.
Severusí reign was far from peaceful, and Ricimer had his hands full defending his Empire. In addition to a campaign he led against the Alans, Ricimer had to contend with Roman generals and the Vandal king Gaiseric. The Vandals routinely raided the Italian coast and used their kingís captive-bride, Licinia Eudoxia, as leverage in destabilizing Italian politics.
Indeed, the Romans were fortunate that they did not suffer invasion during Severusí reign, for the Vandals were conspiring with Aegidius (Majorianís Master of Soldiers in Gaul who had recently accepted the title of King of the Franks) to overthrow Ricimer. Had domestic problems with the Visigoths not kept Aegidius occupied in Gaul, Italy most likely would have been simultaneously invaded from the sea by Vandals and across the Alps by Aegidius. Libius Severus died on November 14, 465. His death is usually attributed to natural causes, but it is more likely (as was rumored by Cassiodorus) that he was poisoned by Ricimer, who by now had found him to be more of a liability than an asset.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Unlike his two immediate predecessors, Libius Severus struck coins only in Italy, for the mint at Aries was in the hands of Aegidius, who had broken with Ricimer and established his own Romano-Frank ó ish enclave. Of special interest is the gold semissis denomination (which was revived by Severus), and the Æ4% which bear the monogram of Ricimer and are listed separately under his name. There are imitations of Severusí solidi and tremisses attributed to the Visigoths (see RIC X, pp. 459ñ60).
RICIMER
MASTER OF SOLDIERS, A.D. 456ñ472
SON-IN-LAW OF ANTHEMIUS AND AELIA EUPHEMIA
HUSBAND OF ALYPIA
UNCLE OF GUNDOBAD
Flavius Ricimer, d. A.D. 472. Just like Sejanus and Gundobad, Ricimer finds a valid place in a book on Roman numismatics. Not only was he instrumental in the high affairs of state, but he makes an appearance on coinage itself. Ricimer was a soldier of Visigothic and Suevian parentage. He was the grandson of a Visigothic king and had family ties to royalty among the Suevi and Burgundians. Although debarred from the throne because of his barbarian birth, Ricimerís military successes made him the most powerful man in Rome soon after he was made Master of Soldiers (Magister Militum) by the emperor Avitus.
For 16 years he was the main force behind the raising and deposing of western emperors, who served as his puppets. His one moment of concession was during the reign of Anthemius, who had been sent at the head of an army by the eastern emperor Leo I. But even so, Anthemius knew that his own survival depended on the support of Ricimer, and thus he offered the hand of his daughter, Alypia, to Ricimer, and they were wed in the fall of 467. It is worth noting that Ricimer played no part in leading the Roman armada against the Vandals in 468, although he certainly had to deal with the consequences of its unfathomable failure. Nothing here will be said of his extraordinary actions, for they may be gleaned from the biographies of the emperors whom he controlled. Only six weeks after appointing Olybrius to the throne, Ricimer died on August 18, 472, presumably of natural causes.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Ricimerís record on coinage is controversial to some scholars, but too likely to be excluded. The small bronzes in question depict on their obverse Libius Severus and bear his appropriate inscriptions (on the rare occasion that they are visible). However, the wreath on the reverse contains a monogram that is not that of Severus. Since the monogram usually is composed of the letters Rmice, it is rightly believed to be that of Ricimer. The inclusion in some instances of an ìAî within the monogram is a stumbling block to some authorities, but with no other feasible candidate to be found, they must still belong to Ricimer, who, after all, was the source of Severusí power. Though these nummi seem to have originated late in the reign of Libius Severus, they were perhaps largely struck during the 17-month interregnum that followed the latterís death. Most if not all of these nummi were struck at Rome; some heavier specimens of poor workmanship appear to be contemporary imitations.
ANTHEMIUS A.D. 467ñ472
Ruling in the East:
LEO I (457ñ474)
HUSBAND OF AELIA EUPHEMIA
FATHER OF ALYPIA
FATHER-IN-LAW OF RICIMER
SON-IN-LAW OF MARCIAN
Procopius Anthemius, d. A.D. 472. After the death of Libius Severus the Western Roman Empire endured more than a year and a half without an emperor. Finally, Ricimer ó who was in control throughout ó chose to cooperate with the eastern emperor Leo I in hopes of getting military support in his war against the Vandals. Early in 467 the Vandals moved their piratic operations from Italy and Sicily and raided the Greek Peloponnese. While this proved fruitful for Gaiseric, it might have been counterproductive in the long run, for Leo I realized he could no longer ignore affairs in the West.
Thus, Leo I appointed a high-ranking Constantinopolitan named Procopius Anthemius as Caesar for the West. Anthemius held numerous Imperial ties in the East, for he was married to the daughter of the former eastern emperor Marcian, and as his chief general, had scored victories over the Goths and Huns. He was a possible successor to his father-in-law in 457, but was outmaneuvered by the Master of Soldiers Aspar, who installed Leo I instead.
Anthemiusí ancestry was also illustrious. His maternal grandfather, named Procopius, served as the regent for the emperor Theodosius II (402ñ450) during his childhood. He also claimed to be a descendant of the Procopius who usurped the throne of Valens in 365 and 366 and was one of the last members of the House of Constantine the Great. However, all of these recommendations would not assure his survival in the West, for he needed to maintain good relations with the Master of Soldiers Ricimer, who was the most powerful man in Italy. To this effect, in advance of his journey, Anthemius had offered Ricimer the hand of his own daughter, Alypia, in marriage. The offer was accepted, and the road was paved for Western Roman Empire to have a new, legitimate emperor who was duly recognized in the East.
By April 12 of that same year Anthemius had reached the outskirts of Rome, where he was hailed Augustus by the senate. During his more than five years as emperor in the West, Anthemius was never popular, for he was a Greek of Galatian ancestry, and worse yet, he had been sent from the East. Thus, it is ironic that the defining event of his reign ó a failed naval expedition against the Vandals ó was one borne of his cooperation with Constant inople.
Through no fault of his own, the great 1,100-ship armada assembled by Leo I and captained by his brother-in-law Basiliscus, was destroyed by the Vandals in 468. This tragedy not only devastated the spirit of the Romans, but it virtually bankrupted the Eastern Roman Empire. Anthemiusí thin support slipped with the passage of time, especially since he failed to deal with serious problems brewing in Gaul, where the Visigoths were planning to annex the whole country. Though the Romans resisted, the Visigoths scored important victories in which several Roman generals and Anthemiusí son Anthemiolus perished.
Furthermore, Ricimer viewed Anthemius as a threat to his own supremacy, for he had every intention of furthering eastern authority in the West. Anthemius resided in Rome, whereas Ricimer based himself in the North at Milan. Though the two reconciled their differences in 470 with the help of the bishop of Ticinum, it was just a matter of time before a change occurred.
In the spring of 472 Ricimer arranged a coup, selecting as his next candidate a patrician from the East named Olybrius, who had been sent to Italy as an envoy of Leo I. Together they besieged Anthemius in Rome, who, with the support of a small Visigothic army headed by Bilimer, was able to hold out for about three months. In the aftermath Anthemius tried to escape dressed as a beggar, but was captured and beheaded on the orders of Ricimerís nephew, Gundobad. Historians disagree about when this occurred, which may have been in March or April, but more likely was on July 11,472.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: There are imitations of Anthemiusí tremisses attributed to the Visigoths (see RIC X, p. 460).
AELIA EUPHEMIA
AUGUSTA, A.D. 467ñ472(?)
WIFE OF ANTHEMIUS
DAUGHTER OF MARCIAN (BY HIS FIRST WIFE)
MOTHER OF ALYPIA
MOTHER-IN-LAW OF RICIMER
(Aelia) Marcia Euphemia, lifespan unknown. Regrettably, the ancient historians recorded very little of Aelia Euphemia, except that she bore Anthemius one daughter and four sons. Historians are not certain of her lifespan, nor when she lost the title of Augusta. Her only daughter, Alypia (who makes a single appearance on coinage), was wed to the Master of Soldiers Ricimer in hopes of uniting the ëemperor-makingí general of the West and the appointee of Leo I in the East. This attempt failed, and Alypiaís fate is unknown.
Of Euphemiaís sons, more is known. All but the one who in 471 died in battle in Gaul played interesting roles in eastern politics during the reign of Zeno. The eldest, Marcian (named after his grandfather, the emperor) was destined for high political office, since he was married to Leontia, the youngest of the two daughters of the emperor Leo I and Verina. He took his chance in 479 when his mother-in-law, Verina, convinced him to overthrow Leo. However, the revolt failed immediately, leading to the banishment of Verina and the capture of Marcian. The latter was banished to Cappadocia, but soon escaped and raided Ancyra with a group of rustic bandits, after which he was again captured, and banished by his father-in-law to a fortress in Isauria. Marcianís younger brother, Procopius (named after his distant ancestor, the usurper Procopius, 365ñ366), was also involved in the failed revolt against Zeno, but immediately fled to the camp of Theodoric in Thrace. Of the youngest son, named Romulus, little is recorded.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: All of Aelia Euphemiaís coins were struck by her husband, Anthemius. Only the solidus (in two types) was struck in sufficient quantity to be collectible, though a siliqua and a nummus (Æ4) are known, but each is apparently unique. Her sons are not known to have held the title of Caesar or Augustus, and do not seem to be represented on coinage. However, her daughter Alypia makes one brief appearance on coinage (see her biography below), and may also have been hailed Augusta.
ALYPIA
AUGUSTA(?), A.D. 467(?)ñ472(?)
WIFE OF RICIMER
DAUGHTER OF ANTHEMIUS AND AELIA EUPHEMIA
GRANDDAUGHTER OF MARCIAN
Alypia, lifespan unknown. As the only daughter of Anthemius and Aelia Euphemia, Alypia was destined for an interesting life. When her father had been nominated as the next emperor of the West by Leo I, it probably came as little surprise to Alypia that she would be a valuable diplomatic asset to her fatherís fledgling regime. Thus, in 467, the year in which all of these events occurred, Alypia was wed to the ìemperor-makingî general, Ricimer, who was still the most powerful man in Italy.
The gesture was intended not only to bind the fates of Anthemius and Ricimer, but also to strengthen the ties between East and West. The marriage was childless, and proved to be less than effective in binding the two parties. In April of 472 Ricimer sponsored a patrician named Olybrius as emperor in opposition to Anthemius. Though Anthemius and his family were able to hold out in Rome for about three months, their resistance ended on July 11, 472, when Anthemius was captured and beheaded.
Although ancient sources make no mention of it, the numismatic evidence suggests Alypia may have been hailed Augusta along with her mother. If indeed this occurred, it would have been similar to the earlier cases of Aelia Pulcheria and Honoria, both of whom were hailed Augusta even though they were only sisters of the emperor. The fate of both Alypia and her mother are unknown. Alypia had four brothers, whose lives are related in the biography of her mother.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Offering evidence that Alypia may have been hailed Augusta with her mother is a coin in the cabinet at Dumbarton Oaks. The reverse of this unique solidus shows mother and daughter side-by-side. The figure representing Alypia is smaller than that of Euphemia, and from the viewerís eye appears on the right, which is the position of lesser honor. But this is the proper iconography for such an issue, and each is attired the same, and in the manner associated with women who held the rank of Augusta. Even though Alypia was childless and there is no literary evidence of her being hailed Augusta, her marriage to Ricimer was of such importance to Anthemiusí imported regime that an exception may have been made.
OLYBRIUS A.D. 472
Ruling in the East:
LEO I (457ñ474)
HUSBAND OF PLACIDIA THE YOUNGER
SON-IN-LAW OF LICINIA EUDOXIA
Flavius Anicius Olybrius, d. A.D. 472. Descended from the powerful senatorial family the Anicii (which was notorious for its greed), Olybrius managed to escape from Rome just before it was sacked by the Vandals in 455. He settled into a luxurious life in Constantinople, and in 462 married Placidia the younger, the teen-age daughter of the former western emperor Valentinian III, who had just arrived in the eastern capital after spending seven years in Carthage as a captive of the Vandal king Gaiseric.
The eastern emperor, Leo I, had negotiated her release while he was warming relations with the Vandals, who had begun to extend their piratic raids into eastern territory. By marrying Placidia the younger (for whom no coins were struck), Olybrius became both a member of the House of Theodosius, an in-law of the Vandal Gaiseric, whose own son, Huneric, was married to Placidiaís sister, Eudocia the younger. This latter relation proved fruitful for Olybrius, who became Gaisericís candidate for the Western throne following the puppet-reign of Libius Severus (461ñ465). However, Gaisericís plans did not materialize and the eastern emperor Leo I instead backed his own candidate, a nobleman named Anthemius.
In the meantime, Olybrius and Placidia the younger had a daughter named Anicia Juliana, who herself was destined for greatness in a later era. Throughout Olybriusí subsequent adventures, his wife remained in Constantinople, for she had experienced a lifetimeís adventure before she had reached her 20th year. Although Olybrius had been passed up as western emperor the first time around, a new opportunity arose in 472, when he was sent to Rome by Leo I to resolve the conflict between Ricimer and his puppet emperor Anthemius.
What happened next ó Ricimer selecting Olybrius as the new western emperor ó is of some interest, for the circumstances of it are not entirely certain. Although Olybrius had been sent only on a diplomatic mission, his sojourn turned into an opportunity unparalleled. One ancient source, John Malalas, tells us that an urgent letter dispatched by Leo I accusing Olybrius of treason fell into the hands of Ricimer, who may have confronted Olybrius with the unwelcomed news. Additionally, Ricimer may have considered Olybriusí marriage ties to Gaiseric to be a windfall, for if he were emperor, peace might be achieved more easily with the Vandals. That it would offend Leo I in the East was probably of no great concern, for Ricimer had long been at odds with the eastern monarch.
In any event, Olybrius was hailed emperor in opposition to Anthemius (apparently in April, 472), and the latter was promptly besieged in Rome. After a resistance of about three months, Anthemius tried to escape dressed as a beggar, but was captured. He was beheaded by Ricimerís nephew Gundobad, possibly in March or April, but more likely on July 11 of 472. However, the ëemperor-makingí general Ricimer died on August 18 ó only a few weeks after he had ousted Anthmius and installed Olybrius.
With this shocking turn of events, the new emperor Olybrius had to fend for himself, establishing a rapport with Gundobad, Ricimerís nephew and replacement as Master of Soldiers. After a reign of about six or seven months, Olybrius died of dropsy, perhaps on November 2, 472. With three powerful men perishing in the course of a few months, the throne was vacant for more than four months after Olybriusí death, during which Gundobad tried to maintain his new-found authority.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The coins of Olybrius are great rarities, with perhaps fewer than 20 specimens known in total for all types of solidi and tremisses. He chose an interesting inscription, SALVS MVNDI (ìsavior of the worldî) for his solidi and tremisses of Rome; all of his gold has the reverse type of a plain or jewelled cross. Olybrius seemingly coined no silver or copper coins. Lead seals with the extraordinary SALVS MVNDI reverse type are known, and are paired with an obverse depicting the facing busts of two emperors (inscr. DD NN AVGG), and as such may be presumed to represent Olybrius and Leo I, the reigning monarchs in the West and the East.
GLYCERIUS A.D. 473ñ474
Ruling in the East:
LEO I (457ñ474), LEO II (474)
AND ZENO (474ñ475 & 476ñ491)
Flavius Glycerius, died c. A.D. 480. The year 472 proved to be a watershed, for not only had two emperors perished, but the all-powerful Ricimer had died as well. Though the eastern emperor Leo I now had the legal right to rule in the West, the true power was held by a Burgundian prince named Gundobad, who had succeeded his uncle, Ricimer, as Master of Soldiers.
Gundobad had emerged on the scene only recently, and had been given the rank of patrician by the former emperor, Olybrius, for his help in the overthrow of Anthemius. After an interregnum of more than four months Gundobad hailed Glycerius, the comes domesticorum of Olybrius and a man of no particular distinction, the next emperor of the West. This elevation, which occurred on March 5, 473, was not recognized in Constantinople, for in the meantime Leo I had enlisted Julius Nepos, a Dalmatian nobleman, to restore order in Italy.
The puppet-king Glycerius had his hands full defending Italy from an invasion led by Widimir, king of a branch of the Ostrogoths. Glycerius chose to bribe Widimir rather than fight him, and was able to divert their armies to Gaul. But Glyceriusí problems were just beginning, for he would lose the support of his army just as a conquering force arrived from the East. His Master of Soldiers, Gundobad, left Italy to become heir-apparent of the Burgundians upon learning that his brothers had been killed. Shortly thereafter, in June of 474, Julius Nepos landed his forces near the mouth of the Tiber and captured Glycerius without a fight.
On the 19th of June, Julius Nepos claimed the title of Augustus for himself, which was ratified by the senate on the 24th. Though there is no indication that Leo I had asked Julius Nepos to do anything more than depose Glycerius, the eastern emperor had died in the meantime, and Nepos seized the opportunity at hand. After a mismanaged reign of nearly 16 months, Glycerius was spared execution and was instead appointed bishop of Salona, a see comfortably within the territory ruled by Neposí family. The vacated office of Master of Soldiers was initially filled by Ecdicius, and then by Orestes. Despite the mercy Nepos had shown toward Glycerius, many historians believe that Nepos was murdered in a plot hatched by Glycerius.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The coins of Glycerius are quite rare, with apparently fewer than 50 specimens known. Most of his coins are solidi and tremisses; silver siliquae and half-siliquae are excessively rare, and no copper nummi seem to have been struck, despite their being listed by Cohen.
GUNDOBAD
MASTER OF SOLDIERS, A.D. 472ñ474
NEPHEW OF RICIMER
Gundobad (or Gundobald), lifespan unknown. The maternal son of the Burgundian king, Gundioc, Gundobad was himself Burgundian prince. He inherited the office of Master of Soldiers in 472 from his uncle Ricimer, who died in that year. His first notable act ó for which he was granted patrician status ó occurred in July of 472, when he beheaded emperor Anthemius on the orders of Ricimer, who subsequently installed Olybrius on the throne. However, both Ricimer and Olybrius died in 472, leaving Gundobad the new Master of Soldiers, and heir of the role of emperor-maker.
Like all barbarians of the Arian faith, Gundobad was debarred from the throne, and it does not seem that being emperor was an ambition of his. After a short interregnum following the death of Olybrius, Gundobad named Glycerius emperor of the West even though constitutionally the right to decide belonged to the eastern emperor Leo I. In due course, Leo I raised his own candidate, the Dalmatian Master of Soldiers, Julius Nepos, whom he sent to Italy with an army to oust Gundobad and his puppet emperor. But before Nepos arrived, Gundobad learned that his two brothers had died, perhaps by murder, which left him the sole heir to the Burgundian throne. As such, he abandoned his post as Master of Soldiers, which was filled, in turn, by Ecdicius and by Orestes, the former secretary to Attila the Hun. Gundobad returned across the Alps to the territories of the Burgundians, where he eventually succeeded his father as king of that nation.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Coins ascribed to Gundobad bear on their reverse a monogram composed of the letters Bngad. The fact that this monogram is paired with an obverse type of Zeno makes the attribution all the more likely. However, unlike the monogram coins of Ricimer (which were legitimate strikings of the Rome mint), the issue of Gundobad are best viewed as Burgundian imitations of Zenoís eastern coinage, and presumably were struck during his tenure as king of the Burgundians.
JULIUS NEPOS A.D. 474ñ475/480
Ruling in the East:
LEO II (474), ZENO (474ñ475 & 476ñ491),
Basiliscus (475ñ476) AND Marcus (475ñ476)
Flavius Julius Nepos, d. A.D. 480. When Glycerius usurped the western throne in March of 473, the eastern emperor, Leo I, determined to recover authority in the West, which legally had passed to him when the throne became vacant by the death of Olybrius. Either in 473 or 474, Leo I enlisted the services of Julius Nepos, the Master of Soldiers in Dalmatia and a nephew by marriage of his wife.
Nepos had inherited command of Dalmatia, in which his family had established a hereditary monarchy. Though nominally under the aegis of the Eastern Roman Empire, Nepos reigned in Dalmatia with almost total autonomy. The request from Leo I seemed to be an even greater opportunity to Nepos, who proceeded to Constantinople, from where he launched his expeditionì to recover the Western Empire. He executed his task with great efficiency, landing his army near the mouth of the Tiber and capturing Glycerius without a fight on the 19th of June, 474. Glycerius was spared execution and instead was appointed bishop of Salona, a see within the territory ruled by Neposí family.
Though it is not clear that Leo (who, in the meantime had died) had asked Nepos to do anything more than depose Glycerius, Nepos seized the opportunity before him. The fact that the Eastern Empire was embroiled in its own war of succession between Zeno and Basiliscus no doubt led Nepos to the conclusion that he must act decisively, even if that meant autonomously. His claim to the now-vacant title of Augustus in the West was confirmed by the senate on June 24.
Nepos had, however, leaped out of the frying pan and into the fire, for many forces were at work in the West. Of great concern were the Visigoths, who for nearly a decade had threatened to annex all of Gaul and to no longer be mere federates of the Romans. Under the leadership of their new king, Euric, they (like the Vandals in North Africa) created their own independent state. Nepos and the Romans in Gaul were unable to resist the warlike Visigoths, and by treaty in 475 Nepos agreed to their demands, which included most of Gaul and Spain.
Throughout his reign, Nepos was unable to gain the allegiance of the Italians and Germans, who did not want to be ruled by yet another emperor sent from the Greek east. Nepos appointed Ecdicius, the son of the former emperor Avitus, as his new Master of Soldiers. But Ecdicius proved wholly ineffective against the Visigoths, so Nepos replaced him with a Pannonian named Orestes, who had formerly been secretary to Attila the Hun.
But this proved ó almost tiresomely so ó to be a repeat of recent history in the West, for Orestes rebelled against his benefactor and raised a new candidate (in this case his own son, Romulus Augustus) as emperor. Orestes led an army out of Rome to besiege Nepos at Ravenna, but the fickle Nepos fled by sea on August 28, 475, before Orestesí army arrived. He proceeded to his native land of Dalmatia, where he resumed his duties as hereditary ruler.
While in exile Nepos remained the constitutional western emperor, though he had no opportunity to reclaim his throne without help from the East. When Orestes and his son, Romulus Augustus, were overthrown in late August 476, power was seized by a German soldier, Odovacar. Though Nepos remained in Dalmatia during the nearly four years left of his life, the numismatic evidence shows that he was recognized as emperor-in-absentia by Odovacar (who similarly acknowledged Zenoís authority). Indeed, when Odovacar wrote to Zeno suggesting that a separate emperor was no longer necessary in the West, Zeno showed support for Nepos by replying that such correspondence should be delivered to the rightful western emperor, Nepos.
Regardless of the formalities observed by the three men, Odovacar was made a patrician by Leo and adopted the title of king while Nepos remained exiled in Dalmatia. Zeno, who had only just regained his throne from the usurpers Basiliscus and Marcus, was either unable or unwilling to meddle in western affairs. Julius Nepos was murdered near Salona on May 9, 480, by two of his retainers who may have been acting on behalf of Glycerius, the usurper whom almost six years earlier Nepos had replaced. As a fitting end to the tale of Nepos, his beloved Dalmatia was occupied by Odovacar in the following year.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Though it is customarily stated that the issues of Romulus Augustus are the ìlastî struck for an emperor in the West, in actuality that honor goes to Julius Nepos. Nepos struck coinage in his own name (as well as for Leo II and Zeno) while he was an emperor in residence in Italy (474ñ475), and had issues struck on his behalf subsequently while he was in exile in Dalmatia (476ñ480). Hoard evidence, reverse die links and stylistic factors confirm that Odovacar struck solidi in the name of both Julius Nepos and Zeno at Milan and Ravenna after Romulus Augustus had been deposed. These western issues in the name of Zeno are often collected in lieu of coins bearing Neposí name, for they command a lesser price. Furthermore, some solidi were struck in Neposí name at Constantinople by Zeno, who continued to recognize Nepos as his western colleague until his murder in 480. It remains uncertain whether or not Nepos coined at Salonae during his exile. During the first year of his reign, Nepos reintroduced the half-siliqua, and with it two original designs, some of which he struck in his own name, and some in the names of his eastern colleagues. There are imitations of Neposí tremisses attributed to the Visigoths (see RIC X, p. 461).
ROMULUS AUGUSTUS A.D. 475ñ476
Ruling in the East:
ZENO (474ñ475 & 476ñ491),
Basiliscus (475ñ476) AND Marcus (475ñ476)
SON OF ORESTES (MASTER OF SOLDIERS)
Romulus ìAugustus,î d. after A.D. 507. Romulus Augustus, who has traditionally been called the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, was neither the last, nor even a legitimate emperor. Indeed, he was merely a figurehead for his fatherís army, and was deposed four years before the last rightful western emperor, Julius Nepos, died.
None-the-less, his story and his coinage (which was struck at three Italian mints) is of some interest. He was nicknamed Augustulus (ìthe little emperorî) because of his youth; but even this aspect of his life is a mystery; estimates of his age range from that of an small child to a 16-year-old. The additional name Augustus, added to his first name, Romulus, may have derived from its being spelled out on his coinage rather than being abbreviated in the usual form (AVG). Alternatively, it may have been spelled out fully because it already was a formal part of his name.
Romulus was the son of Orestes, a Pannonian soldier who had formerly been secretary to Attila the Hun. Within a few months of his being installed as Master of Soldiers, Orestes revolted against his benefactor, Julius Nepos, who fled on August 28, 475, to his native Dalmatia. Though Nepos remained the constitutional emperor of the West, he was never able to return to Italy and reclaim the throne. Curiously, about two months passed before Orestes hailed his son emperor on October 31, 475. Perhaps forcing the decision was news from the East that Zeno had ended the usurpation of Basilicus and Marcus and regained his throne.
Even though Orestes and Romulus Augustus held the two highest offices in the Western Roman Empire, they were dependent on the German mercenaries for their base of power. It took about 10 months before the Germans became fed up with the Pannonian Master of Soldiers and staged a coup of their own. The leader of the revolt was the 43-year-old Flavius Odovacar (Odacer), a German soldier whose father had also served Attila the Hun in a diplomatic capacity.
Prompting the revolt was a desire by the Germans to be given one-third of the land in Italy, as had been done in other areas of the Empire to placate Germanic invaders. It is uncertain whether Orestes gained his power by making such a promise, or whether it was sprung upon him. Regardless, when he refused the request, the Germans determined to take it all by force of arms. Orestes fled toward Pavia and took refuge in Ticinum, but was captured and executed on August 28, 476.
The Germans entered Ravenna a few days later (September 4) to depose and execute the boy-emperor Romulus, but his youth and beauty caused Odovacar to act mercifully. Instead of executing the youth, who had reigned for about 10 months, he simply deposed him. Furthermore, he granted him a massive annual pension of 6,000 solidi and sent him to Campania, where he resided at a villa in the gulf of Naples for at least three more decades. Odovacar was now in control of Italy, though the fact that he nominally recognized the authority of Julius Nepos as western emperor and Zeno as emperor in the East is proven by the coins he struck in their names at mints under his control.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Coinage in the name of Romulus Augustus is composed almost exclusively of solidi and tremisses. Some extremely rare silver half-siliquae of Ravenna (which borrow the interesting type introduced by Julius Nepos) are known, and until very recently no nummi were known.
COLLAPSE OF THE WEST
When the senate in Rome and Odovacar informed Zeno (who had only just recovered his own throne in Constantinople) that he was now master of both East and West, it must have come as a mixed blessing. Indeed, such a flattering offer had little value to Zeno, who knew that in practice he would have to acquiesce to Odavacar s claim to Italy. None-the-less, Zeno made an attempt to establish a good relationship with Odovacar. He first granted him the title of patrician, and then asked him to support the return of Julius Nepos, who was still the constitutional emperor of the West.
Though pleased with his new status as patrician, Odovacar apparently refused to restore Nepos, and elected instead to take the title of King of Italy. Having little choice in the matter, Zeno granted Odovacar all of Italy, just as in recent times the Romans had granted Gaul to the Visigoths and North Africa to the Vandals. When Julius Nepos was murdered in 480, there was no longer any hope that a Roman would rule in Rome, and Odovacar promptly expanded his kingdom to include Noricum, Raetia, Sicily and Dalmatia.
Although the regime of Odovacar might seem to have been a clean break from the traditional Roman rule, in reality it was little more than a change in semantics. Odovacar had simply chosen the title of King (rex) rather than Augustus. Zeno dealt with him in the same tentative fashion as eastern emperors had with the German generals who had effectively ruled the West for the last few generations.
But alas, in 489 Odovacarís rule was challenged by the Ostrogothic king Theodoric, whom Zeno had convinced to invade Italy. This was a master stroke by Zeno, for in one fell swoop Odovacar was ousted and the Eastern Roman Empire was rid of the ever-looming threat of Theodoricís Ostrogoths, who had now moved westward. Odovacar was able to maintain his status as King of Italy until 493, when Theodoric tricked him into surrendering, and unhesitatingly executed him.