INTRODUCTION TO THE OBVERSE

A(uro) A(rgento) A(ere) F(lando) F(eriundo)

The duty to cast and strike gold, silver and bronze; when it follows III VIR it refers to one of three men appointed to coin money. It reads in the order aere argento auro under the Republic.

A(rgento) P(ublico) F(eri-undo)

In reference to one of the principal officers of the mint; usually follows III VIR.

ADIAB(enicus)

(victor over) the Adiabeni

AFR(icanus)

The cognomen of the Africani, in the revolt of A.D. 238.

ARAB(icus)

(victor over) the Arabians

ARM(enaicus)

(victor over) the Armenians

AVG(usta)

The title given to wives of men who held the title Augustus, originally sparingly, later routinely.

AVG(ustus)

A name adopted by the first emperor of Rome, Augustus(Octavian), which became his title, and was adopted by most succeeding emperors.

AVGVR

Member of the sacerdotal order, which professed the abih ity to predict future events from reading animal entrails.

BRIT(annicus)

(victor over) the Britons

C or CAES(ar)

Originally a cognomen of some of the Julian gens, later transformed into an Imperial title by Augustus and primarily used for the heir to the throne, especially in the 1st Century A.D.

CENS(or)

A public office by which the emperor controlled the membership of the various aristocratic orders.

CONSECRATIO

ìConsecrationî or ìDeification.î This always occurs on the reverse.

COS(= Consul)

The highest office in the later Republic, shared by two men. In the Empire it became much less powerful, but remained the highest office associated with the senate, and was often assumed by the emperor himself. When done so more than once, COS was followed by numbers in reflection of that.

DAC(icus)

(victor over) the Dacians

DES(ignatus)

A word used in conjunction with other titles to indicate that election to the office had occurred, but the term had not yet begun.

DICT(ator)

A title given in the Republic only when absolute authority was needed temporarily to remedy a grave crisis. Julius Caesar earned it four times (i.e., his inscr. DICT(ator) QVART[um]), and then indefinitely, DICT(ator)(IN)PERPETVO.

DIVOS, DIVA, DIVVS, DIVI

ìDivineî or ìDeifiedî

D(ominus) N(oster)

ìOur lord,î appears before the name of emperors in the later era of Rome (Diocletian and beyond), which thus is often called ìthe Dominate.î

ET

ìandî

F(ilius) or F(ilia)

ìSonî or ìDaughterî

FIL(ius) AVGG(ustorum)

Obverse inscriptions on coins of Constantine I and Maximinus II Daia; indicates the nebulous rank ìSons of the Augusti.î

GER(manicus)

(victor over) the Germans

II VIR and III VIR

(=Duumvir and Triumvir; literally Board of Two and Board of Three). A position similar to consul, but in the Roman colonies.

III VIR RPC

Referring to the Second Triumvirate, meaning Triumviri rei publicae constituendae (ìTriumvirs for the reorganization of the Republicî). Established by the senate (as lex titia) on Nov. 11, 43 B.C.

IMP(erator)

Originally the title of a military commander in the Republic, later came to be an honorary distinction awarded to victorious generals. The emperors would be awarded it for victories, real or imagined, gained personally or by their generals. If gained more than once, was followed by numerals to indicate the fact.

INVICT(us)

ìUnconquered,î ìInvincibleî

IVN(ior)

ìYoungerî or ìJuniorî

MAG(nus) or MAGNO

Loosely translates to ìthe Great.î

MATER

ìMotherî

MAX(imus)

ìGreatestî (a superlative of Magnus).

MEDICVS

(victor over) the Medes

N(obilissimus) C(aesar)

ìMost Noble Caesarî

N(obilissima) F(emina)

ìMost Noble Womanî

OB C(ivis) S(ervatos)

Refers to the corona civica, an oak wreath awarded for the saving of the life of a Roman citizen. This was frequently given to emperors as their actions were deemed to have had that effect.

OF(I, II, or III)

Indicating officinae on the reverse of aes of Valentinian I, Valens and Gratian.

OPTIMO or OPTIMVS

Meaning ìbest,î this title was usually given to Jupiter, but sometimes to emperors, such as Trajan.

P(ius) F(elix)

ìDutifulî and ìHappy,î titles used on most Late Roman coin inscriptions for emperors.

P(ater) P(atriae)

ìFather of his Country,î a title awarded to Augustus in 2 B.C. and adopted by many emperors thereafter.

P(ersicus) M(aximus)

ìGreatest of victors over Persia,î a title adopted by Philip I (used on his first issues of Antioch) and given posthumously to Carus.

P(ontifex) M(aximus)

ìHigh Priest.î The head of the colleges of priests that comprised the state religion. Augustus was appointed to this office after the death of Lepidus, and thereafter it was routinely voted to most emperors.

P or PERP(etuus)

ìContinuous,î ìUninterruptedî

PAR(thicus)

(victor over) the Parthians

PATER

ìFatherî

PON(tifex)

ìPriest.î Literally: ìbridge makerî; see P M.

PR(aetor)

Once the top office in the early Republic, it became less important in the Empire. Literally: ìone who leads.î

PRAEF(ectus)

A high post with a wide range of applications in the army and government. Literally: ìPlaced before.î

PRIN(ceps) IV(ventutus)

ìLeader of the Youth,î a title given to some young men of the Imperial family (often after having achieved the rank of Caesar).

PRO COS(=Proconsul)

Acting ìin place ofî a consul. A specially assigned office, usually with a wide range of authority limited to a geographic region.

PRON(epos)

ìGreat-grandsonî

REGI or REGIN AE

ìKingî or ìQueen.î Titles taken on by Cleopatra VII, Vabalathus and Hannibalianus.

REST(itvit) or REST(itutor)

ìRestoredî or ìRestorer.î A concept applied to buildings, territories and even coinage.

R S R

redeunt saturnia regna (ìthe golden age returnsî). An inscription on many of Carausiusí coins, previously thought to mean rationalis summae rei(ìchief finance ministerî).

SARM(aticus)

(victor over) the Sarmatians

S(enatus) C(onsulto)

ìBy decree of the senate,î used occasionally in reference to coinage of all metals in the Republic, but roughly after the reign of Augustus is limited to aes coinage in the Empire, and even then not universally applied. It may refer to the release of metal for coining rather than the actual right to coin. It sometimes appears on silver denarii struck at Carthage in A.D. 68 to 69.

SOROR

ìSisterî

S(enatus) P(opulus) Q(ue) R(omanus)

ìthe senate and people of Rome,î which frequently appears on coins as SPQR.

TR(ibuniciae) P(otestate)

Literally: ìwith the power of a Tribune,î indicating the power of a tribune (veto power, inviolability) without actually being or serving as a tribune. Common people were protected in the Republic by tribunes, but it became largely symbolic in the Empire, when the emperor usually claimed it. Renewals were indicated by numerals.

General Form

Head

The head and a portion of the neck, without indication of shoulders or clothing.

Bust

Shown with indication of shoulders, usually clothed or armored.

Seen in profile

The standard format for ìbustî portraits, where the shoulders are aligned perpendicular to the viewer.

Profile bust seen from behind

Shown with the closest shoulder thrust forward, exposing the back at a slight angle.

Profile bust seen from front

The opposite of the previous category, thus exposing the chest at a slight angle.

Upward Gazing

A revival of the Hellenistic Greek convention, this depicts the emperor, usually diademed, looking slightly upward to the heavens (ìheavenward gazeî).

Heroic

This bust type shows the emperor bare-chested in the manner of Hercules. It is uncommon for all emperors except Trajan, Hadrian and Probus.

Globe at tip

Used notably under Nero and Trajan, a globe sometimes appears at the truncation of the bust. Under Nero this was indicative of the Lugdunum mint on his aes (often blending in with the inscription). Under Trajan it is ornamental.

Half-bust with arm

An ornate bust, shown from mid-chest, with one or two arms clearly visible. Sometimes an arm is raised as if hailing or saluting, but more often it is shown holding an object, such as a spear, scepter, mappa, globe, etc.

With object

The busts were often augmented with objects, which are described in the last three sections below.

Resting on crescent

This is used exclusively for empresses to indicate the coin is a double denomination.

Direction

Right

The standard direction of portraits for most reigns.

Left

Rarely used, and then only for special occasions (though in some cases it is the standard for a reign).

Facing or 3/4ífacing

One of the most interesting portrait types, it can be either fully frontal or ìthree-quarter facing,î the term used to describe facing busts which are slightly shifted to one side. It was first used in Imperial times by Augustus, whose head (on a denarius) is shown facing in the center of a shield. The next occurrence may be on dupondii of Tiberius, whose head (it is believed) also occurs on shields. Much later, under Septimius Severus, we find the head of his wife, Julia Domna, fully facing, flanked by the confronted heads of her two sons. Two late 3rd Century instances occur on the coinages of rebels Postumus and Carausius. During the Tetrarchy and the Constantin-ian-Era others occur, notably under Maxentius, Licinius I and II, and Constantine the Great (sometimes nimbate). Constantius II had a penchant for this type of portrait, adorned with cuirass, helmet, shield and spear. This militant frontal portrait becomes common by the reign of Arcadius, and becomes standard in early Byzantine times.

Jugate

Far more commonly seen on provincial coins than on Imperial coins, this format places successive portraits (usually two or three) facing the same direction, one slightly overlapping the other ó with the one beginning the ìchainî being on the highest plane. This occurs most commonly with related members of the Imperial household (in which case the senior personage usually appears closest to the viewer), but sometimes (especially in the 3rd Century) with an emperor and his patron deity.

Confronted

Again, far more common on provincial coins, this arrangement shows two or more portraits facing each other. When it involves more than two busts, the additional bust may occur jugate with one of the busts, in a separate position, or may be shown full-facing in the center.

Janiform

This form shows two heads joined at the back, so that together they form one head with two faces, each facing in opposite directions (hence the name Janiform, after Janus, the god of beginnings and endings). On coinage of the period covered by this volume, this form appears to be limited co aes depicting Pompey the Great (in which both heads have his features), although it does occur on Imperial medallions.

Clothing &Armor

Draped

The military cloak (paludamentum) often adorns the bust, with the folds of its cloth visible; it usually is attached on the shoulder by a fibula, a clasp which may resemble a button.

Drapery at shoulder

Often referred to as ìslight drapery at shoulder,î it appears as a small section of cloth visible only upon one shoulder of the emperor.

Cuirassed

Armor worn upon the torso, typically composed of a solid breast plate or overlapping scale armor, and with straps shown hanging off the shoulder. Often, an aegis (the Medusa or Gorgon head) appears prominently in the center of the breastplate.

Draped and Cuirassed

Perhaps the most common form for the busts of men on Roman coins, the subject is shown with his armor below a paludamentum (the toga was not worn with armor). In most cases, only the shoulder scraps will be visible to indicate the cuirass.

Aegis

The aegis is a ëcloakí with the gorgonís head (gorgoneion) in its center which is associated with Jupiter and Minerva. Often the gorgo-neion appears as the center piece on a cuirass, or as an entirely separate device, independent of armor. It ranges from being only slightly seen at one shoulder, to being prominently displayed on the chest.

Consular Robes

Sometimes the emperor is shown in a more peaceful guise, as a legislator rather than as a general. This form occurs with some frequency on the coinage of Probus, and even more so during the Tetrarchy, when the emperor is shown wearing ornate robes (sometimes called a trabea or an ëImperial mantleí), and is usually also shown holding an olive branch, a scepter (typically eagle-tipped, the scipio) or a roll of cloth called a mappa, the latter two of which are indicative of the office of consul. Originally the consular robes (triumphal robes) were worn only during the procession to the circus, where the consul would preside at the games.

Headwear

Bare

It is quite common in the first two centuries for an emperor to be shown wearing no adornment on his head; thereafter it is unusual, except for Caesars.

Laureate

This is the most common form for the portraits of emperors in the first 350 years of the Empire (except when a double-denomination required the radiate crown). The wreath is comprised of laurel branches. Other kinds of wreaths are made with leaves of oak or ivy.

Radiate

The familiar ìspikyî crown is closely associated with the sun-god Sol. It consists of a metal head band with upwardly protruding spikes. On very rare occasions the crown has two head bands, seemingly to indicate a double of its already-double denomination.

Veiled

This is most commonly found on the busts of empresses (who usually wear a stephane beneath), but it also adorns the busts of some deceased emperors (or in the case of Marc Antonyís first denarius, as a representation of his priestly duties). Most deified empresses are veiled, though the massive coinages of Faustina Senior and Junior are a notable exception.

Diademed

The plain diadem, often called a stephane in the form worn by women, was composed either of cloth or metal, and often had ìtiesî trailing from the back, where it was bound. Sometimes it was a solid band and, except in the earliest instances of its use, it has a medallion (or large Imperial gem) at the forehead. This form of crown was reintroduced by Constantine the Great, who also adopted from the ancient Greeks the concept of the ìupward-gazingî portrait.

Pearl-Diademed

The plain diadem evolved into the pearl diadem, which is the same band (be it metal or cloth), only adorned with two rows of pearls along the top and bottom, and usually with a medallion (itself surmounted by a large pearl or other device) at the forehead. Empresses often wore some kind of pearl diadem, which was inter-woven into their coiffure.

Rosette-Diademed

An even more ornate form of the diadem, this was composed of large jewel-encrusted rosettes attached to the diadem and interspersed by pearls or pellets.

Stephanate

A form of diadem (stephane) worn by empresses.

Rostral Crown

This unusual crown is composed of overlapping prows (the ëramsí) of war galleys, often with one prow protruding from the front of the crown above the forehead. It signifies naval glory and is properly called a corona navalis.

Mural Crown

More often called a ëturretedí crown in its Greek context, this headdress is meant to resemble a city wall, complete with battlements and towers. It signifies glory earned in the siege of a city, and is properly called a corona muralis. Sometimes it is worn in conjunction with the rostral crown.

Helmeted

Many varieties of helmets are shown, with varying degrees of prominence given to the plumage (from short bristles to a raised ìbridgeî with tall plumes). Sometimes the bowl of the helmet has designs, such as stars or a Chi-Rho (Christogram), or other decorative devices. Often a laurel wreath, radiate crown or diadem will be fitted over the helmet.

Lionís Scalp

The scalp of the Nemean lion symbolizes affinity for, or equation to, the hero Hercules, who killed the Nemean lion and donned its scalp and hide. The lionís scalp is either fitted over the head of the emperor (in the form of a parade helmet), or is draped over one of his shoulders. It was most commonly worn by Commodus and Maxi-mian, though many others (including Gallienus) are portrayed wearing it. When worn upon the head, the paws of the lion are usually shown tied about the neck.

Nimbate

A convention limited essentially to the Christian emperors, this showed a ring about the head commonly described as a ìhalo.î It was first used by the devoutly pagan Antoninus Pius, seemingly in connection with Sol, the sun-god who was often shown nimbate and radiate. It is used occasionally in the Tetrarchy, but was first used in a Christian context by Constantine the Great, and thereafter occasionally by emperors and empresses.

Hand of God (Manus Dei)

The hand of the Christian God as shown above the head of the emperor or empress, crowning the subject with a wreath, or what more accurately appears to be a pearl diadem.

Cross

Sometimes in the 4th and 5 th Centuries a cross adorns a crown or helmet. The former notably occurs on the facing-head solidi of Licinia Eudoxia (where it is the center piece of a radiate crown), and the latter on nummi of Constantine the Great.

Objects Held

Thunderbolt (Fulmen)

Symbolizing Jupiter (Zeus), the thunderbolt represented the might of that supreme deity, and thus the transmission of that power through the office of emperor.

Shield

The shield is usually held close to the shoulder (which it covers) with the exterior facing the viewer, though occasionally the interior is seen when the shield is held at the far shoulder. It is usually adorned with a series of pellets, or with a symbol, such as the aegis or the Chi-Rho (Christogram). At other times it shows an intricate scene, such as a spearman on horseback riding down a foe or the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus, etc. On rare occasions it bears an inscription, such as VOTIS X ET XX.

Spear

Called a hasta (or pilum or javelina) by the Romans, this weapon was symbolic of the emperor. Thus, it is frequently held by emperors on coinage from the late 3rd Century onward.

Globe

The globe symbolized the world, and more often the Roman world specifically. The ancient Greeks and Romans were aware that the world was round, and it was represented as such. Oftentimes bands are visible: they may represent longitude and latitude, but perhaps also the zodiac, and thus the idea of the globe as the universe. Globes are usually held in the emperorís hand; as such they are indicative of Roman domination of the world.

Globe, adorned

It was common for the globe held by an emperor to be surmounted by a small figure of Victory (Nike) bearing a wreath, which it extends as if to crown the emperor. This was clearly adopted from Greek iconography, though the globe itself was a Roman addition, as was the fact that a mortal was being crowned. The globe in the later 5th Century was often topped with a small cross. The victoryí on-globe is often called a victoriola, and the cross-on-globe a globus cruciger.

Mappa

A roll of cloth holding dust or ashes (symbolizing mortality) originally dropped to signal the start of chariot races, it later came to represent the consulship, and is held by emperors for that association.

Laurel branch

The branch may be the olive (symboling peace since Greek times, it is meant in that context when held by an emperor) or the laurel (in reference to purification or victory). Sometimes branches are shown in conjunction with the eagle-tipped scepter (scipio) or the mappa, which symbolized the office of consul.

Scepter

A symbol of royalty and kingship from early times in the Grecoí Roman world, it was avoided during Republican and early Imperial times (for it was considered appropriate for gods but not mortals), except when it represented a specific military victory. In the late 3rd Century the scepter began to appear on coins. It occurred as an unadorned staff, or with its tip in the form of an eagle (then called a scipio, and of consular symbolism), and later still with a cross at the end (see below).

Long-Cross

Often called a ìcrossíheaded scepter,î it was a long scepter with a small cruciform end. Emperors are shown holding this on the obverse of regular coinage only in the latter half of the 5th Century.

Parazonium

A short sheathed sword worn attached to the heavy armored belt around the waist. It symbolized the virtue and valor of the emperor when it appeared on coins.

Club

A weapon associated with the hero Hercules (though it was used by soldiers of the late Roman army, often recruited from Tyre). When held by an emperor, usually over his shoulder, it is meant to equate him with Hercules, or at the very least to demonstrate his devotion to that hero.

Horse Held by Reins

This unusual addition to the Imperial bust represents the role of the equites, or cavalry, in the Roman defense. As a coin type it seems first to occur under Probus, and is used occasionally thereafter until the Constantinian Era, about when the equestrian order ceased to exist.