CHAPTER THIRTEEN

THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE A.D. 364ñ491

This final chapter chronicles the history of the Eastern half of the divided Roman Empire, from the accession of Valens in 364 through the reign of Zeno, which ended in 491. A general discussion of the divided Empire is presented at the beginning of chapter twelve, which includes material relevant to this chapter. Accompanying that discussion is a table that displays the reigns in East and West. Outside of a tabular format, this can be difficult to visualize because the reigns are usually overlapping. Both the introduction and the table should be of value in gaining a proper historical perspective on this final era of the Roman Empire.

One of the most heated debates about the Late Roman Empire concerns when it ended. Historians are at odds on this point, and each point of view has something to recommend it. Some would place the changeover from the Roman Empire to the Byzantine Empire during the Tetrarchy, which began with the accession of Diocletian in 284, for it was during this era that the Empire was divided between East and West with great deliberation.

Others cite the reign of Constantine the Great (307ñ337) as the turning point. Firstly, he founded Constantinople and made it the enduring capital of the East, and secondly, he institutionalized Christianity; and if one associates anything with the Byzantine Empire, it is Constantinople and Christendom.

A case can also be made for the year 364 (the point at which East and West are divided in this catalog), for the division was formalized. Perhaps equally valid is the year 395, when Theodosius the Great died and the Empire was split between his two sons, Honorius and Arcadius. After all, it was during this period that the last vestiges of paganism were stamped out, and the division of East and West actually became hostile (though relations later warmed again). However, the traditional point of transition is 476, the year that Italy and its venerable capital, Rome, passed into barbarian hands. Italy was no longer ruled by an emperor, but by a German named Odovacar who chose the title of king.

These viewpoints raise a number of valid questions. Most challenging of all is, perhaps, determining if any date before 476 is really acceptable. Did the various components of Roman society change at sufficiently different rates so that the search for a point other than 476 is futile? What becomes apparent is that the transition was not an ìevent,îí but rather a process. Despite the cultural differences between the citizens of Rome and Constantinople, both considered themselves to be Romans in every sense of the word. After all, what were the options? Certainly nothing was as noble and as civilized as being a Roman. This view persisted in the Eastern Empire for many centuries after Rome itself fell.

The word ìByzantineî was first used to describe the post-476 Eastern Empire by the French historian Montesquieu in the 18th Century. It was an invention of this historian, and was derived from Byzantium (Byzantion), the name of the old Greek colony upon which Constantinople was built. The term was totally unknown to the people of the age to which it applies. Ever since Montesquieuís time, the word ìByzantineî has had a negative connotation. Indeed, it is used to describe a degenerate society that is little more than a pale shadow of its former being. Such a sweeping generalization cannot fairly be made of the Byzantine Empire, for it alone was the savior of Western Christendom. For nearly a thousand years after Rome fell, the city of Constantinople served as the stalwart barrier that spared Western civilization from nomadic and Islamic invasion from the East.

VALENS A.D. 364ñ378

Ruling in the West:

VALENTINIAN I (364ñ375), GRATIAN (367ñ383) AND VALENTINIAN II (375ñ392)

BROTHER OF VALENTINIAN I

UNCLE OF GRATIAN, VALENTINIAN II AND GALLA (w. OF THEODOSIUS I)

Flavius Julius Valens, c. A.D. 328ñ378. In 364, following the death of Jovian, the Empire fell into the hands of Valensí older brother, Valentinian I. On March 28, about one month after his elevation, Valentinian I proclaimed Valens coemperor, and gave him responsibility for the Eastern Empire.

Like his older brother, Valens also had served in the armies of the emperors Julian II and Jovian. In both cases Valens was a member of the protector domesticus, or the household guards. Valensí principate began in crisis, for in 365 a rebellion was staged by the soldier Procopius. Though he had widespread support and immediately gained control of Constantinople, Valens was able to crush Procopiusí rebellion in the following year. In the process of his revolt, Procopius had sought the assistance of the Visigoths, who were anxious for conquest even though the revolt had been crushed. Valens took matters into his own hands and crossed into Visig-othic territory, where he ravaged their lands from 367 through 369.

Yet another usurpation ó this time led by an official named The-odorus in Antioch ó occurred from 371 to 372, but was also crushed. In the meantime his brother, Valentinian I, died of a rage-induced stroke in leaving Valens as the senior Augustus. The West was now in the hands of Valensí 16-year-old nephew, Gratian, who was nominally joined by his 4-year-old half brother, Valentinian II. But the troubles of the now-separate West were not the immediate concern of Valens, who was renewing aggressions against the Sasanians. Although his campaign was a success, it was not stellar, and a luke-warm peace was negotiated in 376.

Indeed, the timing of this settlement may have been the result of a new threat on the western borders of Valensí Empire, for a new enemy, the Huns, were causing problems for the Romans. So fierce were these eastern mounted warriors that the Ostrogothic nation in the Ukraine was virtually destroyed, and the Visigoths of Romania had poured across the Danube and into Roman territory to escape the Mongol hordes. Though in reality the Romans may have had little choice in the matter, their allowance of the Goths to settle in Roman territory soon proved to be a fatal mistake. Dispossessed of their lands, the Visigoths soon became restless and resentful of their fate, and began to ravage the Balkans at the very same time that another wave of Germanic people crossed the Danube to flee the Huns.

Valensí swift attention was required, and so he left Persia to confront the Visigoths. Valens engaged the Visigoths in a pitched battle on August 9, 378, near Adrianople, at which the Roman army was so severely beaten that Valens is known to posterity almost exclusively for this defeat. Either out of necessity or poor judgment, Valens engaged the Visigoths on their own terms, and led his legions into a terrifying ambush. Boxed in by Visigothic charges, fully two-thirds of the eastern Roman army was butchered, most of those being infantry, which seems to have been totally annihilated.

The whole affair is hauntingly similar to the Gothic victory of 251 that not only cost the lives of the emperors Trajan Decius and Herennius Etruscus, but also resulted in the slaughter of their army. One of the casualties was the 50-year-old Valens, who either perished in battle or was burned alive in the nearby house of a peasant where he had taken refuge to dress his wounds.

Of great interest are the circumstances of the Battle of Adrianople, for Valens did not wait for the arrival of Gratianís western army, which was en route. Some historians suggest Gratianís arrival was deliberately delayed in the hope that he would, in essence, be coming to the rescue of his uncle, whereas others believe Valens did not wish to share the glory of victory with his nephew, and so engaged the Visigoths before Gratian arrived. Though the truth may never be known, it is worth acknowledging that both explanations could co-exist and still be truthful.

Although not as talented as his brother, Valentinian I, Valens shared much in common with him. Both tried to better the life of the common man, and at the same time punished those who unfairly took advantage of the government. Valens managed to rule the Eastern Empire competently, doing much in his 14 years to establish peace with the Goths, protect Armenia from Sasanian aggressions, and reduce taxes. By Christian historians he is principally remembered as an Arian who took singular delight in persecuting Catholics, pagans and philosophers.

PROCOPIUS A.D. 365ñ366

Ruling in the West:

VALENTINIAN I (364ñ375)

Procopius, c. A.D. 326ñ366. A native of Cilicia and a relative of Julian II, Procopius served the court of Constantius II and was a commander in the army which Julian II assembled for his invasion of Persia. Upon Julianís death, Procopius brought the emperorís corpse to Cilicia for burial, and allowed Jovian to assume the high office even though it was rumored that Procopius had been named his successor.

After Jovian died, the new emperor, Valentinian I, divided the Empire between East and West so it could be managed properly. He assumed responsibility for the more unstable West and installed his younger brother, Valens, in the East. Because of this sudden change of regime, Procopius was forced into hiding out of fear that he would be arrested or executed as a potential usurper. But when Valens was traveling to Syria in the year following his accession, Procopius re-emerged in Constantinople, where he staged a rebellion. It was an easy task, for there was much dissatisfaction with Valensí father-in-law, Petronius, an official who was despised for his greed and cruelty.

Procopius was hailed emperor by disaffected soldiers on September 28, 365, and sought help from the Visigoths in his bid to overthrow Valens. Though initially successful, Procopius soon began to lose his German generals, who were defecting with large numbers of soldiers to Valens. After a reign of eight months, Procopius was defeated in battle at Nacolea in Phrygia on May 27, 366, after which he was executed. The future western emperor Anthemius (467ñ472) claimed descent from Procopius.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: Procopius struck coins at four mints Heraclea, Constantinople, Cyzicus and Nicomedia, with Heraclea being the only one that produced only æs.

THEODOSIUS I A.D. 379ñ395

A.D. 379ñ383: SOLE REIGN

A.D. 383ñ395: SENIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH ARCADIUS)

Ruling in the West:

GRATIAN (367ñ383), VALENTINIAN II (375ñ392), MAGNUS MAXIMUS (383ñ388), Flavius Victor (387ñ388), Eugenius (392ñ394) AND HONORIUS (393ñ423)

SON-IN-LAW OF VALENTINIAN I.

BROTHER-IN-LAW OF VALENTINIAN II.

HUSBAND OF AELIA FLACCILLA AND GALLA (sisterOF VALENTINIAN II)

FATHER OF ARCADIUS AND HONORIUS (BY AELIA FLACCILLA), AND OF GALLA PLACIDIA (BY GALLA)

FATHER-IN-LAW OF CONSTANTIUS III AND AELIA EUDOXIA

GRANDFATHER OF HONORIA, VALENTINIAN III, AELIA PULCHERIA AND THEODOSIUS II.

GREAT-GRANDFATHER OF LICINIA EUDOXIA

Flavius Theodosius, c. A.D. 346/7ñ395. One of the renowned leaders of the late Roman Empire, Theodosius I was born at Cauca in north-west Spain. He was the son of the renowned general Count Theodosius, who had crushed insurrections in Britain (against the Picts and Scots) and North Africa and had served as Valentinian Iís commander-in-chief on the Rhine.

His son, the future emperor, had served with his father and had learned much about soldiering and leadership. But Count Theodosius was executed for high treason in 375/6, perhaps out of fear that he would stage his own revolution amid the confusion that existed after the death of Valentinian I. The Countís son then retired to Spain and married Aelia Flacilla, who bore him two sons, the future emperors Arcadius and Honorius. Late in 387 he married Galla (who died in childbirth about April, 394) and they soon produced the future empress Galla Placidia.

However, after the destruction of the eastern Roman armies in August of 378 at Adrianople by the Visigoths, Count Theodosiusí son (a cousin of Gratian by marriage) was lured out of his early retirement in Spain to take command of the armies on the Danube as magister equitum. About six months later, the western emperor Gratian invested Theodosius I with supreme power in the East. The ceremony took place at Sirmium on January 19, 379. Though both men carried on the affairs of state with general success, they did not see eye-to-eye and were often at odds.

Theodosiusí first challenge was to safeguard the Eastern Empire with his depleted and demoralized army. He did this by making compromises with the Visigoths and the Sasanians, both of which proved to be lasting if not ideal. Of special interest was the bargain he struck with the Visigoths, whom he was unable to hold back with his depleted armies. Theodosius allowed the Visigoths to cross the Danube and settle in Thrace, where they were given land as well as regular payments. Furthermore, they were allowed to maintain their own tribal governments and to live under their own laws. In return, the Visigoths were to provide standing armies for the Romans to protect their borders from invasion. It was far from an ideal solution, but it seems Theodosius had little choice in the matter.

This arrangement was also extended to other peoples, such as Huns, and over time evolved from a temporary solution to a permanent part of Roman life. But all of this required vast sums of money, and so Theodosius applied taxes to all owned property, leaving nothing exempt. Some of his related laws made virtual slaves of humble tenant farmers, who were forbidden to move without the permission of their masters. Even the tax collectors feared Theodosius, for they would be severely flogged if they did not collect all that was due.

The year 383 began on a high note when Theodosius raised his eldest son Arcadius to the rank of Junior Augustus, but turned to crisis when a Spanish kinsman named Magnus Maximus revolted in Britain and in August killed the senior western emperor Gratian. Again, having little choice in the matter, Theodosius acknowledged Maximus as de facto coemperor with young Valentinian II. However, when in 387 Maximus invaded Italy, Theodosius patched up a peace with the Sasanians in Armenia and marched at great speed into Italy. There his army of Romans, Huns and Goths defeated the usurper at Aquileia, and nominally restored Valentinian II (who had fled) to his throne.

Theodosius I remained in Italy for more than three years, trying to settle the Danubian front, though in the process he had to abandon the westernmost portion. In 391 he returned to Constantinople, where he raised his youngest son, Honorius, to the rank of Junior Augustus. In doing so, Theodosius had left the Frankish soldier Arbogast as regent for the emperor Valentinian II, who was now 20 years old, but far from capable of running an Empire. This proved to be a foolish decision, for Arbogast soon caused the murder or suicide of Valentinian II and installed a court official named Eugenius as the new emperor of the West. For a second time, Theodosius I led an army into Italy, and this time he defeated the legions of Eugenius and Arbogast on September 5ñ6, 394.

Theodosius I had now assumed control of the entire Roman Empire, though he made no formal gestures to unite East and West. However, this new arrangement lasted only five months, for after a reign of nearly 16 years, the 49-year-old emperor died of natural causes at Milan on January 17, 395. Successful enough to be surnamed ìthe Great,î Theodosius was renowned in his day as an ardent defender of Christianity, and it is little more than a footnote of the era that the last Olympic Games were probably held during his reign, as he banned all pagan cults. Like many emperors, the historians simultaneously offer praise and condemnation on his various personality traits, and as such he is a difficult person to size up. Since Theodosiusí dynasty had been formed long before his death, the temporarily united Empire was divided between his two incompetent sons, Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West.

AELIA FLACCILLA

AUGUSTA, A.D. 379ñ386/8

WIFE OF THEODOSIUS I

MOTHER OF ARCADIUS AND HONORIUS

STEP-MOTHER OF GALLA PLACIDIA

MOTHER-IN-LAW OF AELIA EUDOXIA

GRANDMOTHER OF AELIA PULCHERIA AND THEODOSIUS II

Aelia Flavia Flaccilla, d. A.D. 386/8. Little is known of Aelia Flaccilla except that she was renowned for her piety and generosity to the poor. Born to a good family in Spain, Flaccilla was the daughter of Antonius, who had attained the high post of prefect of Gaul. It may be assumed that her marriage to Theodosius I in about 376 was a wedding of fortunes, for the latter had retired to his ancestral estates in Spain at that time. Perhaps they had planned to spend the remainder of their lives as local nobility.

However, three years after they were wed, Theodosius was recalled by the western emperor Gratian, who first gave him command of the Danubian region and a few months later crowned him emperor in the East. Flaccilla bore him two children, Arcadius in 377 and Honorius in 383/4 ó brothers who would share the Empire they inherited from their father. In 386 (or 388), after a decade or more of marriage to Theodosius, Aelia Flaccilla died in Thrace (by one account). Theodosius remarried in 388, this time to Galla, the sister of Valentinian II, for whom no coins were struck, but who gave birth to the ill-fated Galla Placidia.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: Aelia Flacillaís coinage ó the first such issue for an empress since the 330s ó heralded a return to the time-honored Roman practice of striking coinage for the important women of the Empire. The fact that she assumed her first name, Aelia, as part of her title had a profound effect on future empresses, who adopted it as a title (rather than as a name). Though she struck aes at eight mints, tremisses and siliquae were struck only at Constantinople.

ARCADIUS A.D. 383ñ408

A.D. 383ñ395: JUNIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH THEODOSIUS I)

A.D. 395ñ402: SOLE REIGN

A.D. 402ñ408: SENIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH THEODOSIUS II)

Ruling in the West:

GRATIAN (367ñ383), VALENTINIAN II (375ñ392), Magnus Maximus (383ñ388), Flavius Victor (387ñ388), Eugenius (392ñ394), HONORIUS (393ñ423), Constantine III (407ñ411) and Constans II (408ñ411)

SON OF THEODOSIUS I AND AELIA FLACCILLA

BROTHER OF HONORIUS

HUSBAND OF AELIA EUDOXIA

FATHER OF THEODOSIUS II AND AELIA PULCHERIA

HALF-BROTHER OF GALLA PLACIDIA

FATHER-IN-LAW OF MARCIAN AND AELIA EUDOCIA

GRANDFATHER OF LICINIA EUDOXIA

Flavius Arcadius, c. A.D. 377ñ408. Of all the late Roman emperors, Arcadius may have been the most fortunate, for despite the brevity of his life and his general lack of talent, his reign was remarkably placid.

The eldest son of Theodosius I and Aelia Flacilla, Arcadius was born in Spain in about 377 and was proclaimed co-emperor with his father, Theodosius I, on January 19, 383. He was only 6 years old at the time of his elevation, and was fortunate to enjoy a dozen years under the tutelage of his father. But even this potentially fine training could not compensate for Arcadiusí lack of natural ability.

When Theodosius left Constantinople in 394 to oust Eugenius from Italy, he placed Arcadius in a position of great authority along with the praetorian prefect Flavius Rufinus. When his father died in 395, the 18-year-old Arcadius became sole emperor in the East, and his 12-year-old brother, Honorius, inherited the western throne. At the outset Rufinus was marginally in control of Arcadius, and tried to persuade him to join their fortunes through a marriage to his own daughter. But much like Sejanus to Tiberius, the prefect was of humble birth and no such match was made.

It was not long before Rufinus came into conflict with Stilicho, a German soldier who held similar sway over Honorius in the West. Their disagreement caused an uprising by the Visigoths under their chieftain Alaric, who proceeded to ravage much of Greece. In response, Stilicho marched east not only to quell the uprising, but also to claim the province of Illyria (and thus the large number of soldiers it produced) for the West. The conflict ended in a bit of treachery on the part of Stilicho, who in the guise of peaceful surrender, instead had Rufinus assassinated.

Stilicho continued to be a thorn in Arcadiusí side when in 397 he refused to cooperate in the war against Alaricís Visigoths, and so he was declared a public enemy, while at the same time Alaric was given the title of Master of Soldiers in the Balkans. These severe tensions between East and West were only exacerbated by a revolt in North Africa by a man named Gildo, who sought to ally himself with Arcadius in the East. Though the crisis soon ended satisfactorily, it could have been a formula for disaster.

In 395 Arcadius married Aelia Eudoxia, the daughter of the Frankish general Bauto, and promptly hailed her Augusta. The dullard Arcadius was more than willing to let his energetic and beautiful wife run the affairs of state almost single-handedly from 400 until her death in 404. Indeed, her first actions were to check the aggressions of Stilicho (who was still considered a fugitive by the rulers in Constantinople) by pitting him against the Visigothic prefect, Alaric. But the issue found no resolution due to invasions from Germany and an uprising in Britain. In 401 the royal couple had their only child, a son named Theodosius II, who at age 1 was hailed co-emperor with his father in the year 402. When Aelia Eudoxia died in childbirth in 404, the reins of power passed largely to the praetorian prefect Anthemius (not the future emperor of that name), who suppressed an uprising by the Isaurians in Anatolia.

After a reign of more than a quarter century, the 31-year-old Arcadius died of natural causes at Constantinople on May 1, 408. He was succeeded by his only son, Theodosius II ó then only 7 years old ó whom he had hailed co-Augustus six years earlier. What Arcadius left can hardly be called a legacy, for he was unimpressive in person, sluggish, dull, and apparently had no enviable skills. Indeed, he was not suited for the demands of the throne, and had no choice but to let more energetic men and women run the Empire in his name.

AELIA EUDOXIA

AUGUSTA, A.D. 400ñ404

WIFE OF ARCADIUS

DAUGHTER OF BAUTO THE FRANK

DAUGHTER-IN-LAW OF THEODOSIUS I (POSTHUMOUSLY) AND AELIA FLACCILLA

SISTER-IN-LAW OF HONORIUS

MOTHER OF THEODOSIUS II AND AELIA PULCHERIA

MOTHER-IN-LAW OF MARCIAN AND AELIA EUDOCIA

GRANDMOTHER OF LICINIA EUDOXIA

(Aelia) Eudoxia, d. A.D. 404. History records very little of this royal lady. Eudoxia was a daughter of Bauto the Frank, a general of Valentinian I who in 385 repelled a Sarmatian offensive and thus was presented the high office of consul. After her father died, she was raised in the household of his comrade-in-arms, Promotus, a general who defeated the Ostrogoths in 386 and who was instrumental in the suppression of Magnus Maximus.

When Promo tus died in 391, she came under the care of the powerful eunuch Eutropius, who was lord chamberlain in the court of Theodosius I. Indeed, it was at his urging that Eudoxia married the emperorís son, Arcadius, on April 27, 395, some three months after his father died in Milan. This was no easy feat, for a rival named Rufinus, the praetorian prefect of the East, was lobbying for Arcadius to marry his own daughter. But Eudoxia emerged victorious, and as the wife of the legitimate emperor of the East, she inherited a position of great power.

In succeeding years she worked hard to undermine the influence of Eutropius in the Imperial court. She achieved this in 399 with the help of a certain Gainas, who she then undermined in the following year. After she had given birth to two daughters, Eudoxia received the title Augusta on January 9, 400, and for the four remaining years of her life she was virtual ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire. Although she possessed great beauty, she had a quick temper and a forceful personality ó all qualities which permitted her to dominate her lackluster husband.

Eudoxia was also a pious Christian who frequently argued with high-ranking Christian officials (most notably St. John Chrysostom, the patriarch of Constantinople), and went to great lengths to destroy all the remnants of paganism. Some historians credit her with causing irreparable harm to the relationship between church and state for centuries to come. All told, she and Arcadius had five children, two of whom were the future emperor Theodosius II, and Pulcheria, the future wife of the emperor Marcian. It was Pulcheria who inherited her motherís strength of character, for she tirelessly managed her brotherís affairs for decades. After nearly a decade of marriage and meddling in palace politics, Aelia Eudoxia died early in October, 404, the result of a miscarriage.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: All of Aelia Eudoxiaís coins were struck by her husband Arcadius. Gold was struck in the three principal denominations, with the solidi being the most common. Eudoxiaís silver is very rare, and the bronze quite common. For details about how to distinguish Aelia Eudoxiaís coins with the obverse inscription AEL EVDOXIA AVG from coins of her granddaughter, Licinia Eudoxia, with the same inscription, see the notes accompanying the biography of Licinia Eudoxia and the coinage listings of both women.

THEODOSIUS II A.D. 402ñ450

A.D. 402ñ408: JUNIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH ARCADIUS)

A.D. 408ñ450 : SOLE REIGN

Ruling in the West:

HONORIUS (393ñ423), Constantine III (407ñ411), Constans II (409/10ñ411), Maximus (409ñ411), Priscus Attalus (409ñ410) and (415ñ416), Jovinus (411ñ413), Sebastianus (412ñ413),CONSTANTIUS III (421), Johannes (423ñ425) AND VALENTINIAN III (425ñ455)

SON OF ARCADIUS AND AELIA EUDOXIA

BROTHER OF AELIA PULCHERIA

HUSBAND OF AELIA EUDOCIA

FATHER OF LICINIA EUDOXIA

BROTHER-IN-LAW OF MARCIAN

FATHER-IN-LAW OF VALENTINIAN III AND PETRONIUS MAXIMUS

NEPHEW OF HONORIUS

HALF-COUSIN OF VALENTINIAN III AND HONORIA

GRANDSON OF THEODOSIUS I AND AELIA FLACCILLA

Flavius Theodosius, A.D. 401ñ450. As the only son of the emperor Arcadius and Aelia Eudoxia, Theodosius II was declared Augustus on January 10, 402, when he was exactly 9 months old. Though merely a formality, his elevation left no doubt that he was destined to inherit his fatherís Empire. In fact, we are led to believe that Arcadius appointed the Sasanian king Yezdegerd as the childís guardian.

Arcadius died a premature, natural death at age 31 in the year 408, which made the 7-year-old Theodosius II the new emperor of the East. The early years of his reign were managed almost entirely by his regent and praetorian prefect Anthemius (not the emperor of the same name). Two serious crises ó a grain shortage and an invasion of Moesia by the Huns ó were both managed admirably by Anthemius, who in 413 (shortly after Rome was sacked by the Visigoths) also began construction of a massive circuit wall around Constantinople. Equally influential was Antiochus, and other palace eunuchs who had been firmly established in the eastern courts for more than half a century.

Beginning in 414, however, both Antiochus and Anthemius fade into obscurity, for that was the year Theodosiusí regency was transferred to the boyís older sister, Aelia Pulcheria (who herself was only 15 years old). Not only did she take over as regent, but she forced Anthemius to resign as praetorian prefect. For the remaining 36 years of Theodosiusí reign, Pulcheria would be her brotherís strongest influence, often running the affairs of state single-handedly.

One of her arrangements was the marriage in 421 of her brother to Aelia Eudocia, a young lady formerly named Athenais who was the daughter of an Athenian sophist. But Pulcheria came to regret this choice, for the new empress soon began to supplant her authority, and within two years she had also been hailed Augusta. She and Pulcheria often clashed, which eventually caused Eudocia to be expelled.

The West once again erupted into chaos in 423. Within a couple of months the matriarch Galla Placidia had been banished and her half-brother, the emperor Honorius, had died. A usurper named Johannes assumed control and Theodosius II (who had given asylum to Galla Placidia and her children) now had to raise an army so order could be restored in the West. The latter was achieved in 425, and Galla Placidiaís only son, Valentinian III (the cousin of Theodosius II), was installed as the western emperor. Since Theodosius II had been the force behind restoring Thodosian rule in the West, his relations with that half of the Empire were excellent. This was a welcome change from the open hostility of the regents of Honorius and Arcadius.

In 437 Theodosius betrothed his only daughter, Licinia Eudoxia, to his cousin, Valentinian III, who had been emperor in the West (in name) for a dozen years. His family woes continued in the East, and he did not have the strength of character to interfere with the rivalry between his sister and wife. Indeed, it became so intense that it broke up his marriage in 442 or 443, and forced Licinia Eudocia to retire to Jerusalem after the divorce.

Though the military threats that afflicted the East could hardly compare with the chaos in the West, three were especially serious: the Sasanians, though defeated in 421, rose later at inopportune moments; the Goths often ravaged Roman territory, as they had been doing since the reign of Valens; and worse still were the Huns, a nomadic confederation that came to be led by the infamous Attila in 434. Theodosius bought peace with Attila through humiliating concessions averaging nearly 50,000 gold solidi annually from the years 422 to 450. But Theodosiusí failure to pay what he had promised prompted the Huns to sack the Balkans from 441 to 447, during which they leveled several important cities. Attila then made another peace with Theodosius, after which he ravaged the western portion of the Empire (related in the biographies of Valentinian III and Marcian).

Less than a decade after he had divorced his wife, Theodosius II died of natural causes on July 28, 450, possibly from a fall off his horse. Because he was elevated at such a young age, he held the title of Augustus for nearly half a century, and thus was the longest-reigning of all Roman emperors. He even outstripped the great Augustus, who actually ruled longer ó 56 years all together ó but who only held the title of Augustus for 41 years.

However, this accomplishment could hardly have pleased Theodosius II, who hardly knew a moment of security in his half century of life. Theodosius was kind, generous, scholarly and peaceful ó indeed he possessed all the wrong qualities to lead an Empire constantly under siege. He was a skilled calligrapher, and applied this talent to his all-consuming passion of religion by patiently copying old manuscripts into the late hours of the night. He apparently did not care much for the tedious details of running an Empire, and is said to have routinely signed official documents without inquiring into their contents. What most historians describe as weakness in his personality, might better be described as kindness.

But Theodosiusí gentle nature cost Constantinople dearly, for he more often achieved peace with gold and concessions than he did with war. The two great accomplishments of Theodosiusí reign were the walls around Constantinople and the Theodosian Code, a legal document which took eight years to compile and was finally published in 438. Not only were they useful in their own day, but both proved to be works of lasting value. The former protected the capital of Christendom from invaders of every description for more than 1,000 years, and the latter has continued to influence lawmakers into the modern age. It is also noteworthy that in his religious zeal (no doubt greatly influenced by Pulcheria), Theodosius II ordered the destruction of all pagan temples in the eastern Mediterranean.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: The gold tremissis was first struck in large quantity by Theodosius II. The weight of the copper nummus (Æ4), which had been a modest but attractive coin under Arcadius, was in 425 reduced by 25 percent. The result was a paltry coin that remained so until the reform of Anastasius I in 498, at which point it was trading at 14,000ñ16,800 to the gold solidus. Anastasius I introduced a massive copper piece valued at 40 nummi that was tariffed at 20 pounds of coined nummi to the gold solidus. With the exception of a brief hiatus from 420 to 422, a star appears on the reverse of the precious metal coins of Theodosius II. Not only is this the easiest way to distinguish his coins from those of Theodosius I, but it became a defining characteristic of most subsequent issues struck in the East. While Theodosiusí coinage in the East is common, very little was struck in his name at western mints. The year 430 was of significance, for it marked the hundredth anniversary of the foundation of Constantinople. In commemoration of this event (which coincided with preparations for Theodosiusí tricennalia), a new reverse type of Constantinopolis seated left was introduced on the solidus. There are imitations of Theodosiusí solidi attributed to the Visigoths (see RIC X, p. 453).

AELIA PULCHERIA

AUGUSTA, A.D. 414ñ453

SISTER OF THEODOSIUS II

DAUGHTER OF ARCADIUS AND AELIA EUDOXIA

WIFE OF MARCIAN

SISTER-IN-LAW OF AELIA EUDOCIA

HALF-COUSIN OF VALENTINIAN III AND HONORIA

STEP-MOTHER OF AELIA EUPHEMIA (w. OF ANTHEMIUS)

GRANDDAUGHTER OF THEODOSIUS I AND AELIA FLACCILLA

NIECE OF HONORIUS

AUNT OF LICINIA EUDOXIA

(Aelia) Pulcheria, a.d. 399ñ453. Being older than her brother Theodosius II, Pulcheria acted as his regent throughout most of his reign, even after he had come of age. On July 4, 414, when she was aged 15, Pulcheria was hailed Augusta and supplanted the regent Anthemius as the decisionmaker in the palace. She held the title of Augusta for the nearly 40 years that remained of her life, and found it easy (and indeed necessary) to dominate her weak-minded and indulgent brother.

However, she had to share her authority with others, most notably her sister-in-law, Aelia Eudocia. The two royal ladies did not get along very well, and they were frequently in conflict. Historians suggest Pulcheria was supplanted by Eudocia in the late 420s and 430s, but that she eventually defeated Eudocia, who was expelled from the courts by 443/4 and forced to retire to Jerusalem. Pulcheria appears to have been a woman of great character and generosity. She apparently was also chaste, and early in her life had taken a vow of celibacy along with her two sisters, Arcadia and Marina (for both of whom no coins were struck). This drastic measure no doubt stemmed from strong religious beliefs, but was undertaken mainly to avoid the prospect of outsiders marrying into the hierarchy and becoming rivals to their brother.

Indeed, Pulcheria did not marry until her 51st year, and even then it was not for love, but to legitimize the principate of Marcian, who she and the Master of Soldiers Aspar had chosen to succeed her deceased brother. The marriage was unconjugal, and Marcian was denied his rights as husband so that Pulcheria could remain chaste. Though Pulcheriaís strong influence in secular policies can only be assumed, her importance in religious debate is a matter of record. Indeed, she was instrumental in both summoning and implementing the canons of the extremely important Fourth Ecumenical Council of the Church at Chalcedon in 451. Three years into her marriage to Marcian, Pulcheria died in July of 453 ó the same year in which Attila the Hun died. Ever true to her pious and generous nature, Pulcheria left all of her earthly effects to the poor.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: All of Aelia Pulcheriaís coins were struck at Constantinople by her brother, Theodosius II, and her husband, Marcian. They seem to have been struck at intervals throughout the entire period 414 to 453.

AELIA EUDOCIA

AUGUSTA A. D. 423ñ460

WIFE OF THEODOSIUS II

DAUGHTER-IN-LAW OF ARCADIUS AND AELIA EUDOXIA

SISTER-IN-LAW OF AELIA PULCHERIA

MOTHER OF LICINIA EUDOXIA

MOTHER-IN-LAW OF VALENTINIAN III AND PETRONIUS MAXIMUS

(Aelia) Eudocia (earlier Athenais), d. A.D. 460. Aelia Eudocia first traveled to Constantinople in 420 or 421 to resolve a legal dispute with her brothers over their inheritance. Though still a pagan, her beauty and quick wit caught the attention of the empress Aelia Pulcheria, who thought her to be the ideal bride for her brother.

Under the influence of Pulcheria, Theodosius II married Athenais (who had been baptized with the name Eudocia) on June 7, 421. Aelia Eudocia must have been an unusual member of the Imperial court (which was virtually monastic during her lifetime), for although a Christian, she paid much attention to Classical learning. Her Athenian father, Leontius, was a man of letters, and she inherited his penchant for literature, for she wrote verse herself (some of which survives). One of her closest associates was the pagan poet Cyrus, who held several of the highest offices in Constantinople, but who was ruined because of his enormous popularity with the people.

Eudocia had only one daughter, Licinia Eudoxia, who was destined to be the wife of the emperor Valentinian III, and subsequently had a boy who died young. In consequence of her giving birth to Licinia Eudoxia, Eudocia was hailed Augusta on January 2, 423. Though she shared this lofty rank with her sister-in-law, Pulcheria, her status was subordinate. Nonetheless, the new empress wasted little time before she began to wield her authority in the Imperial court. Eudocia and her sister-in-law were of different temperaments, and though the two court matriarchs began on good terms, they later clashed. This proved harmful to both women.

In October 437, her daughter, Licinia Eudoxia, married the western emperor Valentinian III, and thus departed for Ravenna in the following year. It was at this time (and seemingly because of this event) that Eudocia left Constantinople on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. After this, her position in the Imperial court began to disintegrate. Two of her foremost allies fell in 440 and 441, and Eudocia was eventually expelled on a serious charge, perhaps of adultery. She was excluded from court life by 443/4 (shortly after her marriage to Theodosius II failed) and so she once again traveled to Jerusalem, where she spent the rest of her life. There is ample evidence to suggest she retained her title of Augusta until her death there on October 20, 460. She was buried in the basilica of St. Stephen, the church that she herself had founded.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: All of Aelia Eudocia s coins were struck by her husband, Theodosius II.

MARCIAN A.D. 450ñ457

Ruling in the West:

VALENTINIAN III (425ñ455), PETRONIUS MAXIMUS (455) AND AVITUS (455ñ456)

HUSBAND OF AELIA PULCHERIA

FATHER OF AELIA EUPHEMIA

FATHER-IN-LAW OF ANTHEMIUS

SON-IN-LAW OF ARCADIUS AND AELIA EUDOXIA

BROTHER-IN-LAW OF THEODOSIUS II

GRANDFATHER OF ALYPIA

Flavius Valerius Marcianus, c. A.D. 391/2ñ457. Although not a blood relation to any previous emperor, Marcian was an accomplished soldier of Illyrian or Thracian origin who had risen to high office within the army. His career was eventful, and in the early 430s he was taken as a prisoner of war in North Africa by the Vandals while serving under Aspar, an Alan who was then a general of Theodosius II. At the time of his elevation he was domesticus to Aspar, who had since risen to become Master of Soldiers.

Marcian was of sufficiently good character to be chosen as the successor to Theodosius II, who had died of natural causes late in July 450 without an heir. Making this decision were Aspar and Pulcheria, the sister of Theodosius II, who had largely managed the affairs of state for her brother throughout his 48-year reign. But the decision may have been an easy one, for we are told that on his deathbed Theodosius II requested of Aspar that Marcian succeed him.

Upon his accession on August 25, 450, Marcian was married to Pulcheria ó not for love, but for the good of the Empire. (Marcian himself was a widower and advanced in age.) Although Valentinian III in the West did not acknowledge his elevation until the spring of 452, Marcian immediately took a strong position against Attila the Hun by refusing to pay the annual indemnity of 2,100 pounds of gold that had been promised by his weakling predecessor. Marcian is quoted as having remarked ìI have iron for Attila, but no gold.î

Though it was a courageous act, it was seemingly a foolish one. Fortunately, the Eastern Romans were spared retribution when, in 453, Attila died on the last of his numerous wedding nights. The Hunnic nation then disintegrated after they were defeated in 454 by a Gothic confederation at the Battle of Nedao. Had Attila not died prematurely (or been occupied with his conquests in the West), the fate of the Eastern Empire might have been significantly different.

But his stand against Attila was uncharacteristic for his reign, which was introspective. Indeed, Marcian (on the advice of Aspar) did nothing to prevent the Vandals from sacking Rome, and he gave part of Pannonia to the Gepids. Neither of these acts served to warm relations between East and West, which had been harmed by the very fact that Marcian was hailed emperor without the constitutional consent of Valentinian III. Even in his own realm, Marcian was timid, for he dared not confront the Sasanians, who had become quite aggressive in the buffer state of Armenia. Clearly, in this case Marcian was wisely conserving his resources in the event the Huns declared war.

Marcian had a daughter from a previous marriage, Euphemia, who later married the western emperor Anthemius(467ñ472). If Marcian succeeded in any way, it was financially, for when his he died the treasury was laden with more than 100,000 pounds of gold ó the equivalent of 7.2 million solidi. Regrettably, all of this and more was lost by his successor, who lost an 1,100-ship armada in an expedition against the Vandals in 468.

After a productive, peaceful, and fortunate reign of more than six years, the65-year-old emperor died on January27, 457, after suffering from an illness of about six months. With his death also came a conclusion to the Theodosian and Valentinian lines. Though most historians believe Marcian died of natural causes, some sources report that he was poisoned. Since his wife, Pulcheria, had died four years before and Marcian had no son, there was no successor-in-waiting. Thus, the choice for his replacement fell upon the army, which was led by Aspar.

LEO I A.D. 457ñ474

A.D. 457ñ470: SOLE REIGN

A.D. 470ñ471: AUGUSTUS (WITH PATRICIUS, AS CAESAR)

A.D. 471ñ473: SOLE REIGN

A.D. 473ñ474: AUGUSTUS (WITH LEO II, AS CAESAR)

A.D. 474: SENIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH LEO II)

Ruling in the West:

MAJORIAN (457ñ461), LIBIUS SEVERUS (461ñ465), ANTHEMIUS (467ñ472), Olybrius (472) AND Glycerius (473ñ474)

HUSBAND OF AELIA VERINA

FATHER OF AELIA ARIADNE AND LEONTIA (w. OF PATRICIUS)

BROTHER-IN-LAW OF BASILISCUS

FATHER-IN-LAW OF PATRICIUS AND ZENO

GRANDFATHER OF LEO II

Flavius Valerius Leo (I), c. A.D. 401 or 411ñ474. A man of humble origins, apparently from the Bessi tribe in Thrace, Leo (who is sometimes called ìthe Greatî) rose from total obscurity to found a dynasty that would rule Constantinople until the end of what most historians consider to be the Eastern Roman Empire.

Leo owed his high career to the patronage of Aspar, the powerful Alan Master of Soldiers in the East. Since there was no designated successor to Marcian, the choice was made by the army, and Aspar proclaimed Leo emperor on February 7, 457. Aspar probably elected Leo so that the most legitimate candidate, former emperorís son-in-law Anthemius (who later was emperor in the West in 472), would not ascend the throne.

Despite the debt of gratitude that Leo owed Aspar, the new emperor went to great lengths to shed the influence of his benefactor. This internal war went in Leoís favor when in 466 he rapidly promoted Zeno, and it ended with the murder of Aspar in 471. Much to Leoís credit, he broke the power of the German soldiers led by Aspar, who had dominated his court and threatened the stability of the Empire. But to achieve this he had to replace them with equally fierce (and apparently less-well-mannered) Isaurians, led by a capable soldier named Taracsis, who is better known by his adopted name, Zeno.

Throughout this five-year conflict one of the principal issues was choosing a successor for Leo, who showed no signs of nearing death. However, his only son had died at five months old in 463, and he had only daughters. The first to advance was Zeno, who in 466 or 467 married Aelia Ariadne, Leoís eldest daughter. Soon after, Zeno went to Thrace to fight the Huns, leaving Aspar in Constantinople. The latter strengthened his own position in 470 when one of his sons, Patricius, was hailed Caesar and betrothed to Leoís younger daughter, Leontia. Now there were two qualified candidates for the succession, though neither of them were popular in Constantinople.

The rivalry ended, however, when Aspar tried to win over Zenoís Isaurian soldiers, but failed to do so before Zeno returned from Thrace and counteracted his efforts. Though Leo sympathized with Zeno, it seems that the order to execute Aspar in 471 came directly from Leo. Though Patricius survived the ambush, he was seriously wounded and was deprived of his rank and of the prospect of a royal marriage. Now only Zeno remained as a viable successor.

Although Leo was the emperor of the East, he took considerable interest in the ill-fortunes of the West. In 467 he appointed Anthemius as emperor in the West, and in 473/4 enlisted the services of Julius Nepos to oust the usurper Glycerius. But with the chaotic environment in Italy, both men were deposed in short order. Another of his interventions in the West occurred in 468, and it was such a catastrophe that it single-handedly has blackened his record. Ever since the Vandals had occupied Carthage in 439, the Western Roman Empire had suffered the consequences. Not only was their traditional grain supply jeopardized, but the sea-borne Vandals often turned to piracy in Sicily and Italy.

So Leo assembled an armada of more than 1,100 ships, which deployed about 100,000 men. The expense (estimated at 7.5 million to 9.5 million gold solidi) was extraordinary, and it bankrupted the Eastern treasury. However, it was anticipated that Leoís investment in the fleet would produce enough revenue in loot that the expense was justifiable. Leo entrusted this vital mission to his brother-in-law, the future usurper Basiliscus.

Through what must have been a stroke of good luck, Basiliscus won impressive naval engagements at the outset, sending 340 Vandal ships to the floor of the sea. However, the gross incompetence so natural to Basiliscus soon emerged as he naively fell victim to the Vandalís treachery. The great Roman armada was destroyed in its entirety, and with its destruction came dire consequences. The West was now demoralized and at risk, and the East was bankrupt. The failure of the armada was equally as tragic as the defeat suffered in 378 by the emperor Valens at Adrianople.

But after this great loss, Leo still had more than five years to reign, during which he was often occupied with finding a successor (as was related above). In October of 473, while in a declining state of health, Leo gave the title of Caesar to the young son of Zeno, who was also named Leo, and who is known to historians as Leo II. This seemed a more practical option than giving that rank to Zeno himself, for he would have been an unpopular choice. When Leoís health took a dramatic turn, he hailed Leo II Augustus, and the aged emperor died a few days later, either in late January or early February of 474.

AELIA VERINA

AUGUSTA, A.D. 457ñ484.

WIFE OF LEO I

MOTHER OF AELIA ARIADNE AND LEONTIA (w. OF PATRICIUS)

SISTER OF BASILISCUS

MOTHER-IN-LAW OF PATRICIUS, ZENO AND ANASTASIUS I (EMPEROR, A.D. 491ñ518)

GRANDMOTHER OF LEO II

AUNT OF MARCUS

(Aelia) Verina, d. a. d. 484. A most remarkable woman, Verina married Leo I (who was her senior by decades) before he became emperor in 457, and thus she bore the title of Augusta from the outset of his reign. Though her rise to fame and power was relatively smooth, her later years were dangerous and eventful, as she ended her days as a perennial rebel against her son-in-law, Zeno.

Although Verina was influential during her husbandís principate, she had a greater effect on the affairs of state after he died in 474. First, she oversaw his succession. The legal heir was her grandson, Leo II, who had been raised first to the rank of Caesar, then to Augustus just before her husbandís death. However, Leo II was merely a child, and a sickly one at that. To prevent an inevitable crisis, she arranged for her son-in-law (the boyís father, Zeno) to be proclaimed co-emperor. The child Leo II soon died, leaving Zeno as sole emperor in the East. Thus her task of managing the succession was achieved.

But her son-in-law proved to be every bit as unpopular as was expected. Verina regretted her choice for many reasons, not the least of which being that she now was somewhat subordinate to her own daughter, who had also become Augusta with the elevation of Zeno. So Verina plotted Zenoís overthrow. Her ingenious solution was to inform Zeno that his life was in jeopardy, and thus trick him into fleeing Constantinople.

Though her plan worked perfectly, her subsequent machination quickly began to unravel. The senate hailed her brother, Basiliscus, as emperor, whereas Verina had hoped the honor would go to her lover, Patricius (the Master of Offices, not the Patricius who was Caesar from 470ñ471, the first husband of her youngest daughter). Very soon, Basiliscus and his sisterís lover, Patricius, were at odds, and the latter was executed. This enraged Verina, who then diverted her energies to ousting her brother and restoring son-in-law Zeno, whom she had just overthrown. Such actions put her in great danger with Basiliscus.

Historians differ in their views on what happened next. Some suggest Verina was able to conceal her guilt from Zeno (and thus escape immediate punishment), whereas others believe she was imprisoned upon his return. The remainder of her life was equally tumultuous. She continued to be one of Zenoís most formidable enemies, constantly plotting against him and threatening the stability of his regime. Not surprisingly, she spent much of her life as a prisoner in barren fortresses in Isauria.

Verina had three children with her husband, Leo I: a son who died young in 463, and two daughters. The eldest daughter was Ariadne, the wife of the future emperor Zeno. The younger daughter (for whom no coins were struck) was Leontia, who twice was involved with men who aspired to the throne. Her first betrothal was to Patricius, a son of the Master of Soldiers Aspar. This young man was raised to the rank of Caesar in 470 by Leo I, but apparently the marriage never occurred, especially after his father was murdered in 471.

Leontiaís second association (which this time resulted in marriage) was with Marcian, a young man who was named after his grandfather, the emperor of 450ñ457. In 479 this second Marcian joined forces with his mother-in-law, Verina, in an effort to overthrow Zeno. However, the revolt failed immediately, leading to the banishment of Verina and the capture of Marcian. The most notable act of her later life (well beyond the scope of this work) was staging the revolt of Leontius, which in the fall of 484 resulted in her own death later that year after she took refuge with rebels at the fortress of Cherris in Isauria.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: Most of Aelia Verinaís coins were struck late in the reign of her husband Leo I, though hoard evidence indicates that some were struck earlier in Leoís reign. It is also possible that some were struck during the brief reigns of her brother Basiliscus, or of her grandson Leo II.

PATRICIUS

CAESAR, A.D. 470ñ471 (UNDER LEO I)

SON OF ASPAR (MASTER OF SOLDIERS)

HUSBAND OF LEONTIA (D. OF LEO I)

SON-IN-LAW OF LEO I AND AELIA VERINA

BROTHER-IN-LAW OF AELIA ARIADNE

Patricius, d. after A.D. 471. The elevation of Leo I in February 457 was due largely to the patronage of Aspar, the Master of Soldiers in the East who had served under the previous emperor, Marcian. But the debt of gratitude that Leo owed Aspar did not take hold, for the new emperor went to great lengths to free himself from the influence of his benefactor.

Leo targeted the German soldiers led by Aspar who held sway over his court, and replaced them with equally fierce Isaurians, who were led by a soldier who adopted the name Zeno and was destined to become emperor. Since Leo I had no living son to succeed him, the claims of succession would no doubt be determined by the marriages of his two daughters, Ariadne and Leontia. The first to take advantage of this prospect was the Isaurian Zeno, who in 466 or 467 married Leoís eldest daughter, Ariadne.

Later, in 470, Aspar strengthened his position while Zeno was away at war, for he managed to convince Leo I to raise to the rank of Caesar his eldest son Patricius (not to be confused with Patricius, the lover of Aelia Verina). This enraged the Constantinopolitans, for Patricius was an Arian, and consequently not suitable for the office. Aspar also requested that Patricius be wed to Leo Iís younger daughter, Leontia, but it seems that the emperor did not agree to this. None-the-less, by hailing Patricius Caesar, Leo I made it clear that Asparís son was his successor.

Even with this development, Zeno had not given up hope, and his rivalry with Aspar grew until in 471 Aspar tried to win over Zenos Isaurian soldiers. But this last bit of treachery was his undoing, for Zeno hastened back from the Hunnic war to defend his interests. Historians seem to agree that it was Leo I who ordered the ambush in which Aspar and his youngest son perished. Even though Patricius survived the ambush, he was seriously wounded and was subsequently deprived of both his title and his prospect of a royal marriage. The murder of Aspar was not without consequence to the Romans, for an Ostrogothic chieftain named Theoderic Strabo (ìsquint-eyeî) began to ravage parts of Thrace, and was only persuaded to stop through bribery.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: No coins were struck in the name of Patricius, although a solidus in the name of Leo may portray him on the reverse. The inscription SALVS REIPVBLICAE is followeckby a C, which many scholars believe indicates that the young man on the reverse is a Caesar. The standing figure is a young man, nimbate and wearing a diadem and crown, sometimes on a low dias. Since the obverse bears the name Leo and the title Augustus (D N LEO Perpet AVG), the issue must belong to Leo I or to his grandson, Leo II. The identification of the issuer is paramount in determining who is represented by the standing figure on the reverse.

If the coin was struck by Leo II (Caesar 473ñ474; Augustus in 474), the figure would most certainly be Leo II himself, for it would have to have been struck during his approximately two-week reign as sole Augustus. The authors of RIC put forth this view, with the crux of their argument being that the standing figure is diademed, and must be an Augustus (thus making Patricius, a Caesar, an unlikely candidate).

To this end a comparison may be drawn with certain solidi struck by Basiliscus while Marcus was his Caesar. The reverse depicts two figures enthroned ó the junior figure is bare-headed whereas the senior figure is diademed (thus: Basiliscus Augustus and Marcus Caesar). As important as the diadem is to this issue (on which two people are simultaneously depicted), it alone is not strong enough to contradict the identification of the standing figure as Patricius. The comparison with the solidus of Basiliscus and Marcus, after all, need not be taken too literally, for that coinage was itself highly unorthodox as a joint-issue.

If the solidus was struck by Leo I (as is proposed by the authors of the Dumbarton Oaks catalogue, and as is followed in this catalogue), the figure on the reverse must either be Leo I or his Caesar Patricius. Because the figure is diademed, Leo I has been suggested, but the purposely youthful appearance of the figure makes this highly unlikely. Considering the reverse inscription ends with the otherwise inexplicable letter ëCí (most likely an abbreviation of ëCaesarí), Patricius seems not only to be a likely candidate, but the one to which the inscription refers.

LEO II A.D. 474.

A.D.473ñ474: CAESAR (UNDER LEO I)

A.D.474: JUNIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH LEO I)

A.D.474: SENIOR AUGUSTUS (SOLE REIGN, AND WITH ZENO)

Ruling in the West:

Glycerins (473ñ474) AND JULIUS NEPOS (474ñ475/480)

SON OF ZENO AND AELIA ARIADNE

GRANDSON OF LEO I AND AELIA VERINA

NEPHEW OF LEONTIA (w. OF PATRICIUS)

Leo (II), A.D. 467ñ474. One of the great concerns of the aging Leo I was finding a successor, for his only son had died in 463 while only five months old. He was determined to do this so that civil war would be prevented after his death. He made his first serious attempt in 470, when he raised the son of the German Master of Soldiers Aspar, a young man named Patricius, to the rank of Caesar. However, with the murder of Aspar in 471, the hopes of that family disintegrated.

Now the only viable successors belonged to the family of Zeno, an Isaurian soldier who had become the most important man in Leoís army, and several years earlier had married his eldest daughter, Aelia Ariadne. Together they had a son, also named Leo, who is known to historians as Leo II. When Leo Iís health began to fail late in 473, he announced that his grandson, Leo II, was to be his heir. Leo I bypassed the boyís father, his son-in-law Zeno, because it would have been met with great protestation.

The boy Leo II was hailed Caesar in October, 473. When Leo Iís health failed more dramatically in January, 474, he raised his grandson from Caesar to Augustus. His timing was right, for the aged emperor died a few days later, either in late January or early February of 474. The throne of the Eastern Empire now fell squarely into the hands of the 7-year-old Leo II, who in addition to being young, was also quite sickly.

Aware of the frailty of the situation, the boyís grandmother (Leo Iís widow), Aelia Verina, arranged for her grandson to appoint his own father, Zeno, as his co-emperor. This occurred on February 9, 474, and proved to be prudent, for the Eastern Empire was now in the hands of both father and son. The sickly Leo II died of natural causes (though it was rumored Zeno had killed him) in November of the very same year, thus leaving his father, Zeno, as sole emperor. Although only an emperor in name, the brief reign of Leo II served as the conduit by which power was transferred from Leo I to Zeno.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: No coins were struck for Leo II as Caesar (from October, 473 to January, 474), as the pieces often ascribed to this period actually belong to the Leo Caesar associated with Zeno in the aftermath of the revolt of Basiliscus (for these, see the listing for Leo Caesar, 476ñ477). It is doubtful whether any coins were struck in the name of Leo II during his very brief joint reign with Leo I and his subsequent sole reign (collectively, from January to February 9, 474). Two possibilities, however, are a particular tremissis with a youthful bust (see D.O., p. 172), or the solidus described in the catalog entry for Patricius. Indeed, the coinage of Leo II seems to have been struck exclusively during his joint-reign with Zeno (from February 9 to November, 474). The numismatic evidence makes it quite clear that even though Leo II was merely a child, he held the ìseniorî position of Augustus as compared to his father Zeno. This is demonstrated by his name coming first in the obverse inscription, and by his smaller figure appearing at the more honorable position (on the left from the viewerís perspective) when the seated figures of Leo II and Zeno are shown on the reverse of those coins.

ZENO A.D. 474ñ475 & 476ñ491

A.D. 474: JUNIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH LEO II)

A.D. 474ñ475: FIRST SOLE REIGN

A.D. 475ñ476: DEPOSED

A.D. 476ñ477: AUGUSTUS (WITH LEO CAESAR, AS CAESAR)

A.D. 477ñ491: SECOND SOLE REIGN

Ruling in the West:

GLYCERINS (473ñ474), JULIUS NEPOS (474ñ475/480), Romulus Augustus (475ñ476) AND Odovacar (KING, 476ñ493)

HUSBAND OF AELIA ARIADNE

FATHER OF LEO II

SON-IN-LAW OF LEO I AND AELIA VERINA

BROTHER-IN-LAW OF LEONTIA (w. OF PATRICIUS)

Zeno (earlier Tarasis or Tarasicodissa), c. A.D. 440ñ491. Hailing from an illustrious family in Isauria (south-eastern Asia Minor), the future emperor Zeno came into the service of emperor Leo I, who was trying to rid his capital of the German soldiers led by the Master of Soldiers Aspar.

In 466 Leo began to promote Zeno, who was then going by his birth name Tarasis or Tarasicodissa. In 468 Leo arranged that he marry his eldest daughter, Aelia Ariadne, appointed him Master of Soldiers in Thrace, and made him consul in 469. For these important occasions, he divorced his wife, Arcadia, and changed his name to Zeno in honor of an Isaurian who had achieved high office in recent memory.

Over the next several years Zeno was in conflict with the general Aspar, who managed to have his own son, Patricius, hailed Caesar while Zeno was at war and away from Constantinople. A quick return by Zeno in 471 ended these threats, and resulted in the murder of Aspar and the deposition of Patricius. Shortly before emperor Leo I died in late January or February of 474, heíd hailed Zenoís son (his own grandson), Leo II, coemperor, leaving no doubt who would succeed him. But the child was sickly, and so the widowed Aelia Verina had her son-in-law Zeno hailed co-emperor with her grandson Leo II on February 9, 474. Leo II died within months, and Zeno became sole emperor in November 474.

But Verina soon came to regret her decision to appoint her son-in-law emperor, and she hatched a plot to oust him. She did so by advising him that he must flee Constantinople immediately to avoid the assassinís blade. Believing his mother-in-law spoke truthfully, Zeno fled on January 9, 475, and crossed the Bosporus to Calchedon. Thus, his ìfirst reignî was less than two months long.

With Zeno out of the capital, Verina ordered the slaughter of the Isaurians who remained in Constantinople. Even though the coup was a success due to the treachery of Verina, she was not justly rewarded: she wanted her lover Patricius to be crowned Augustus, but the men in power chose instead her brother, Basiliscus, who soon executed Patricius. Not surprisingly, this act caused Verina to despise her brother, and to turn against him. She then devoted herself to restoring Zeno, so that Basiliscus would pay for his actions.

Basiliscus handled his affairs so incompetently that he required no help to alienate the army, the Church and the people. After more than 19 months in exile, Zeno gained the allegiance of the generals Illus and Armatus, and was able to easily reclaim his throne from Basiliscus late in August of 476. Basiliscus and his family were exiled to Cappadocia and starved to death. According to some accounts, Verina was able to mask her guilt from Zeno, and was thus spared a similar fate because she had helped in the overthrow of Basiliscus.

Zeno was now firmly in control of the Eastern Empire again, and so he began to solve the myriad of problems he faced, not the least of which was a recently emptied treasury. Another problem was a bargain he had made with Armatus, the Master of Soldiers (and nephew) of Basiliscus whom he convinced to switch allegiance. Among the promises he made to Armatus to secure his change of heart was that he would be appointed to a high office, and that his son (then named Basiliscus, though it was later changed to Leo) would be promoted to the rank of Caesar. Armatus was made a consul and given the post of Master of Soldiers of Thrace, and his son was made Caesar in 476.

However, sometime in 477(the year the Vandal Gaiseric died), Zeno decided he could endure no more of Armatusí outrageous behavior, and so he executed him and deposed his son. Another of Zenoís immediate concerns was the western portion of the Empire, which had fallen into a state of disrepair during his absence. The rightful emperor Julius Nepos had fled Italy, which was now in the hands of the German soldier Odovacar. Zeno could do little to restore Nepos, and was forced to abandon the Western Roman Empire. Zeno ceded Italy to Odovacar, who assumed the title of king. The remainder of Zenoís reign ó which extends beyond the scope of this work ó was turbulent and fraught with rebellion. After a disturbed reign of 17 years, Zeno died of natural causes on April 9, 491, and was succeeded by the first Byzantine emperor, Anastasius I.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: Coinage in the name of Zeno occured in several periods. The first coinage is from his joint-reign with Leo II from February 9 to November, 474 (which is covered in the listings of Leo II). His next coinage, belonging to Zenoís brief ëfirst reigní (from November, 474 to January 9, 475), is understandably rare. Since the diagnostics which distinguish these coins from the second reign issues are not consistent or entirely certain, they are not listed separately in this catalog. For discussions of the possible diagnostics, see RIC X, pages 111 and 215, and D.O. pages 174ñ5. For catalog listings, see RIC X, nos. 901ñ3 and 3605ñ6, and D.O. nos. 604ñ5.

During the next phase of Zenoís life, when he was deposed (from January 9, 475 to late August, 476), it appears as though some coinage was struck in his name at Antioch. When Basiliscus was ousted and Zenoís regime was restored (ísecond reigní), a new phase of coinage commenced. Initially Zeno struck coinage jointly with Leo Caesar (from August, 476 to sometime in 477), all of which are covered in the listings of Leo Caesar.

Not surprisingly, it is the coinage from his ësecond reigní following the deposition of Leo Caesar (from 477 to 491) which accounts for the vast majority of Zenoís issues. At Western mints, some of these coins were struck concurrently with issues in the name of Julius Nepos, even though the latter had been in exile in Dalmatia since 476. Naturally, such coins are attributed to mint operations under Odovacar, and the issues in the name of Zeno, thus, are often collected in place of the much rarer issues which bear the western emperorís name. Furthermore, there are imitations of Zenoís solidi and tremisses attributed to the Visigoths (see RIC X, p. 462), and imitations of his nummi (Æ4ís) bearing the monogram of the western Master of Soldiers Gundobad on the reverse which are attributed to the Burgundians (see, respectively, RIC X, p. 464, and the separate listing for Gundobad in this catalog).

Perhaps the most interesting issue in Zenoís name, however, is the rare copper 40-nummus piece (catalog nos. 3818ñ9), the denomination of which is identified by the XL (=40) on the reverse. It comes in two varieties, each of which appear to have been struck with only one pair of dies. It was struck at Rome for only a very brief time, apparently under Odovacar, and seemingly under the auspices of the senate. Though traditionally dated to the end of Zenoís reign (so as to place it as close as possible to the reform of Anastasius I in 498), it more likely belongs to c. 477. On one of the varieties the numeral IIII occurs under Zenoís bust. This could indicate a regnal year rather than an officina, and if so, would lead us exactly to 477/8. This matches well with the historical context, for this was the period in which Odovacar was appealing to Leo I to reign in both the East and West; to which Leo I responded that Julius Nepos was still emperor in the West. These events could easily explain both why the issue was initiated, and why it ceased so quickly.

It clearly was a revival coinage, celebrating the glories of the Roman past. It has a large planchet, individualized portrait, grandiose inscription, an acknowledgement of the senate, and it copies a Flavian reverse type. Undoubtedly it was inspired by a heavily worn asses of Vespasian which had been ìrecycledî for circulation (see the discussion in the Introduction) in the late 5th and early 6th centuries A.D.

AELIA ARIADNE

AUGUSTA, A.D. 474(?)ó515.

WIFE OF ZENO AND ANASTASIUS I (EMPEROR, A.D. 491ñ518) DAUGHTER OF LEO I AND AELIA VERINA

SISTER OF LEONTIA (w. OF PATRICIUS)

MOTHER OF LEO II

NIECE OF BASILISCUS

COUSIN OF MARCUS

(Aelia) Ariadne, d. a.d. 515. A royal lady who was destined to survive nearly six decades as a member of the Imperial family in Constantinople, Aelia Ariadne was the elder daughter of the emperor Leo I and the ever-scheming Aelia Verina. Her first marriage, in 466 or 467, was to the Isaurian soldier Zeno, by whom she had a son named Leo (called Leo II by historians) in 467.

When her father died in 474 the succession fell upon her child Leo II, who was so sickly that his father was proclaimed co-emperor. When the boy died later that same year, her husband, Zeno, became sole-emperor in the East. Throughout all this, Ariadne was hailed Augusta. It is uncertain exactly at which stage this occurred, but it certainly was sometime in 474. In receiving this title, Ariadne had eclipsed the authority of her mother, Verina, who had become accustomed to being the only Augusta in the palace. Thus, Verina s tenure as Augusta began with her being tricked by her own mother into fleeing Constantinople less than two months into her husbandís reign.

When Zenoís reign was restored in the following year (476), she returned with him and replaced her mother as the matriarch of the palace. Regrettably, very little is recorded of her actions thereafter, though they must have been interesting, for her husbandís reign was ever-in-jeopardy. Even though her mother had wronged her, Ariadne fought for her release from exile. Indeed, at one point she plotted against the general Illus because he would not permit her return. In this case Illus came out on the losing end, for he lost one of his ears in the process.

When Zeno died in 491 it fell upon Ariadne and leaders in the army to choose his successor. They decided upon Anastasius I (emperor 491518), a man of considerable talent who not only became emperor, but on May 20, 491, also became Ariadneís second husband. Thus Ariadne had the distinct honor of being both the last empress of the ìRoman Empireî and the first empress of the ìByzantine Empire.î But since these are distinctions made only in the modern age, Verina, who died in 515, was none the wiser.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: Aelia Ariadneís solidi are somewhat unusual for they do not have the customary M anus Dei (hand of God) crowning her from above. This aspect had invited suspicion about the authenticity of all Ariadneís solidi, but the inclusion of one in a Scandanavian find has remedied such doubts. Though the authors of the Dumbarton Oaks catalog place her coins during the first sole reign of Zeno (474ñ475), the authors of RIC argue this is unlikely based on the style of the Victory and the absence of the M anus Dei, which was still present on the solidi of Aelia Zenonis. Instead, Ariadneís solidi more likely belong to the second sole reign of Zeno (477ñ491), with some possibly being struck by her second husband, Anastasius I (491ñ518). The explanation for the latter may be found in their being two distinct groups of her solidi and tremisses, one with a heavy bust, the other with a slight bust.

BASILISCUS A.D. 475ñ476.

A.D. 475: SOLE REIGN

A.D. 475: AUGUSTUS (WITH MARCUS, AS CAESAR)

A.D. 475ñ476: SENIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH MARCUS)

A.D. 475: SOLE REIGN

A.D. 475: AUGUSTUS (WITH MARCUS, AS CAESAR)

A.D. 475ñ476: SENIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH MARCUS)

Ruling in the West:

JULIUS NEPOS (474ñ475/480) AND Romulus Augustus (475ñ476)

BROTHER OF AELIA VERINA

HUSBAND OF AELIA ZENONIS

FATHER OF MARCUS

BROTHER-IN-LAW OF LEO I

UNCLE OF AELIA ARIADNE AND LEONTIA (w. OF PATRICIUS)

Basiliscus, d. A.D. 477. Although the succession of Zeno through his son, Leo II, was legitimate, the new emperor was unpopular. Furthermore, Zenoís mother-in-law, Aelia Verina (who had arranged his succession), wanted to be rid of him. The unpopularity of Zeno made a revolt imminent, and it was engineered by Verina, who tricked Zeno into fleeing Constantinople on January 9, 475.

Though her scheme worked perfectly, her follow-up plan failed. The senate did not approve of her substitute candidate, her lover Patricius (not the same Patricius as was Caesar from 470ñ471), and her brother, Basiliscus, took advantage of the chaos to claim the throne for himself. Basiliscus and Patricius soon quarreled, and the latter was executed. Considering his sister had perhaps single-handedly created Basiliscusí career, and then supported him in the aftermath of his monumental loss of the Roman armada in 468, his selfish actions would appear unjustified.

This whole turn of events deeply angered Verina, who turned her fury against her brother. This was the last thing Basiliscus needed, for he was scarcely more popular than the emperor he had replaced. Adding to his woes was a terribly destructive fire in Constantinople that, among many other buildings, destroyed important repositories for manuscripts and ancient Greek sculptures. He managed to alienate the religious establishment by coming out in support of the Monophysites, who were very much out of favor in their belief that Christ had only a single nature. And, as if all this werenít enough, through some foolish decisions Basiliscus alienated his two leading generals, the Ostrogothic Master of Soldiers Theoderic Stabo, and the Isaurian Illus.

Amid all this, Aelia Verina began to lobby for Zenoís return, and as a result was forced into hiding to avoid the wrath of her brother. In due course Basiliscus associated his wife and son with his regime. His wife, Aelia Zenonis, was presumably hailed Augusta upon his takeover in January, 475. His son, Marcus, was given the rank Caesar late in the summer of 475, and apparently within weeks was raised to the rank of co-Augustus (from late summer 475 to August 476). Having alienated his leading generals, his sister, the religious hierarchy (who, when the tide turned against him, he tried to lure back by making a retraction to his earlier comments), Basiliscus was without allies.

Zeno gained the allegiance of both Illus and Armatus and marched into Constantinople unopposed late in August 476. Thus ended Basiliscusí 20-month usurpation. As a consequence, Basiliscus, his son, Marcus, and the rest of his family were exiled to Cappadocia, where they were cruelly starved to death in the following year. When their surrender had been negotiated, Zeno had promised not to ìshed their blood,î and so he determined that through a bloodless death by starvation he could both keep his promise and kill them.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: Basiliscusí coins were struck at mints under his control in the East, as well as at Italian mints during the usurpation of Romulus Augustus. His issues fall into three categories: his sole reign (January to late summer 475), his reign with Marcus as Caesar (late summer!?] 475), and his reign with Marcus as co-Augustus (late summer 475 to August 476). Issues of the latter two are cataloged under the listings for Marcus.

AELIA ZENONIS

AUGUSTA, A. D. 475ñ476.

WIFE OF BASILISCUS

SISTER-IN-LAW OF LEO I AND AELIA VERINA

MOTHER OF MARCUS

(Aelia) Zenonis, d. A.D. 477. Aelia Zenonis was the unfortunate bride of Basiliscus ó a man who knew nothing but dishonor in the later years of his life. She apparently was hailed Augusta in January, 475 during the first days of her husbandís revolt against Zeno.

The story of Zenonis is an interesting one, for during the revolt we are told that she fell in love with her husbandís nephew, Armatus. Their suffering, as one contemporary historian reports, ìwas finally cured by the medicine of copulation.î Wishing only success for her handsome young lover, Zenonis persuaded her husband to appoint him to the high offices of consul and Master of Soldiers of Thrace, which infuriated the other Master of Soldiers, the Ostrogoth Theoderic Strabo (ìsquint-eyeî).

By all contemporary accounts, Armatus was a megalomaniac who paraded in the streets on horseback, claimed to be descended from the Greek hero Achilles, and had earned the derogatory name Pyrrhus (ìpink cheeksî) from the populace. When Basiliscus sent Armatus to hunt down Zeno (who was in exile in Isauria), the latterís generous promises caused Armatus to switch his allegiance. Upon regaining his throne, Zeno initially kept his promises to Armatus, but soon realized his mistake and had him executed. As for Armatusí adulterous lover, Aelia Zenonis, she had already been exiled to Cappadocia where she starved to death with her husband and sons.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: All of Aelia Zenonisí coins ó seemingly limited to gold solidi and copper nummi ó are of great rarity, and were struck by her husband, Basiliscus.

MARCUS A.D. 475ñ476

A.D. 475: Caesar (under Basiliscus)

A.D. 475ñ476: JUNIOR AUGUSTUS (WITH BASILISCUS)

Ruling in the West:

JULIUS NEPOS (474ñ475/480) AND Romulus Augustus (475ñ476)

SON OF BASILISCUS AND AELIA ZENONIS

NEPHEW OF LEO I AND AELIA VERINA

COUSIN OF AELIA ARIADNE AND LEONTIA (w. OF PATRICIUS)

Marcus, d. A.D. 477. Of Marcus we know very little. He was the eldest son of the usurper Basiliscus, and he had two younger brothers, whose names are not recorded, and who are sometimes mistakenly associated with the coinage that is properly attributed to Leo Caesar, who served under the emperor Zeno.

His fatherís revolt began opportunistically, for the original rebellion had been staged by his sister, Aelia Verina. But once this had occurred, Basiliscus seized the opportunity to become emperor, even though it was at the expense of his sisterís desire to place her own candidate on the throne. Not only did Basiliscus have the exiled emperor Zeno as an enemy, but he also could count his enraged sister as a foe. Further still, Basiliscus was unpopular among the religious leadership, the people and the army. It seems a miracle his regime ever got off the ground.

One of his first steps was to hail his wife, Aelia Zenonis, as Augusta. Late in the summer of that same year, 475, Basiliscus raised his son, Marcus, to the rank of Caesar. This arrangement seems to have lasted for only a few weeks before the young man was raised to Augustus. Within days of Basiliscus taking this step, Julius Nepos had taken flight in the West. Marcus held the rank of Augustus with his father into the next year, until they were deposed by Zeno late in August, 476. Along with the rest of his family, Marcus was exiled to Cappadocia, where he was starved to death in the following year.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: Just as with the succeeding issues of Zeno and Leo Caesar, it was a highly unusual practice that joint-issue coins were struck. Typically, coins devoted to the Augustus and to the Caesar were struck separately. Coins were struck for Marcus both while he was Caesar in 475 and while he was Augustus from the late summer of 475 until August, 476. In the former case, the coins are solidi with C at the end of the obverse inscription (which draw a parallel, perhaps, to the solidi attributed in this volume to Patricius), and in the latter, the inscription ends with AVG. All gold for Marcus was struck at Constantinople, though the Ai4s that bear his combined monogram with Basiliscus were struck at three mints at the very least.

LEO CAESAR

CAESAR, A.D. 476ñ477 (UNDER ZENO)

ADOPTED CAESAR OF ZENO

SON OF ARMATUS (NEPHEWOF THE USURPER BASILISCUS)

Leo (formerly Basiliscus), d. A.D. 477(?). The fugitive emperor Zeno made many promises while raising the support necessary to regain his throne. Among these were two he made to gain the allegiance of Armatus, the Master of Soldiers and the nephew of the usurper Basiliscus. The first was that Armatus himself would be appointed to a high office, and the second was that his son (then named Basiliscus) would be raised to the rank of Caesar.

When the usurper Basiliscus was overthrown in August of 476, Zeno re-established himself as emperor in Constantinople. Zeno honored his promises to Armatus and his son, but soon realized his error and sometime in 477 executed his fair-weather friend, and deposed his son, the Nobilissimus Caesar (ìmost noble Caesarî). The execution, however, occurred several months after Armatusí son had been hailed Caesar. Since the childís original name, Basiliscus, was the same as the recently deposed usurper, it was necessary to change it. Thus, the childís name was changed to Leo, and it appears in that form on the rare coins attributed to his brief political career. There is no literary evidence to suggest the boy, Basiliscus, changed his name to Leo, but in this case the numismatic record seems to offer what the written histories do not.

NUMISMATIC NOTE: Just as with the virtually contemporary issues of Basiliscus and Marcus, it was uncommon that joint-issue coins were struck. In this and many other references, this particular Leo is given the added name Nobilissimus Caesar to readily distinguish him from the two previous emperors of that name.

These issues have long been controversial, and though several options for their attribution exist, only two have merit. The first is that Zeno and Leo are the two younger sons of the usurper Basiliscus (whose names, regrettably, are not preserved in the ancient sources). Though plausible, the evidence against this theory far outweighs any argument for it. The second option (first postulated in 1822 by the French numismatist Baron Marchant) is convincingly argued by the authors of the Dumbarton Oaks catalog, and is thus adopted here.

Of great interest to this series, and to the theory itself, is the identification of a die of Basiliscus and Marcus that mint workers re-cut with the inscription of Zeno and Leo Caesar. If Basiliscus had been producing coins for his two youngest sons, it seems unlikely that he would have re-cut one of his own functional dies rather than create a fresh one. Conversely, it is probable that Zeno would have re-cut and recycled dies of Basiliscus upon his return.

There are other compelling argument as well. Firstly, if both Zeno and Leo were Caesars, it would be unprecedented for the era that there would be no mention of Basiliscus on the coinage, for he was the reigning Augustus. Secondly, there is ample literary evidence of Basiliscusí son Marcusí being hailed Caesar, yet there is no mention of his two younger brothers holding that title. Finally, and most potently, the D N and the CAES in the obverse inscriptions refer to a single Augustus and a single Caesar, not to two Caesars.

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This bibliography principally contains works on Roman, history and coinage, though certain important references from related fields are included. When a reference is more readily located by its name or abbreviation than by the name of its author, it is listed in that manner.

The following list is far from comprehensive, and the reader should consult Dennis Krohís Ancient Coin Reference Reviews (Florida, 1993) for evaluations of major works, and Elvira Clain-Stefanelliís Numismatic Bibliography (Munich, 1985) for a comprehensive listing of numismatic works published up through 1985.

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(Getty) Ancient Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum, Volume I (Malibu, 1987).

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óó. Regalianus und Dryantilla. Dokumentation, Münzen, Texte, Epigraphisches (Vienna, 1970).

Gordon, C.D. The Age of Attila (New York, 1993, reprint of 1960).

Grant, Michael. Aspects of the Principate Tiberius (ANS NNM 116, New York, 1950).

óó. Art in the Roman Empire (London and New York, 1995).

óó. From Imperiumto Auctoritas, a Historical Study of the AES Coinage in the Roman Empire, 49 B.C.-A.D. 14 (Cambridge, 1946).

óó. History of Rome (New York, 1978).

óó. Roman Anniversary Issues: An exploratory study of the numismatic and medallic commemoration of anniversary years 49 B.C.-A.D. 375 (Cambridge, 1950).

óó. Roman Imperial Money (London, Edinburgh and New York, 1954).

óó. The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition (New York and London, 1994).

óó. The Army of the Caesars (New York, 1974).

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Harlan, Michael. Roman Republican Moneyers and Their Coinage, 63 B.C.-49 B.C. (London, 1995).

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Hendin, David. Guide to Biblical Coins (3rd ed., New York, 1996).

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Hill, Philip V. The Coinage ofSeptimius Severus and his Family of the Mint of Rome, A.D. 193ñ217 (London, 1977).

óó. The Dating and Arrangement of the Undated Coins of Rome, A.D. 98ñ148 (London, 1970).

óó. The Monuments of Ancient Rome as Coin Types (London, 1989).

Howgego, C.J. Greek Imperial Countermarks (London, 1985).

(Hunter) Roman Imperial Coins in the Hunter Coin Cabinet. University of Glasgow (5 vols., by Anne Robertson, Oxford, 1962ñ82).

Imhoof-Blumer, F. and P. Gardner. Ancient Coins Illustrating Lost Masterpieces of Greek Art (reprint: Chicago, 1964).

Kadman, Leo. The Coins of Akko Ptolemais (Schocken, 1961).

óó. The Coins of Caesarea Maritima (Jerusalem, 1957).

óó. The Coins of the Jewish War, 66ñ73 A.D. (Jerusalem, 1960).

von Kaenel, Hans-Markus. Münzprägung und Münzbildnis des Claudius (Berlin, 1986).

Kent, J.P.C., M. Hirmer and A. Hirmer. Roman Coins (London, 1978).

Kindler, A. The Coinage of Bostra (Warminster, 1983).

Klawans, Zander H. Imitations and Inventions of Roman Coins: Renaissance Medals of Julius Caesar and the Roman Empire (Santa Monica, 1977).

óó. Reading and Dating Roman Imperial Coins (1959, Racine, WI).

Kraay, C. M. The A es Coinage of Galba (ANS NNM 133, New York, 1956).

Kraft, Konrad. Das system der Kaiserzeitliche münzprägung in Kleinasien, materialien und Entwürfe (Berlin, 1972).

Lacam, G. La Fin de LíEmpire Romain et Le Monnayage or en Italie, 455ñ493 (2 vols., Lucerne, 1983).

(Levante) Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum Switzerland I: Levante-Cilicia (with Supplement I), by Eduardo Levante (Berne, 1986; supplement, 1993).

Lindgren, H.C. Ancient Greek Bronze Coins: European Mints (California, 1985).

óó and Frank Kovacs. Ancient Bronze Coins of Asia Minor and the Levant from the Lindgren Collection (California, 1985).

(LRBC) Late Roman Bronze Coinage, A.D. 324ñ498 by R.A.G. Carson, Philip Hill and J.P.C. Kent (reprint: London, 1965).

MacDowall, David W. The Western Coinages of Nero (ANS NNM 161, New York, 1979).

Martin, Peter-Hugo. Die anonymen Münzen des Jahres 68 nach Christus (Mainz, 1974).

Mattingly, Harold. Roman Coins From the Earliest Times to the Fall of the Western Empire (London, 1928).

Mazzini, G. Monete imperiale romane (5 vols., Milan, 1957ñ8).

(MEC) Medieval European Coinage, Volume I, The Early Middle Ages (5thñ10th centuries), by Philip Grierson and Mark Blackburn (Cambridge, 1986).

Melville-Jones, John. A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins (London, 1990).

Meshorer, Yaíakov. Ancient Jewish Coinage (2 vols., New York, 1982).

óó. The Coinage of Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem, 1989).

Metcalf, William E. The Cistophori of Hadrian (ANS NS 15, New York, 1980).

óó. The Silver Coinage of Cappadocia, Vespasian-Commodus (ANS NNM 166, New York, 1996).

Mildenberg, Leo. The Coinage of the Bar Kokhba War (Salzburg, 1984).

Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337(Cambridge and London, 1993).

Milne, J.G. Catalogue of Alexandrian Coins (London, 1971; reprint of 1933 with supplement).

Mionnet, Théodore-Edme. Descriptiondes médailles antiques, greques et romaines (7 vols., 9 supp, vols., 1806ñ37; 16-vol. Graz reprint 1972ñ3).

Oxford Classical Dictionary, The. Hornblower, S. and Spawforth, A., eds. (3rd ed., Oxford, 1996).

Oost, Stewart Irvin. Galla Placidia Augusta: A Biographical Essay (Chicago, 1968).

Paulys Real. Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (multi-volume, Stuttgart, 1894 onward)

Penn, R.G. Medicine on Ancient Greek and Roman Coins (London, 1994).

Price, Martin J. and Bluma Trell. Coins and Their Cities (London, 1977).

(RIC) The Roman Imperial Coinage, various authors. (10 vols., 1923ñ1994, with reprints).

Richter, G.M.A. The Portraits of the Greeks (Ithica, 1984).

Ridgeway, W. The Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight Standards (New York, 1976; reprint of 1892).

Rosenberger, M. The Rosenberger Israel Collection (4 vols., Jerusalem, 1972ñ1974).

(RPC) Roman Provincial Coinage, Volume I (with Supplement I), by Andrew Burnett, Michel Amandry and Pere Pau Ripollès. (London and Paris, 1992; reprinted 1998 with a supplement).

(RSC) Roman Silver Coins, various authors. (5 vols., 1952ñ1987 with reprints).

Sayles, Wayne G. Ancient Coin Collecting, (vols. 1,3 and 4, Iola, WI, 1996).

Scarre, Chris. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors (New York, 1995).

Schiel, N. The Episode of Carausius and Allectus: the literary and numismatic evidence (Oxford, 1977).

Sear, David R. Greek Imperial Coins and Their Values: The Local Coinages of the Roman Empire (London, 1982).

óó. The History and Coinage of the Roman Imperators, 49ñ27 B.C. (London, 1998).

óó. Roman Coins and Their Values (4th revised ed., London, 1988).

Seyffert, Oskar. The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Religion, Literature and Art (New York, 1995, reprint of 1891 original entitled The Dictionary of Classical Antiquities).

Spaulding, O.L. and H. Nickerson. Ancient and Medieval Warfare (New York, 1993; originally entitled Warfare).

Spijkerman, A. The Coins of the Decapolis and Provincia Arabia (Jerusalem, 1978).

Stevenson, Seth W. A Dictionary of Roman Coins: Republican and Imperial (London, 1964; reprint of 1889 original).

Stoneman, Richard. Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobiaís Revolt Against Rome (Ann Arbor, 1994).

Stumpf, Gerd R. Numismatische Studien zur Chronologie der Römischen Statthalter in Kleinasien (122v. Chr.ñ163 n.Chr.) (Saarbrücken, 1991).

Sutherland, C. H. V. Coinagein Roman Imperial Policy, 31 B.C.-A.D. 68 (London, 1951).

óó. Roman Coins (London and New York, 1974).

óó. Roman History and Coinage 44 B.C.-A.D. 69, Fifty Points of Relation from Julius Caesar to Vespasian (Oxford, 1987).

óó and N. Olçay and K.E. Merrington. The Cistophori of Augustus (London, 1970).

Sydenham, E. A. The Coinage of Caesarea in Cappadocia (New York, 1978; reprint of 1933 with supp.).

óó. The Coinage of the Roman Republic (London, 1952).

óó. Historical references on coins of the Roman Empire from Augustus to Gallienus (London, 1917).

Syme, R. The Roman Revolution (Oxford, 1939).

Szaivert, W. Die Münzprägung der Kaiser Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus und Commodus (Vienna, 1986).

Tonybee, Jocelyn M. C. Roman Historical Portraits (London, 1978).

óó. Roman Medallions (ANS NS no. 5, New York, 1944).

(Traité) Traité des monnaies grecques et romaines, by Ernst Babelon. (9 vols., Paris, 1901ñ1932).

Troxell, Hyla A. The Coinage of the Lycian League (ANS NNM 162, New York, 1982).

Ulrich-Bansa, Oscar, Jr. Moneta Mediolanensis (352ñ498) (Venice, 1949).

Voegtli, Hans. Bilder der Heldenpenen in der Kaiserzeitlichen Griechischen münzprägung ( Basel, 1977).

Walker, D.R. Metrology of the Roman Silver Coinage (3 parts, Oxford, 19768).

Who Was Who in the Roman World. Bowder, Diana, ed. (Ithica, NY, 1980).

Wruck, W. Die Syrische Provinzialprägung von Augustus bis Traian (Stuttgart, 1931).

Other Sources:

Among the most important sources are festschrifts, which are collections of essays, usually in honor of a scholar. Examples include: Scripta Nummaria Romana: Essays Presented to Humphrey Sutherland (London, 1978), Essays in Roman Coinage Presented to Harold Mattingly (Oxford, 1956), Studies in Greek Numismatics in Memory of Martin Jessop Price (London, 1998).

Equally useful are journals, of which a great many exist, ranging from those intended mainly for the collector (such as the monthly magazine The Celator) to those containing scholarly articles (such as the Numismatic Chronicle, the Swiss Numismatic Review, the American Numismatic Society Museum Notes (continued as the American Journal of Numismatics), and others which offer both (such as the Journal of the Society of Ancient Numismatics).

INDEX OF PEOPLE AND SECTIONS (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER) (VOLUME I AND VOLUME II )

1. Aelius (Caesar, A.D. 136ñ138) [I]236, [II] 353.

2. Aemilian (Augustus, A.D. 253) [I]342, [II] 435.

3. Agrippa (lieutenant of Augustus) [I]107, [II] 233.

4. Agrippa Postumus (grandson of Augustus) [I]111, [II] 236.

5. Agrippina Junior (wife of Claudius, mother of Nero) [I]161, [II] 274.

6. Agrippina Senior (wife of Germanicus) [I]138, [II] 257.

7. Ahenobarbus (Imperator, 42 B.C.) [I] 66, [II] 202.

8. Alexander of Carthage (Augustus, A.D. 308ñ310) [I]455, [II] 521.

9. Allectus (Augustus, A.D. 293ñ296/7) [I]407, [II] 483.

10. Alypia (daughter of Anthemius and Aelia Euphemia) [I]573, [II] 600.

11. Amandus (Augustus, c. A.D. 285ñ286) [I]428, [II] 497.

12. Anonymous Quadrantes (seeQuadrantes, Anonymous).

13. Anthemius (Augustus, A.D. 467ñ472) [I]570, [II] 598.

14. Antinoiis (companion of Hadrian) [I]237, [II] 354.

15. Antonia (wife of Nero Claudius Drusus) [I]134, [II] 252.

16. Antonia, Claudia (daughter of Claudius) [I]156, [II] 270.

17. Antoninus (see ëCaracallaí and ëElagabalusí).

18. Antoninus, Aurelius (son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina Junior) [I] 246, [II] 368.

19. Antoninus, Galerius (son of Antoninus Pius and Faustina Senior) [I] 241, [II] 362.

20. Antoninus Pius (Augustus, A.D. 138ñ161) [I]238, [II] 355 .

21. Antonius, Gaius (brother of Marc Antony) [I]79, [II] 211.

22. Antonius, Lucius (brother of Marc Antony) [I]80, [II] 212.

23. Antonius, Marcus (seeMarc Antony).

24. Antonius Junior, Marcus (son of Marc Antony and Fulvia) [I] 82, [II] 213.

25. Arcadius (Augustus, A.D. 383ñ408) [I]590, [II] 609.

26. Ariadne, Aeilia (wife of Zeno) [I]610, [II] 622.

27. Augustus (Octavian) (Augustus, 27 B.C.ñA.D. 14) [I] 96, [II] 217.

28. Aurelian (Augustus, A.D. 270ñ275) [I]364, [II] 453.

29. Aureolus (usurper, A.D. 267(?)ñ 268) [I]389, [II] 472.

30. Avitus (Augustus, A.D. 455ñ456) [I]564, [II] 595.

31. Balbinus (Augustus, A.D. 238) [I]322, [II] 416.

32. Basiliscus (Augustus, A.D. 475ñ476) [I]612, [II] 623.

33. Britannicus (son of Claudius) [I]159, [II] 272.

34. Brutus (Imperator, 43ñ42 B.C.) [I] 56, [II] 197.

35. Caesar (seeJulius Caesar, Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Nero Caesar, Drusus Caesar and Leo Caesar).

36. Caesonia (wife of ëCaligulaí) [I]147, [II] 264.

37. Caesarion (seePtolemy XV).

38. Caius Caesar (seeGaius Caesar).

39. ëCaligulaí (Gaius) (Augustus, A.D. 37ñ41) [I]143, [II] 261.

40. Calvinus (Imperator, B.C.) [I] 64, [II] 202.

41. ëCaracallaí (Antoninus) (Augustus, A.D. 198ñ217) [I]276, [II] 391.

42. Carausius (Augustus, A.D. 286/7ñ293) [I]404, [II] 481.

43. Carinus (Augustus, A.D. 283ñ285) [I]378, [II] 463.

44. Carus (Augustus, A.D. 282ñ283) [I]377, [II] 462.

45. Cassius (Imperator, 43ñ42 B.C.) [I] 60, [II] 200.

46. Civil War Coinages [II] 287.

47. Civilis, Julius (rebel, A.D. 69ñ70) [I]200, [II] 303.

48. Clara, Didia (daughter of Didius Julianus) [I]262, [II] 380.

49. Claudius (Augustus, A.D. 41ñ54) [I]151, [II] 266.

50. Claudius ir Gothicusí(Augustus, A.D. 268ñ270) [I]361, [II] 451.

51. Cleopatra VII (Queen of Egypt, 51ñ30 B.C.) [I] 85, [II] 215.

52. Clodius Albinus (Augustus, A.D. 195ñ197) [I]264, [II] 382.

53. Clodius Macer (rebel, A.D. 68) [I] 183, [II] 292.

54. Commodus (Augustus, A.D. 177ñ192) [I]251, [II] 372.

55. Constans (Augustus, A.D. 337ñ350) [I]497, [II] 550.

56. Constans II (Augustus, A.D. 409/10ñ411) [I]546, [II] 586.

57. Constantia (wife of Licinius I) [I]468, [II] 525.

58. Constantine I ëthe Greatí (Augustus, A.D. 307ñ337) [I]473, [II] 533.

59. Constantine II (Augustus, A.D. 337ñ340) [I]494, [II] 547.

60. Constantine III (Augustus, A.D. 407ñ411) [I]544, [II] 585.

61. Constantinian Era Commemoratives [II] 528.

62. Constantius I ëChlorusí (Augustus, A.D. 305ñ306) [I]435, [II] 504.

63. Constantius II (Augustus, A.D. 337ñ361) [I]500, [II] 553.

64. Constantius III (Augustus, A.D. 421) [I]553, [II] 589.

65. Constantius Gallus (Caesar, A.D. 351ñ354) [I]518, [II] 561.

66. Cornuficius (Imperator, 42 B.C.) [I] 63, [II] 201.

67. Crassus (Triumvir, 60ñ53 B.C.) [I] 35, [II] 187.

68. Crispina (wife of Commodus) [I]253, [II] 375.

69. Crispus (Caesar, A.D. 316ñ326) [I]489, [II] 543.

70. Decentius (Caesar, A.D. 350ñ353) [I]513, [II] 558.

71. Delmatius (Caesar, A.D. 335ñ337) [I]491, [II] 545.

72. Diadumenian (Augustus, A.D. 218) [I]289, [II] 399.

73. Didius Julianus (Augustus, A.D. 193) [I]260, [II] 379.

74. Diocletian (Augustus, A.D. 284ñ305) [I]416, [II] 485.

75. Divi Series of Trajan Decius [II] 428.

76. Divided Empire, a Brief Introduction to (historical text) [I] 527 .

77. Domitia (wife of Domitian) [I]220, [II] 327.

78. Domitian (Augustus, A.D. 81ñ96) [I]216, [II] 321.

79. Domitian, Deified Son of Vl/222, [II] 329.

80. Domitianus (Augustus, A.D. 269(?) or 271(?))Vl/393, [II] 474.

81. Domitilla the Elder (wife of Vespasian) [I]210, [II] 312.

82. Domitilla the Younger (daughter of Vespasian) [I]211, [II] 312.

83. Domitius Domitianus (Augustus, c. A.D. 296ñ297/8) [I]428, [II] 498.

84. Domna, Julia (wife of Septimius Severus) [I]273, [II] 389.

85. Drusilla (sister of ëCaligulaí) [I]149, [II] 264.

86. Drusilla Minor (daughter of ëCaligulaí) [I]148, [II] 264.

87. Drusus (son of Tiberius) [I]122, [II] 246.

88. Drusus Caesar (son of Germanicus and Agrippina Senior) [I]142, [II] 260.

89. Dryantilla (wife of Regalianus) [I]360, [II] 449.

90. Dynastic Portrait Coinage of the Severans (seeSeveran Dynastic Portrait Coinage).

91. ëElagabalusí (Antoninus) (Augustus, A.D. 218ñ222) [I]295, [II] 403.

92. Etruscilla, Herennia (wife of Trajan Decius) [I]336, [II] 430.

93. Eudocia, Aelia (wife of Theodosius II) [I]597, [II] 614.

94. Eudoxia, Aelia (wife of Arcadius) [I]592, [II] 610.

95. Eudoxia, Licinia (wife of Valentinian III) [I]561, [II] 594.

96. Eugenius (Augustus, A.D. 392ñ394) [I]540, [II] 583.

97. Euphemia, Aelia (wife of Anthemius) [I]572, [II] 599.

98. Fausta (wife of Constantine I) [I]487, [II] 542.

99. Faustina, Annia (third wife of ëElagabalusí) [I]301, [II] 406.

100. Faustina Junior (wife of Marcus Aurelius) [I]244, [II] 366.

101. Faustina Senior (wife of Antoninus Pius) [I]240, [II] 360.

102. Festival of Isis Coinage [II] 566.

103. Flaccus (Imperator, 83ñ82 B.C.) [I]33, [II] 186.

104. Flaccilla, Aelia (wife of Theodosius I) [I]589, [II] 608.

105. Flavius Victor (Augustus, A.D. 387ñ388) [I]539, [II] 582.

106. Florian (Augustus, A.D. 276) [I]371, [II] 458.

107. Fulvia (third wife of Marc Antony) [I]81, [II] 212.

108. Gaius (see ëCaligulaí).

109. Gaius Caesar (grandson of Augustus) [I]109, [II] 234.

110. Galba (Augustus, A.D. 68ñ69) [I]184, [II] 293.

111. Galerius (Augustus, A.D. 305ñ311) [I]430, [II] 499.

112. Galerius Antoninus (seeAntoninus, Galerius).

113. Gallienus (Augustus, A.D. 253ñ268) [I]349, [II] 441.

114. Gallus, Asinius (potential successor of Augustus) [I]112, [II] 237.

115. Gemellus (seeGermanicus Gemellus and Tiberius Gemellus).

116. Germanicus (son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia) [I]136, [II] 254.

117. Germanicus Gemellus (son of Drusus and Livilla) [I]129, [II] 249.

118. Geta (Augustus, A.D. 209ñ211) [I]283, [II] 396.

119. Glycerius (Augustus, A.D. 473ñ474) [I]575, [II] 601.

120. Gordian I (Augustus, A.D. 238) [I]317, [II] 413.

121. Gordian II (Augustus, A.D. 238) [I]319, [II] 414.

122. Gordian III (Augustus, A.D. 238ñ244) [I]324, [II] 417.

123. Gratian (Augustus, A.D. 367ñ383) [I]535, [II] 578.

124. Great Persecution, Pagan Coinage of (seePagan Coinage of the Great Persecution).

125. Gundobad (Master of Soldiers, A.D. 472ñ474) [I]576, [II] 602.

126. Hadrian (Augustus, A.D. 117ñ138) [I]233, [II] 348.

127. Hanniballianus (Rex Regum, A.D. 335ñ337) [I]492, [II] 546.

128. Helena (first wife(?) of Constantius I) [I]438, [II] 509.

129. Herennius Etruscus (Augustus, A.D. 251) [I]336, [II] 431.

130. Honoria (sister of Valentinian III) [I]560, [II] 593.

131. Honorius (Augustus, A.D. 393ñ423) [I]541, [II] 583.

132. Hostilian (Augustus, A.D. 251) [I]337, [II] 432.

133. ëInterregnum Bronzes,í So-Called [II] 456.

134. Isis, Festival of (seeFestival of Isis Coinage).

135. Johannes (Augustus, A.D 423ñ425) [I]556, [II] 591.

136. Jotapian (Augustus, c. A.D. 248ñ249(?)) [I]332, [II] 426.

137. Jovian (Augustus, A.D. 363ñ364) [I]525, [II] 565.

138. Jovinus (Augustus, A.D 411ñ413) [I]550, [II] 588.

139. Julia (daughter of Augustus) [I]104, [II] 232.

140. Julia, Livia (daughter of Drusus and Livilla) [I]126.

141. Julian of Pannonia (Augustus, A.D. 284ñ285) [I]383, [II] 468.

142. Julian II ëthe Apostateí (Augustus, A.D. 360ñ363) [I]519, [II] 563.

143. Julius Caesar (Triumvir 60ñ53 B.C., Dictator For Life, 44 B.C.) [I] 45, [II] 191.

144. Julius Nepos (Augustus, A.D. 474ñ475 and 477ñ480) [I]577, [II] 602.

145. Labienus (Imperator Parthicus, 40/39 B.C.) [I]70, [II] 204.

146. Laelianus (Augustus, A.D. 269) [I]391, [II] 473.

147. Leo I (Augustus, A.D. 457ñ474) [I]600, [II] 616.

148. Leo II (Augustus, A.D. 474) [I]606, [II] 619.

149. Leo Caesar (Caesar, A.D. 476ñ477) [I]615, [II] 626.

150. Lepidus (Triumvir, 43ñ36 B.C.) [I]72, [II] 205.

151. Libius Severus (Severus III) (Augustus, A.D. 461ñ465) [I]567, [II] 597.

152. Licinianus, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi [I]179.

153. Licinius I (Augustus, A.D. 308ñ324) [I]464, [II] 523.

154. Licinius II (Caesar, A.D. 317ñ324) [I]469, [II] 526.

155. Livia (wife of Augustus) [I]114, [II] 238 *.

156. Livia Julia (seeJulia, Livia).

157. Livilla (wife of Drusus) [I]124, [II] 247.

158. Livilla, Julia (sister of ëCaligulaí) [I]150, [II] 265.

159. Lucilla (wife of Lucius Verus) [I]249, [II] 371.

160. Lucius Caesar (grandson of Augustus) [I]110, [II] 235.

161. Lucius Verus (Augustus, A.D. 161ñ169) [I]248, [II] 369.

162. Macrianus (Augustus, A.D. 260ñ261) [I]358, [II] 447.

163. Macrinus (Augustus, A.D. 217ñ218) [I]287, [II] 398.

164. Maesa, Julia (sister of Julia Domna) [I]291, [II] 401.

165. Magnentius (Augustus, A.D. 350ñ353) [I]510, [II] 556.

166. Magnus Maximus (Augustus, A.D. 383ñ388) [I]538, [II] 581.

167. Majorian (Augustus, A.D. 457ñ461) [I]566, [II] 596.

168. Mamaea, Julia (mother of Severus Alexander) [I]303, [II] 407.

169. Marc Antony (Marcus Antonius) (Triumvir, 43ñ33 B.C.) [I] 74, [II] 207.

170. Marc Antony and Octavian (dual-portrait coinage) [II] 210.

171. Marcellus (nephew of Augustus) [I]106, [II] 232.

172. Marcian (Augustus, A.D. 450ñ457) [I]599, [II] 614.

173. Marciana (sister of Trajan) [I]232, [II] 346.

174. Marcus (Augustus, A.D. 475ñ476) [I]614, [II] 625.

175. Marcus Aurelius (Augustus, A.D. 161ñ180) [I]242, [II] 362.

176. Mariniana (wife of Valerian I) [I]349, [II] 440.

177. Marinus, Julius (father of Philip I) [I]330, [II] 425.

178. Marius (Augustus, A.D. 269) [I]393, [II] 474.

179. Martinian (Augustus, A.D. 324) [I]471, [II] 527.

180. Matidia (daughter of Marciana) [I]232, [II] 347.

181. Maxentius (Augustus, A.D. 307ñ312) [I]447, [II] 517.

182. Maximian (Augustus, A.D. 286ñ310) [I]422, [II] 490.

183. Maximinus IëThraxí (Augustus, A.D. 235ñ238) [I]314, [II] 411.

184. Maximinus II ëDaiaí (Augustus, A.D. 310ñ313) [I]442, [II] 513.

185. Maximus (Caesar, A.D. 235/6ñ238) [I]316, [II] 412.

186. Maximus (Augustus, A.D. 409ñ411) [I]547, [II] 586.

187. Maximus, Magnus (seeMagnus Maximus).

188. Messalina, Statilia (third wife of Nero) [I]173, [II] 285.

189. Messalina, Valeria (third wife of Claudius) [I]157, [II] 271.

190. Metellus Pius (Imperator, 81 B.C.) [I]34, [II] 187.

191. Metellus Pius Scipio (Imperator 49 B.C.(?)) [I]55, [II] 196.

192. Mines, Coins of [II] 332.

193. Mucianus, Gaius Licinius Crassus [I]179.

194. Murcus (Imperator, c. 45ñ42 B.C.) [I]65, [II] 202.

195. Nepotian (Augustus, A.D. 350) [I]516, [II] 560.

196. Nero (Augustus, A.D. 54ñ68) [I]164, [II] 277.

197. Nero Caesar (son of Germanicus and Agrippina Senior) [I]141, [II] 259.

198. Nero Claudius Drusus (son of Livia) [I]132, [II] 250.

199. Neronis, Claudia (daughter of Nero and Poppaea) [I]172, [II] 284.

200. Nerva (Augustus, A.D. 96ñ98) [I]227, [II] 335.

201. Nigrinian (son of Carinus and(?) Magnia Urbica) [I]381, [II] 465.

202. Numerian (Augustus, A.D. 283ñ284) [I]382, [II] 466.

203. Octavia (fourth wife of Marc Antony) [I]83, [II] 213.

204. Octavia, Claudia (first wife of Nero) [I]169, [II] 282.

205. Octavian (seeAugustus).

206. Octavian and Marc Antony (seeMarc Antony and Octavian).

207. Odovacar (King of Italy) [II] 604.

208. Olybrius (Augustus, A.D. 472) [I]574, [II] 600.

209. Orbiana (wife of Severus Alexander) [I]308, [II] 410.

210. Otho (Augustus, A.D. 69) [I]189, [II] 297.

211. Pacatian (Augustus, c. A.D. 248ñ249(?)) [I]332, [II] 426.

212. Pagan Coinage of the Great Persecution [II] 516.

213. Palmyra, Kingdom of (historical text) [I]398.

214. Patricius (Caesar, A.D. 470ñ471) [I]604, [II] 618.

215. Paula, Julia (first wife of ëElagabalusí) [I]299, [II] 405.

216. Paulina (wife of Maximinus I) [I]316, [II] 412.

217. Pertinax (Augustus, A.D. 193) [I]256, [II] 377.

218. Pertinax Junior (Caesar, A.D. 193) [I]259, [II] 379.

219. Pescennius Niger (Augustus, A.D. 193ñ194) [I]262, [II] 381.

220. Petronius Maximus (Augustus, A.D. 455) [I]563, [II] 595.

221. Philip I ëthe Arabí (Augustus, A.D. 244ñ249) [I]327, [II] 420.

222. Philip II (Augustus, A.D. 247ñ249) [I]330, [II] 423.

223. Placidia, Galla (wife of Constantius III) [I]555, [II] 590.

224. Plancus (Imperator, 40 B.C.(?)) [I]68, [II] 203.

225. Plautilla (wife of ëCaracallaí) [I]282, [II] 395.

226. Plotina (wife of Trajan) [I]231, [II] 345.

227. Pompey the Great (Triumvir, 60ñ53 B.C.) [I]38, [II] 188.

228. Pompey Junior (son of Pompey the Great) [I]42, [II] 188.

229. Pompey, Sextus (son of Pompey the Great) [I]43, [II] 189.

230. Poppaea (second wife of Nero) [I]171, [II] 283.

231. Postumus (Augustus, A.D. 260ñ269) [I]386, [II] 469.

232. Primus, Marcus Antonius [I]180.

233. Priscus Attalus (First Reign, A.D. 409ñ410) [I]548, [II] 587.

234. Priscus Attalus (Second Reign, A.D. 415ñ416) [I]551, [II] 589.

235. Probus (Augustus, A.D. 276ñ282) [I]372, [II] 459.

236. Procopius (Augustus, A.D. 365ñ366) [I]586, [II] 606.

237. Proculus (Augustus, c. A.D. 280ñ281) [I]375, [II] 462.

238. Ptolemy XV (íCaesarioní) (son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra VII) [I]53, [II] 196.

239. Pulcheria, Aelia (sister of Theodosius II) [I]596, [II] 613.

240. Pupienus (Augustus, A.D. 238) [I]320, [II] 414.

241. Quadrantes, Anonymous [II] 330.

242. Quietus (Augustus, A.D. 260ñ261) [I]359, [II] 448.

243. Quintillus (Augustus, A.D. 270) [I]363, [II] 453.

244. Regalianus (Augustus, A.D. 260) [I]359, [II] 448.

245. Restored Coins of Trajan [II] 341.

246. Ricimer (Master of Soldiers, A.D. 456ñ472) [I]569, [II] 598.

247. Romano-British Empire (historical text) [I]403.

248. Romano-Gallic Empire (historical text) [I]385.

249. Romulus (son of Maxentius) [I]453, [II] 520.

250. Romulus Augustus (Augustus, A.D. 475ñ476) [I]580, [II] 603.

251. Rufus, Lucius Verginius [I]177.

252. Sabina (wife of Hadrian) [I]235, [II] 351.

253. Sabinus, Flavius [I]181.

254. Sabinus, Gaius Nymphidius [I]178.

255. Salonina (wife of Gallienus) [I]354, [II] 443.

256. Saloninus (Augustus, A.D. 260) [I]357, [II] 446.

257. Salvidienus (Imperator, 42 B.C.) [I]63, [II] 201.

258. Saturninus (Augustus, A.D. 280) [I]375, [II] 461.

259. Scantilla, Manlia (wife of Didius Julianus) [I]261, [II] 380.

260. Scarpus (Imperator, 31 B.C.(?)) [I]71, [II] 205.

261. Scipio (seeMetellus Pius Scipio).

262. Sebastianus (Augustus, A.D. 412ñ413) [I]551, [II] 588.

263. Sejanus (potential successor of Tiberius) [I]130, [II] 250.

264. Septimius Severus (Augustus, A.D. 193ñ211) [I]267, [II] 386.

265. Severa, Aquilia (second and fourth wife of ëElagabalusí) [I]300, [II] 406.

266. Severa, Otacilia (wife of Philip I) [I]329, [II] 421.

267. Severan Dynastic Portrait Coinage [II] 383.

268. Severan-Emesan Dynasty (historical text) [I]266.

269. Severina (wife of Aurelian) [I]369, [II] 455.

270. Severus Alexander (Augustus, A.D. 222ñ235) [I]305, [II] 408.

271. Severus II (Augustus, A.D. 306ñ307) [I]440, [II] 511.

272. Severus III (seeLibius Severus).

273. Silbannacus (Augustus, c. A.D. 248(?)) [I]331, [II] 425.

274. Soaemias, Julia (mother of ëElagabalusí) [I]293, [II] 402.

275. Sponsianus (Augustus, c. A.D. 248(1)) [I]331, [II] 425.

276. Sulla (Dictator, 82ñ79 B.C.) [I]31, [II] 185.

277. Supera, Cornelia (wife of Aemilian) [I]344, [II] 436.

278. Tacitus (Augustus, A.D. 275ñ276) [I]370, [II] 457.

279. Tetricus I (Augustus, A.D. 271ñ274) [I]396, [II] 476.

280. Tetricus II (Augustus, A.D. 274(?) [I]397, [II] 478. Theodora (second wife of Constantius I) [I]439, [II] 510. Theodosius I (Augustus, A.D. 379ñ395) [I]587, [II] 607. Theodosius II (Augustus, A.D. 402ñ450) [I]593, [II] 611.

281. Tiberius (Augustus, A.D. 14ñ37) [I]116, [II] 241.

282. Tiberius Gemellus (son of Drusus and Livilla) [I]128, [II] 248.

283. Titi, Julia (daughter of Titus) [I]215, [II] 319.

284. Titiana (wife of Pertinax) [I]258, [II] 378.

285. Titus (Augustus, A.D. 79ñ81) [I]212, [II] 313.

286. Trajan (Augustus, A.D. 98ñ117) [I]228, [II] 337.

287. Trajan, Restored Coins (seeRestored Coins of Trajan).

288. Trajan Decius (Augustus, A.D. 249ñ251) [I]333, [II] 427.

289. Trajan Decius, Divi Series (seeDivi Series of Trajan Decius).

290. Trajan Pater (father of Trajan and Marciana) [I]230, [II] 344.

291. Tranquillina (wife of Gordian III) [I]326, [II] 419.

292. Trebonianus Gallus (Augustus, A.D. 251ñ253) [I]339, [II] 433.

293. Uranius Antoninus (usurper, A.D. 253ñ253) [I]344, [II] 437.

294. Urbica, Magnia (wife of Carinus) [I]380, [II] 465.

295. Vabalathus (Augustus, A.D. 270/1ñ272) [I]402, [II] 479.

296. Valens (Augustus, A.D. 364ñ378) [I]584, [II] 605.

297. Valens, Valerius (seeValerius Valens).

298. Valentinian I (Augustus, A.D. 364ñ375) [I]533, [II] 577.

299. Valentinian II (Augustus, A.D. 375ñ392) [I]537, [II] 580.

300. Valentinian III (Augustus, A.D. 425ñ455) [I]558, [II] 592.

301. Valeria, Galeria (wife of Galerius) [I]434, [II] 503.

302. Valerian I (Augustus, A.D. 253ñ260) [I]346, [II] 438.

303. Valerian II (Caesar, A.D. 256ñ258) [I]356, [II] 444.

304. Valerius Valens (Augustus, A.D. 316ñ317) [I]471, [II] 527.

305. Ventidius (Imperator, 41 or 39(?) B.C.) [I]69, [II] 204.

306. Verina, Aelia (wife of Leo I) [I]602, [II] 617.

307. Verus, Annius (son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina Junior) [I]247, [II] 368.

308. Vespasian (Augustus, A.D. 69ñ79) [I]205, [II] 305.

309. Vespasian Junior (heir of Domitian) [I]223, [II] 329.

310. Vetranio (Augustus, A.D. 350) [I]515, [II] 559.

311. Victorinus (Augustus, A.D. 269ñ271) [I]394, [II] 475.

312. Vindex (rebel, A.D. 68) [I]182, [II] 291.

313. Vitellius (Augustus, A.D. 69) [I]192, [II] 298.

314. Vitellius Germanicus and Vitellia (children of Vitellius) [I]198, [II] 302.

315. Vitellius, Lucius (father of Vitellius) [I]197, [II] 301.

316. Volusian (Augustus, A.D. 251ñ253) [I]341, [II] 434.

317. Western Roman Empire, Collapse of (historical text) [I]581.

318. Zeno (Augustus, A.D. 474ñ475 and 476ñ491) [I]607, [II] 620.

319. Zenobia (Augusta, A.D. 270/1ñ272) [I]400, [II] 479.

320. Zenonis, Aelia (wife of Basiliscus) [I]613, [II] 624.

INDEX OF PEOPLE AND SECTIONS (IN ORDER OF PRESENTATION)

1. Sulla (Dictator, 82ñ79 B.C.) [I] 31, [II] 185.

2. Flaccus (Imperator, 83ñ82 B.C.) [I] 33, [II] 186.

3. Metellus Pius (Imperator, 81 B.C.) [I] 34, [II] 187.

4. Crassus (Triumvir, 60ñ53 B.C.) [I] 35, [II] 187.

5. Pompey the Great (Triumvir, 60ñ53 B.C.) [I] 38, [II] 188.

6. Pompey Junior (son of Pompey the Great) [I]42, [II] 188.

7. Sextus Pompey (son of Pompey the Great) [I]43, [II] 189.

8. Julius Caesar (Triumvir 60ñ53 B.C., Dictator For Life, 44 B.C.) [I]45, [II] 191.

9. Ptolemy XV (ëCaesarioní) (son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra VII) [I] 53, [II] 196.

10. Metellus Pius Scipio (Imperator 49 B.C.(?)) [I] 55, [II] 196.

11. Brutus (Imperator, 43ñ42 B.C.) [I] 56, [II] 197.

12. Cassius (Imperator, 43ñ42 B.C.) [I] 60, [II] 200.

13. Cornuficius (Imperator, 42 B.C.) [I] 63, [II] 201.

14. Salvidienus (Imperator, 42 B.C.) [I] 63, [II] 201.

15. Calvinus (Imperator, 39 B.C.) [I] 64, [II] 202.

16. Murcus (Imperator, c. 45ñ42 B.C.) [I] 65, [II] 202.

17. Ahenobarbus (Imperator, 42 B.C.) [I] 66, [II] 202.

18. Plancus (Imperator, 40 B.C.(?)) [I] 68, [II] 203.

19. Ventidius (Imperator, 41 or 39(?) B.C.) [I] 69, [II] 204.

20. Labienus (Imperator Parthicus, 40/39 B.C.) [I] 70, [II] 204.

21. Scarpus (Imperator, 31 B.C.(?)) [I] 71, [II] 205.

22. Lepidus (Triumvir, 43ñ36 B.C.) [I] 72, [II] 205.

23. Marc Antony (Triumvir, 43ñ33 B.C.) [I] 74, [II] 207.

24. Marc Antony and Octavian (dual-portrait coinage) [II] 210.

25. Gaius Antonius (brother of Marc Antony) [I]79, [II] 211.

26. Lucius Antonius (brother of Marc Antony) [I]80, [II] 212.

27. Fulvia (third wife of Marc Antony) [I]81, [II] 212.

28. Marcus Antonius Junior (son of Marc Antony and Fulvia) [I]82, [II] 213.

29. Octavia (fourth wife of Marc Antony) [I]83, [II] 213.

30. Cleopatra VII (Queen of Egypt, 51ñ30 B.C.) [I] 85, [II] 215.

31. Augustus (Octavian) (Augustus, 27 B.C.-A.D. 14) [I] 96, [II] 217.

32. Julia (daughter of Augustus) [I]104, [II] 232.

33. Marcellus (nephew of Augustus) [I]106, [II] 232.

34. Agrippa (lieutennant of Augustus) [I]107, [II] 233.

35. Gaius Caesar (grandson of Augustus) [I]109, [II] 234.

36. Lucius Caesar (grandson of Augustus) [I]110, [II] 235.

37. Agrippa Postumus (grandson of Augustus) [I]111, [II] 236. Asinius Gallus (potential successor of Augustus) [I]112, [II] 237.

38. Livia (wife of Augustus) [I]114, [II] 238.

39. Tiberius (Augustus, A.D. 14ñ37) [I]116, [II] 241.

40. Drusus (son of Tiberius) [I]122, [II] 246.

41. Livilla (wife of Drusus) [I]124, [II] 247.

42. Livia Julia (daughter of Drusus and Livilla) [I]126.

43. Tiberius Gemellus (son of Drusus and Livilla) [I]128, [II] 248.

44. Germanicus Gemellus (son of Drusus and Livilla) [I]129, [II] 249.

45. Sejanus (potential successor of Tiberius) [I]130, [II] 250.

46. Nero Claudius Drusus (son of Livia) [I]132, [II] 250.

47. Antonia (wife of Nero Claudius Drusus) [I]134, [II] 252.

48. Germanicus (son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia) [I]136, [II] 254.

49. Agrippina Senior (wife of Germanicus) [I]138, [II] 257.

50. Nero Caesar (son of Germanicus and Agrippina Senior) [I]141, [II] 259.

51. Drusus Caesar (son of Germanicus and Agrippina Senior) [I]142, [II] 260.

52. ëCaligulaí (Gaius) (Augustus, A.D. 37ñ41) [I]143, [II] 261.

53. Caesonia (wife of ëCaligulaí) [I]147, [II] 264.

54. Drusilla Minor (daughter of ëCaligulaí) [I]148, [II] 264.

55. Drusilla (sister of ëCaligulaí) [I]149, [II] 264.

56. Julia Livilla (sister of ëCaligulaí) [I]150, [II] 265.

57. Claudius (Augustus, A.D. 41ñ54) [I]151, [II] 266.

58. Claudia Antonia (daughter of Claudius) [I]156, [II] 270.

59. Valeria Messalina (third wife of Claudius) [I]157, [II] 271.

60. Britannicus (son of Claudius) [I]159, [II] 272.

61. Agrippina Junior (wife of Claudius, mother of Nero) [I]161, [II] 274.

62. Nero (Augustus, A.D. 54ñ68) [I]164, [II] 277.

63. Claudia Octavia (first wife of Nero) [I]169, [II] 282.

64. Poppaea (second wife of Nero) [I]171, [II] 283.

65. Claudia Neronis (daughter of Nero and Poppaea) [I]172, [II] 284.

66. Statilia Messalina (third wife of Nero) [I]173, [II] 285.

67. Lucius Verginius Rufus [I]177.

68. Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus [I]178.

69. Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus [I]179.

70. Gaius Licinius Crassus Mucianus [I]179.

71. Marcus Antonius Primus [I]180.

72. Flavius Sabinus [I]181.

73. Civil War Coinages [II] 287.

74. Vindex (rebel, A.D. 68) [I]182, [II] 291.

75. Clodius Macer (rebel, A.D. 68) [I] 183, [II] 292.

76. Galba (Augustus, A.D. 68ñ69) [I]184, [II] 293.

77. Otho (Augustus, A.D. 69) [I]189, [II] 297.

78. Vitellius (Augustus, A.D. 69) [I] 192, [II] 298.

79. Lucius Vitellius (father of Vitellius) [I]197, [II] 301.

80. Vitellius Germanicus and Vitellia (children of Vitellius) [I] 198, [II] 302.

81. Julius Civilis (rebel, A.D. 69ñ70) [I]200, [II] 303.

82. Vespasian (Augustus, A.D. 69ñ79) [I]205, [II] 305.

83. Domitilla the Elder (wife of Vespasian) [I]210, [II] 312.

84. Domitilla the Younger (daughter of Vespasian) [I]211, [II] 312.

85. Titus (Augustus, A.D. 79ñ81) [I]212, [II] 313.

86. Julia Titi (daughter of Titus) [I]215, [II] 319.

87. Domitian (Augustus, A.D. 81ñ96) [I]216, [II] 321.

88. Domitia (wife of Domitian) [I]220, [II] 327.

89. Deified Son of Domitian Vl/222, [II] 329.

90. Vespasian Junior (heir of Domitian) [I]223, [II] 329.

91. Anonymous Quadrantes [II] 330.

92. Coins of the Mines [II] 332.

93. Nerva (Augustus, A.D. 96ñ98) [I]227, [II] 335.

94. Trajan (Augustus, A.D. 98ñ117) [I]228, [II] 337. The Restored Coins of Trajan [II] 341.

95. Trajan Pater (father of Trajan and Marciana) [I]230, [II] 344.

96. Plotina (wife of Trajan) [I]231, [II] 345.

97. Marciana (sister of Trajan) [I]232, [II] 346.

98. Matidia (daughter of Marciana) [I]232, [II] 347.

99. Hadrian (Augustus, A.D. 117ñ138) [I]233, [II] 348.

100. Sabina (wife of Hadrian) [I]235, [II] 351.

101. Aelius (Caesar, A.D. 136ñ138) [I]236, [II] 353.

102. Antinoiis (companion of Hadrian) [I]237, [II] 354.

103. Antoninus Pius (Augustus, A.D. 138ñ161) [I]238, [II] 355.

104. Faustina Senior (wife of Antoninus Pius) [I]240, [II] 360.

105. Galerius Antoninus (son of Antoninus Pius and Faustina Senior) [I]241, [II] 362.

106. Marcus Aurelius (Augustus, A.D. 161ñ180) [I]242, [II] 362.

107. Faustina Junior (wife of Marcus Aurelius) [I]244, [II] 366.

108. Aurelius Antoninus (son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina Junior) [I]246, [II] 368.

109. Annius Verus (son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina Junior) [I]247, [II] 368.

110. Lucius Verus (Augustus, A.D. 161ñ169) [I]248, [II] 369.

111. Lucilla (wife of Lucius Verus) [I]249, [II] 371.

112. Commodus (Augustus, A.D. 177ñ192) [I]251, [II] 372.

113. Crispina (wife of Commodus) [I]253, [II] 375.

114. Pertinax (Augustus, A.D. 193) [I]256, [II] 377.

115. Titiana (wife of Pertinax) [I]258, [II] 378.

116. Pertinax Junior (Caesar, A.D. 193) [I]259, [II] 379.

117. Didius Julianus (Augustus, A.D. 193) [I]260, [II] 379.

118. Manlia Scantilla (wife of Didius Julianus) [I]261, [II] 380.

119. Didia Clara (daughter of Didius Julianus) [I]262, [II] 380.

120. Pescennius Niger (Augustus, A.D. 193ñ194) [I]262, [II] 381.

121. Clodius Albinus (Augustus, A.D. 195ñ197) [I]264, [II] 382.

122. Severan-Emesan Dynasty (historical text) [I]266.

123. Severan Dynastic Portrait Coinage [II] 383.

124. Septimius Severus (Augustus, A.D. 193ñ211) [I]267, [II] 386.

125. Julia Domna (wife of Septimius Severus) [I]273, [II] 389.

126. ëCaracallaí(Antoninus) (Augustus, A.D. 198ñ217) [I]276, [II] 391.

127. Plautilla (wife ofíCaracallaí) [I]282, [II] 395.

128. Geta (Augustus, A.D. 209ñ211) [I]283, [II] 396.

129. Macrinus (Augustus, A.D. 217ñ218) [I]287, [II] 398.

130. Diadumenian (Augustus, A.D. 218) [I]289, [II] 399.

131. Julia Maesa (sister of Julia Domna) [I]291, [II] 401.

132. Julia Soaemias (mother of) Elagabalusí) [I]293, [II] 402.

133. ëElagabalusí (Antoninus) (Augustus, A.D. 218ñ222) [I]295, [II] 403.

134. Julia Paula (first wife of ëElagabalusí) [I]299, [II] 405.

135. Aquilia Severa (second and fourth wife of ëElagabalusí) [I]300, [II] 406.

136. Annia Faustina (third wife of ëElagabalusí) [I]301, [II] 406.

137. Julia Mamaea (mother of Severus Alexander) [I]303, [II] 407.

138. Severus Alexander (Augustus, A.D. 222ñ235) [I]305, [II] 408.

139. Orbiana (wife of Severus Alexander) [I]308, [II] 410.

140. Maximinus IëThraxí(Augustus, A.D. 235ñ238) [I]314, [II] 411.

141. Paulina (wife of Maximinus I) [I]316, [II] 412.

142. Maximus (Caesar, A.D. 235/6ñ238) [I]316, [II] 412.

143. Gordian I (Augustus, A.D. 238) [I]317, [II] 413.

144. Gordian II (Augustus, A.D. 238) [I]319, [II] 414.

145. Pupienus (Augustus, A.D. 238) [I]320, [II] 414.

146. Balbinus (Augustus, A.D. 238) [I]322, [II] 416.

147. Gordian III (Augustus, A.D. 238ñ244) [I]324, [II] 417.

148. Tranquillina (wife of Gordian III) [I]326, [II] 419.

149. Philip I ëthe Arabí (Augustus, A.D. 244ñ249) [I]327, [II] 420.

150. Otacilia Severa (wife of Philip I) [I]329, [II] 421.

151. Philip II (Augustus, A.D. 247ñ249) [I]330, [II] 423.

152. Julius Marinus (father of Philip I) [I]330, [II] 425.

153. Silbannacus (Augustus, c. A.D. 248(?))V1/331, [II] 425.

154. Sponsianus (Augustus, c. A.D. 248(?))V1/331, [II] 425.

155. Pacatian (Augustus, c. A.D. 248ñ249(?))Vl/332, [II] 426.

156. Jotapian (Augustus, c. A.D. 248ñ249(?))Vl/332, [II] 426.

157. Trajan Decius (Augustus, A.D. 249ñ251) [I]333, [II] 427. The Divi Series of Trajan Decius [II] 428.

158. Herennia Etruscilla (wife of Trajan Decius) [I]336, [II] 430.

159. Herennius Etruscus (Augustus, A.D. 251) [I]336, [II] 431.

160. Hostilian (Augustus, A.D. 251) [I]337, [II] 432.

161. Trebonianus Gallus (Augustus, A.D. 251ñ253) [I]339, [II] 433.

162. Volusian (Augustus, A.D. 251ñ253) [I]341, [II] 434.

163. Aemilian (Augustus, A.D. 253) [I]342, [II] 435.

164. Cornelia Supera (wife of Aemilian) [I]344, [II] 436.

165. Uranius Antoninus (usurper, A.D. 253ñ253) [I]344, [II] 437.

166. Valerian I (Augustus, A.D. 253ñ260) [I]346, [II] 438.

167. Mariniana (wife of Valerian I) [I]349, [II] 440.

168. Gallienus (Augustus, A.D. 253ñ268) [I]349, [II] 441.

169. Salonina (wife of Gallienus) [I]354, [II] 443.

170. Valerian II (Caesar, A.D. 256ñ258) [I]356, [II] 444.

171. Saloninus (Augustus, A.D. 260) [I]357, [II] 446.

172. Macrianus (Augustus, A.D. 260ñ261) [I]358, [II] 447.

173. Quietus (Augustus, A.D. 260ñ261) [I]359, [II] 448.

174. Regalianus (Augustus, A.D. 260) [I]359, [II] 448.

175. Dryantilla (wife of Regalianus) [I]360, [II] 449.

176. Claudius II ëGothicusí(Augustus, A.D. 268ñ270) [I]361, [II] 451.

177. Quintillus (Augustus, A.D. 270) [I]363, [II] 453.

178. Aurelian (Augustus, A.D. 270ñ275) [I]364, [II] 453.

179. Severina (wife of Aurelian) [I]369, [II] 455. The So-Called ëInterregnum Bronzesí [II] 456.

180. Tacitus (Augustus, A.D. 275ñ276) [I]370, [II] 457.

181. Florian (Augustus, A.D. 276) [I]371, [II] 458.

182. Probus (Augustus, A.D. 276ñ282) [I]372, [II] 459.

183. Saturninus (Augustus, A.D. 280) [I]375, [II] 461.

184. Proculus (Augustus, c. A.D. 280ñ281) [I]375, [II] 462.

185. Carus (Augustus, A.D. 282ñ283) [I]377, [II] 462.

186. Carinus (Augustus, A.D. 283ñ285) [I]378, [II] 463.

187. Magnia Urbica (wife of Carinus) [I]380, [II] 465.

188. Nigrinian (son of Carinus and(?) Magnia Urbica) [I]381, [II] 465.

189. Numerian (Augustus, A.D. 283ñ284) [I]382, [II] 466.

190. Julian of Pannonia (Augustus, A.D. 284ñ285) [I]383, [II] 468. The Romano-Gallic Empire (historical text) [I]385.

191. Postumus (Augustus, A.D. 260ñ269) [I]386, [II] 469.

192. Aureolus (usurper, A.D. 267(?)-268) [I]389, [II] 472.

193. Laelianus (Augustus, A.D. 269) [I]391, [II] 473.

194. Marius (Augustus, A.D. 269) [I]393, [II] 474.

195. Domitianus (Augustus, A.D. 269(?) or 271(?))Vl/393, [II] 474.

196. Victorinus (Augustus, A.D. 269ñ271) [I]394, [II] 475.

197. Tetricus I (Augustus, A.D. 271ñ274) [I]396, [II] 476.

198. Tetricus II (Augustus, A.D. 274(?))Vl/397, [II] 478. The Kingdom of Palmyra (historical text) [I]398.

199. Zenobia (Augusta, A.D. 270/1ñ272) [I]400, [II] 479.

200. Vabalathus (Augustus, A.D. 270/1ñ272) [I]402, [II] 479. The Romano-British Empire (historical text) [I]403.

201. Carausius (Augustus, A.D. 286/7ñ293) [I]404, [II] 481.

202. Allectus (Augustus, A.D. 293ñ296/7) [I]407, [II] 483.

203. Diocletian (Augustus, A.D. 284ñ305) [I] 416, [II] 485.

204. Maximian (Augustus, A.D. 286ñ310) [I]422, [II] 490.

205. Amandus (Augustus, c. A.D. 285ñ286) [I]428, [II] 497.

206. Domitius Domitianus (Augustus, c. A.D. 296ñ297/8) [I]428, [II] 498.

207. Galerius (Augustus, A.D. 305ñ311) [I]430, [II] 499.

208. Galeria Valeria (wife of Galerius) [I]434, [II] 503.

209. Constantius I ëChlorusí (Augustus, A.D. 305ñ306) [I]435, [II] 504.

210. Helena (first wife(?) of Constantius I) [I]438, [II] 509.

211. Theodora (second wife of Constantius I) [I]439, [II] 510.

212. Severus II (Augustus, A.D. 306ñ307) [I]440, [II] 511.

213. Maximinus II ëDaiaí (Augustus, A.D. 310ñ313) [I]442, [II] 513.

214. Pagan Coinage of the Great Persecution [II] 516.

215. Maxentius (Augustus, A.D. 307ñ312) [I]447, [II] 517.

216. Romulus (son of Maxentius) [I]453, [II] 520.

217. Alexander of Carthage (Augustus, A.D. 308ñ310) [I]455, [II] 521.

218. Licinius I (Augustus, A.D. 308ñ324) [I]464, [II] 523.

219. Constantia (wife of Licinius I) [I]468, [II] 525.

220. Licinius II (Caesar, A.D. 317ñ324) [I]469, [II] 526.

221. Valerius Valens (Augustus, A.D. 316ñ317) [I]471, [II] 527.

222. Martinian (Augustus, A.D. 324) [I]471, [II] 527.

223. Constantinian Era Commemoratives [II] 528.

224. Constantine I ëthe Greatí (Augustus, A.D. 307ñ337) [I]473, [II] 533.

225. Fausta (wife of Constantine I) [I]487, [II] 542.

226. Crispus (Caesar, A.D. 316ñ326) [I]489, [II] 543.

227. Delmatius (Caesar, A.D. 335ñ337) [I]491, [II] 545.

228. Hanniballianus (Rex Regum, A.D. 335ñ337) [I]492, [II] 546.

229. Constantine II (Augustus, A.D. 337ñ340) [I]494, [II] 547.

230. Constans (Augustus, A.D. 337ñ350) [I]497, [II] 550.

231. Constantius II (Augustus, A.D. 337ñ361) [I]500, [II] 553.

232. Magnentius (Augustus, A.D. 350ñ353) [I]510, [II] 556.

233. Decentius (Caesar, A.D. 350ñ353) [I]513, [II] 558.

234. Vetranio (Augustus, A.D. 350) [I]515, [II] 559.

235. Nepotian (Augustus, A.D. 350) [I]516, [II] 560.

236. Constantius Gallus (Caesar, A.D. 351ñ354) [I]518, [II] 561.

237. Julian II ëthe Apostateí (Augustus, A.D. 360ñ363) [I]519, [II] 563.

238. Jovian (Augustus, A.D. 363ñ364) [I]525, [II] 565.

239. Festival of Isis Coinage [II] 566.

240. A Brief Introduction to the Divided Empire (historical text) [I]527.

241. Valentinian I (Augustus, A.D. 364ñ375) [I]533, [II] 577.

242. Gratian (Augustus, A.D. 367ñ383) [I]535, [II] 578.

243. Valentinian II (Augustus, A.D. 375ñ392) [I]537, [II] 580.

244. Magnus Maximus (Augustus, A.D. 383ñ388) [I]538, [II] 581 .

245. Flavius Victor (Augustus, A.D. 387ñ388) [I]539, [II] 582

246. Eugenius (Augustus, A.D. 392ñ394) [I]540, [II] 583 .

247. Honorius (Augustus, A.D. 393ñ423) [I]541, [II] 583.

248. Constantine III (Augustus, A.D. 407ñ411) [I]544, [II] 585 .

249. Constans II (Augustus, A.D. 409/10ñ411) [II] 546, [II] 586 .

250. Maximus (Augustus, A.D. 409ñ411) [I]547, [II] 586 .

251. Priscus Attalus (First Reign, A.D. 409ñ410) [I]548, [II] 587.

252. Jovinus (Augustus, A.D. 411ñ413) [I]550, [II] 588 .

253. Sebastianus (Augustus, A.D. 412ñ413) [I]551, [II] 588 .

254. Priscus Attalus (Second Reign, A.D. 415ñ416) [I]551, [II] 589 .

255. Constantius III (Augustus, A.D. 421) [I]553, [II] 589 .

256. Galla Placidia (wife of Constantius III) [I]555, [II] 590.

257. Johannes (Augustus, A.D. 423ñ425) [I]556, [II] 591.

258. Valentinian III (Augustus, A.D. 425ñ455) [I]558, [II] 592.

259. Honoria (sister of Valentinian III) [I]560, [II] 593.

260. Licinia Eudoxia (wife of Valentinian III) [I]561, [II] 594.

261. Petronius Maximus (Augustus, A.D. 455) [I]563, [II] 595.

262. Avitus (Augustus, A.D. 455ñ456) [I]564, [II] 595.

263. Majorian (Augustus, A.D. 457ñ461) [I]566, [II] 596.

264. Libius Severus (Severus III) (Augustus, A.D. 461ñ465) [I]567, [II] 597.

265. Ricimer (Master of Soldiers, A.D. 456ñ472) [I]569, [II] 598.

266. Anthemius (Augustus, A.D. 467ñ472) [I]570, [II] 598.

267. Aelia Euphemia (wife of Anthemius) [I]572, [II] 599.

268. Alypia (daughter of Anthemius and Aelia Euphemia) [I]573, [II] 600.

269. Olybrius (Augustus, A.D. 472) [I]574, [II] 600.

270. Glycerius (Augustus, A.D. 473ñ474) [I]575, [II] 601.

271. Gundobad (Master of Soldiers, A.D. 472ñ474) [I]576, [II] 602.

272. Julius Nepos (Augustus, A.D. 474ñ475 and 477ñ480) [I]577, [II] 602.

273. Romulus Augustus (Augustus, A.D. 475ñ476) [I]580, [II] 603.

274. Odovacar (King of Italy) [II] 604.

275. Collapse of the West (historical text) [I]581.

276. Valens (Augustus, A.D. 364ñ378) [I]584, [II] 605.

277. Procopius (Augustus, A.D. 365ñ366) [I]586, [II] 606.

278. Theodosius I (Augustus, A.D. 379ñ395) [I]587, [II] 607.

279. Aelia Flaccilla (wife of Theodosius I) [I]589, [II] 608.

280. Arcadius (Augustus, A.D. 383ñ408) [I]590, [II] 609.

281. Aelia Eudoxia (wife of Arcadius) [I]592, [II] 610.

282. Theodosius II (Augustus, A.D. 402ñ450) [I]593, [II] 611.

283. Aelia Pulcheria (sister of Theodosius II) [I]596, [II] 613.

284. Aelia Eudocia (wife of Theodosius II) [I]597, [II] 614.

285. Marcian (Augustus, A.D. 450ñ457) [I]599, [II] 614.

286. Leo I (Augustus, A.D. 457ñ474) [I]600, [II] 616.

287. Aelia Verina (wife of Leo I) [I]602, [II] 617.

288. Patricius (Caesar, A.D. 470ñ471) [I]604, [II] 618.

289. Leo II (Augustus, A.D. 474) [I]606, [II] 619.

290. Zeno (Augustus, A.D. 474ñ475 and 476ñ491) [I]607, [II] 620.

291. Aelia Ariadne (wife of Zeno) [I]610, [II] 622.

292. Basiliscus (Augustus, A.D. 475ñ476) [I]612, [II] 623.

293. Aelia Zenonis (wife of Basiliscus) [I]613, [II] 624.

294. Marcus (Augustus, A.D. 475ñ476) [I]614, [II] 625.

295. Leo Caesar (Caesar, A.D. 476ñ477) [I]615, [II] 626.