CHAPTER THREE
The reverse of Roman coins is undoubtedly the most variable, because it was arranged in so many different ways. Like the obverse, it typically consists of a design surrounded by an inscription in the periphery, although the inscription can appear horizontally across the field or in the exergue. The fields are usually slightly concave, although with the passage of time they tended to become flat.
In a most practical sense, all Roman coins were vehicles of propaganda. The obverse reminded the people on a daily basis who was in command, whereas the reverse would deliver a wide array of messages that promoted the interests of the government and the ruler. When actual events are alluded to, they can sometimes be presented as having already occurred, while others clearly had not yet happened (though they were hoped for).
Most reverse types that have specific content are commemorative of something, be it a birth, death, raising in rank, completion of a building project, conclusion of a war, the enactment of a new policy, the payment of a donative, etc. Regrettably more common are types which depict a deity or personification in some traditional, even pedestrian guise. A listing and photographic guide to these types is presented after the general introduction, but first is a list of the other categories of reverse types.
PROVINCES, CITIES AND RIVERS
Just as the Romans represented certain concepts (such as justice, good fortune, etc.) by personifying them, they also personified geographical features. Many geographical personifications appear on Imperial coins, of which the principal ones are listed below.
ïREGIONS: Achaea, Africa, Alamannia, Arabia, Armenia, Asia, Bithynia, Britain, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Dacia, Egypt, Gaul, Germania, Illyria, Italia, Judaea, Macedon, Mauretania, Moesia, Noricum, Pannonia, Parthia, Phoenicia, Phrygia, Sarmatia, Scythia, Sicily, Spain (Hispania), Syria, Thrace, etc.
ïCITIES: Alexandria, Aquileia, Carthage, Constantinople, London, Lugdunum, Milan, Nicomedia, Ravenna, Rome, Siscia, etc.
ïRIVERS: The Danube, Euphrates, Nile, Orontes, Rhine, Tiber, etc.
TRAVEL
This category is slightly different from the one above, and its types are of some consequence because travel in ancient times came with no guarantees; it was an arduous and dangerous task, even for an emperor. Thus, the emperorís voyages were often worthy of commemoration, whether in light of what he achieved on the trip, or simply because of his safe arrival, departure or return. These are celebrated, respectively, with adventus and redux types. There are many types that express the publicís hope for a safe return of the emperor and a few that celebrate fortunate turns of fate when an emperor had narrowly escaped a dangerous situation, such as a destructive storm or a shipwreck.
THE EMPEROR AND HIS DYNASTY
Though the emperors, empresses and Caesars held the prominent position on the obverse of most Roman Imperial coins, they also occur with great frequency on the reverse. Usually they are involved in some sort of beneficial activity: the emperor conquering, the Caesar as the leader of the youth, the empress as ìmother of the campî or aiding the poor and orphaned. Other types were intended to represent the dynasty, or at the very least the hopes invested in the dynasty. On rarer occasions there are odd appearances, such as when Nero, in the guise of Apollo, is depicted playing his lyre.
Featuring the ìnext generationî of rulers was common. On some occasions this took the form of two-headed coins, with a bust on each side. Other times this required showing three or four heads, either jugate or confronted, such as occurred under Vitellius, Vespasian, Septimius Severus and Julia Domna, Philip I, Valerian and Gallienus, Constantine the Great, etc. This occurs with some frequency on medallions and provincial coinages.
The rise in rank or the adoption of a successor were perfect occasions for such issues. One of the most common is the hailing of a wife Augusta, or making a son Caesar and naming him PRINCIPI IVVENTVTIS (ìleader of the youthî). Among the most charming of these types is that of the IOVI CRESCENTI (the ìgrowing Jupiterî) struck in the name of Valerian II.
The birth of children ó especially twins, who were always viewed positively by the Romans ó was another occasion for an issue to celebrate the dynasty. Twins are sometimes represented with their heads set upon the open ends of crossed cornucopias. Empresses are often shown with their children on the reverse, where they are depicted as diminutive figures at their motherís feet or in her arms.
Other relatives who did not necessarily figure into the Imperial succession were also shown. Caligula depicted his three sisters, Agrippina Junior, Drusilla and Julia, in the guise of Secritas, Concordia and Fortuna on a particularly collectible issue of sestertii. Trajan struck coins in honor of his sister, Marciana, who was key in the succession and was the grandmother of Sabina.
EMPRESSES
There is a marked difference between the coin types the Romans deemed suitable for men and those given to women. Regrettably for collectors (who prefer a broad spectrum of historical and attractive types) the types struck for women are usually limited to the few deities and personifications associated with what the Romans defined as womanly duty. Thus, very few original types occurred. They are shown in many cases with their husbands, usually clasping hands as a symbolic gesture of their marriage. Without a doubt, their provincial coinage is of much greater interest.
Most commonly shown are Venus, Pudicitia, Pietas, Hilaritas, Concordia, Cybele and Ceres. Among the few interesting types is the PVELLAE FAVSTINIANAE type of Faustina Senior, which depicts the granting of a charter for a guild (devoted to taking care of orphaned girls) taking place in a two-story building (or orphans being received upon a platform). The top story is occupied with a scene of the charter being signed, and the bottom floor depicts women holding children. Another type is the matr1 castrorvm type struck for Faustina Junior, upon which she is shown seated before military standards; the inscription hails her ìmother of the campsî in commemoration of her devotion to traveling with the army.
CONSECRATION TYPES
The deified relatives or predecessors of the reigning emperor were commonly found on coins. Key inscriptions for this category of coin are DIVO, DIVA, etc. on the obverse, and AETERNITAS and CONSECRATIO on the reverse. Though the typology can vary considerably on the provincial coinage, it is generally limited to five major types on the Imperial coinage: 1) the eagle, 2) the peacock, 3) the funerary pyre or altar, 4) the funerary vehicle, and 5) various architectural objects, such as columns, mausoleums and temples.
The eagle and the peacock are typically shown standing alone (sometimes on a scepter), or flying heavenbound bearing the deceased on its back. The funerary pyre (or cremation building) looks very much like a wedding cake but is actually a large structure with successively smaller tiers, each festooned and containing statues, and usually a quadriga with the emperor on the top. The altar is considerably smaller, usually is shown with panels, and often is aflame.
The funerary vehicle takes different forms, but is usually a carpentum (two-wheel carriage) drawn by mules, a larger wagon drawn by elephants, or a fast quadriga drawn heavenbound by horses (in the case of Constantine the Great, toward the hand of God extending from the clouds). Some architectural types show mausoleums (such as on the issues of Romulus) or an honorary column or temple (both such ìbuildingsî were dedicated to Antoninus Pius on coins). Unusual types include a draped and ornamented throne across which a scepter rests (sometimes with a peacock standing before it), a comet (specifically the sidus Iulium, which represented Julius Caesar), and a jubilant boy seated on a star-spangled globe (of the heavens) with his arms raised.
These types were usually struck by the immediate successor to the person named, or by a direct family member (whether the association was real or simply claimed). However, the emperor Trajan Decius, as part of his effort to restore worship of the Imperial cult, struck a series of double denarii in the honor of 11 previous emperors.
DIVINE ASSOCIATIONS
The emperors and empresses were, as a matter of practice, associated with certain deities. They adopted many of the objects or animals (familiars) that were associated with these supernatural beings, and often had their features assimilated. This treatment is often subtle, though it certainly would have been obvious to the Romans. In this topic it is necessary also to consider the obverse of the coin.
Some of these assimilations are blatant, such as the depictions of an emperor (Gallienus, Postumus, Maximian, etc.) as Hercules by showing him wearing the Nemean lionís scalp, and sometimes holding a club. Antonia is assimilated with Ceres in her portraits by donning a wreath of grain. Elagabalus is associated with the Emesan sun-god Heliogabal (of whose cult he was the chief priest) by a small horn protruding from the forehead. A less certain assimilation may be Valerian II as the Egyptian god Horus, for a long, conspicuous curl of hair drapes down his neck.
Sometimes portraits are not identified by an inscription naming the person who is portrayed, but rather the name of the deity or personification in whose guise they are shown. There are many good examples of this, including Pompey the Great on both faces of Janus on asses struck by his youngest son Sextus Pompey, and the Julio-Claudian women Livia and Livilla, both of whom are portrayed, respectively, as Salus and Pietas on dupondii struck by Tiberius in 22/3. Deities on quadrantes and semisses of Domitian and Trajan often bear those emperorsí facial features; similarily, the bust of the Genius of the Roman People often has the facial features of Gallienus on the so-called interregnum bronzes struck during his reign. A very late example of this practice occurs on the small brass coins issued for the Festival of Isis, on which the features of Julian II can sometimes be seen in the bust of Serapis.
COMMEMORATIONS, ANNIVERSARIES AND FESTIVALS
This category includes a number of areas already discussed, including those issues struck posthumously in honor of the deceased, or in commemoration of a victory, or the granting of a new rank. However, it has a broader application. Buildings that have been restored, repaired or rededicated are named. One of the most important of these is the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater), which was rebuilt several times due to damage suffered from lightning strikes and the resulting conflagrations.
Finishing such a major construction project (or the costly repair of existing structures) was reason for celebration, and was one of the main reasons buildings appear on coinage. Other times a temple was re-dedicated, and thus appeared on coins. Another common reason for commemoration was the passage of time, and with it, the celebration of anniversaries. Often commemorated in coin designs were the celebration of Saecular Games (centennial celebrations) and the anniversaries of important events, such as the legendary foundation of Rome, fixed on April 21, 753 B.C. This event was celebrated by Antoninus Pius (the 900th anniversary) and by Philip I (the 1000th anniversary).
The coinages issued by Antoninus Pius for this event depict a she-wolf and twins, Aeneas leading Ascanius and carrying Anchises on his shoulders, the Great Sow suckling her young under a tree (to illustrate the Roman legend of the sow marking the site where Aeneas would found his new Troy), and the descent of Romulus and Remus from Mars and Rhea Silvia. Philipís coins were of a simpler variety, primarily depicting the various animals gathered for the games (which themselves were symbolic of other virtues). Even less obvious events were commemorated, such as the bicentennial of the Battle of Actium, which was reflected in an issue of ìrestorationî coins struck jointly by Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus.
MILITARY
It comes as no surprise that war and victory play prominent roles on the coinage of the Romans, who were imperious in nature and had remarkably long borders to protect. The general theme is a Roman victory, even when that was not necessarily the case, for coins were a principal source of government propaganda. Foes, when depicted in warlike coin types, are not only shown subjugated, but also humiliated. They are shown prostrate, in the act of begging or mourning, being run down with spear, being dragged, trampled under foot or hoof, or bound and seated at the base of a trophy. Without fail, they are depicted smaller than the emperor or the Roman who is dominating them, sometimes to comic proportions.
Other military types suggest victory in a more sedate manner, such as the kneeling Parthian returning the standards that Crassus had lost in 53 B.C., and Victory attaching an inscribed shield of victory to a palm tree. Platform scenes also occur in which foreign kings either hand over their kingdoms or receive the right to rule as a vassal of Rome.
Other platform scenes are of the adlocutio and congiarium types, which, respectively, show the emperor addressing (íharanguingí) a group of soldiers, or giving a donative of money to citizens. Claudius secured his life and reign in 41 by making a donativa to his soldiers; in commemoration of their subsequent support, he issued denarii and aurei showing the praetorian camp in Rome. The donativa, unlike the congiarium, concerned soldiers, and seemingly is not depicted on coinage. Gallienus issued to the soldiers gold coins intended for dispensation that bore an inscription meaning, in essence, ìbecause you are loyal.î
Military objects abound, and the heaps of armor and trophies (constructed of arms and armor) can sometimes reveal the construction of these objects in remarkable detail. Sometimes, especially in the Imperatorial and Augustan period, these trophies are naval in character, and have a variety of items specific to warfare at sea. The anti-Caesarean rebel Sextus Pompey, as well as the Romano-British usurper of three centuries later, Carausius, were especially dependent on their navies, and thus issued coins with naval themes.
Some of the most frequently represented types are those struck in honor of the legions. Sometimes this occurs only through their names being associated with a generic type (such as the coins struck by Marc Antony and Septimius Severus), whereas other issuers, such as Gallienus, Victorinus and Carausius, represented them with individualized designs and inscriptions.
INSCRIPTIONS
Note: For a list of inscriptions, some of which occur on the reverses of Roman coins, see the previous chapter.
Some Roman coins lack figural types and are composed almost entirely of inscriptions. Though in a great minority, they are not terribly uncommon for the reverse types of the Julio-Claudians, which sometimes contain nothing but lettering. The most common type in this category is the large SC shown within a peripheral inscription that provides the name and titles of the coinís issuer. The SC stands for senatus consulto, and except in rare instances, such as on denarii of Carthage, it is found only on base metal coins, which were (theoretically, at least) the concern of the senate.
Inscriptions often are the principal design element, even if they are not the exclusive one. Very common is the use of a wreath, either surrounded by or containing ó and often both ó inscriptions. This design type was used regularly throughout the first four centuries of the Empire. The early types tend to contain the inscriptions OB CIVES SERVATOS, EX SC, or simply AVG. Later, under Trajan, the type occurs with SPQR OPTIMI PRINCIPI. At other times, a circular shield (clipeus) is inscribed SPQR or CL V (in reference to the clipeus virtutis).
But by far the most common, at least in terms of numbers of surviving coins, are the votive types of the Constantinian Era, which usually have a peripheral inscription surrounding the wreath, and a votive inscription in the middle that takes a form similar to VOT V MVLT X (meaning five years achieved, vows for the five coming undertaken). During the late 5th Century, a letter indicating the mint officina at which the coin was struck sometimes occurs at the end of the reverse inscription (rather than in the exergue). This practice became commonplace on Byzantine gold coins.
MYTHOLOGICAL
The great strength of the Roman religion was not necessarily in true belief and devotion, but rather in the social framework created by its strict adherence to tradition and protocol. Thus, the Romans were careful in how they represented their deities and personifications, and as to how and why they issued mythological types. True mythological types are less common than might be expected. Of special interest are those, described below, issued by Antoninus Pius for the 900th anniversary of Romeís foundation.
ANIMALS AND FANTASTIC CREATURES
A great many animals appear on coins issued by the Romans, who were as fascinated with animals as we are today. Most often shown are common animals, such as horses, mules, bulls, boars and eagles, though exotic animals made regular appearances (often as a reminder of the games in which so many of them were slaughtered). The practice of depicting animals on coinage largely ceased during the Christian Era ó indeed, after Constantine the Greatís dynasty ended in 363, even horses seldom appear.
Some late occurrences of animals include the bull during the reign of Julian II, and occasionally the Phoenix as a symbol of renewal. Lions make isolated appearances, such as on solidi of Honorius where one is being crushed under foot (or under scepter) by the emperor. The lion also occurs on reduced nummi of Leo I as a punning allusion to his own name.
Among the more exotic creatures are the leopard, elephant, camel, hippopotamus, moose, stag, crocodile, crab, peacock and butterfly. Mythological creatures also occur. The most commonly seen ones being the sphinx, the capricorn, Pegasus and the hippocamp. A much broader spectrum of both real animals and fictional ones occur on provincial coinage in general, and specifically on that of Roman Egypt.
The animals are generally symbolic of something, be it a province or a legion, or a personal symbol of the emperor (such as Augustusí sphinx). Alternatively they can represent a concept, such as eternal memory (the elephant), renewal (the phoenix), apotheosis (the eagle or peacock), or symbolize a deity (such the stag of Diana or the eagle of Zeus).
ARCHITECTURE
This is one of the most popular categories of reverse types. Architectural types sometimes show structures which no longer exist (and, thus, we can only get a glimpse of them on coins) others give us contemporary views of structures we can still see today.
A wide variety of structures are shown, such as statues, statuary groups, altars, temples, triumphal arches, the praetorian camp, honorary columns, metas, basilicas (meeting houses), and various buildings of a more practical use, such as bridges, ports (such as the one at Ostia), Neroís Macellum and Trajanís Forum, the Circus Maximus and amphitheaters.
Among the most famous of those structures that are still largely intact are the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater), Trajanís column, the Arch of Severus and the Ara Pacis. Surviving in various degrees of ruin are the Temple of Divus Antoninus and Diva Faustina, the Temple of Divus Romulus, the Temple of Divus Julius, Trajanís Forum, the Stadium of Domitian, and the Circus Maximus.
This category also includes statues and statuary groups. The most famous equestrian statue shown on coinage is that of Marcus Aurelius, which survives to the present day. Other statues are frequently shown on coinage, and in fact most depictions of deities and personifications are simply representations of statues (and, thus, might best be described that way). The statue of Spes advancing hardly changed over the centuries, and is based on a standard prototype. The reclining Nilus surrounded by more than a dozen putti (based on the Nilus from Iseum in the Vatican collection) occurs on coinage, as does Hercules, who finds at least two sculptural prototypes. One is the Hercules Victor statue now in the Palazzi dei Conservatori (which even on coinage was depicted on a pedestal), and the other the ìFarneseî Hercules in the Museo Nazionale in Naples.
FISCAL
There are relatively few of these types, though when they occur they are of interest both to the historian and the numismatist. For example, a quadrans of Claudius shows the inscription PNR within a pair of scales, which has been taken to represent either Portorium Nundinarium Remissum or Pondus Nummorum Restitutum (alternatively Ponderum Norma Restituta) and thus relates either to the abolition of port taxes (the former) or the restoration of the weights of coins (the latter, and seemingly correct interpretation).
A quadrans of Caligula bears the inscription RCC, which has been taken as Remissa Ducentesima, and may refer to the abolition of a 1/2 percent tax on goods sold at auction. Galba issued a series of aes in the winter of 68 with the supplementary inscription R XL that alludes to the remission of a 2ñ1/2 percent customs duty. The emperor Nerva was especially ìfiscalî with his coinage, and has four reverse types that directly relate to taxes and charitable financial undertakings.
Trajan also withdrew vast quantities of earlier denarii, and in commemoration of the withdrawn coins struck numerous restoration types bearing their designs. His successor Hadrian issued sesterti inscribed RELIQVA VETERA HS NOVIES MILL ABOLITA SC which show a lictor applying a torch to a heap of papers representing the many debts he had annulled.
The reverses of quite a number of issues depict the emperor seated upon a platform distributing handfuls of coins, or later in the Empire, standing in a facing quadriga tossing coins to the public that no doubt lined his route. And there is the ever-present appearance on the coinage of Moneta; she appears for a host of reasons, including the establishment of a new mint in Rome (to replace that in the Temple of Juno Moneta) under Domitian, and the transfer of a mint from Ostia to Aries under Constantine the Great.
RESTORATIONS
Many coins issued by the emperors were merely restorations of earlier types. This may have been done to provide the current emperor with some tangible link to the past, or to honor predecessors. In other cases, they may have represented the most familiar of the coin types which were then being withdrawn from circulation for re-coining. During the unstable times of the Civil War of 68ñ69, older coin types, primarily those issued by Augustus, were restored in the form of anonymous coinage.
In some cases the purpose was more specific than a general need to recall the comfort and glory of an earlier age. The emperor Trajan struck restoration series of denarii and aurei that reproduced the designs of many Republican and early Imperial coins that had been withdrawn from circulation by his own decree. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus issued restoration coins in honor of the 200th anniversary of the Battle of Actium, and in doing so chose to recycle the popular design of Antonyís ìLegionaryî denarii. Oddly enough, Antony was not the victor in the battle, but these coins were clearly representative of the event, and so that design was used.
Perhaps the most prolific of the restorers were the Flavians. Not only did they restore Augustan types, but the eldest son, Titus, issued a large series of aes that restored a wide variety of Julio-Claudian and later types. Specifically honored were Augustus, Agrippa, Tiberius, Drusus, Agrippina Senior, Livilla (the latter two usually attributed to Livia), Nero Claudius Drusus, Germanicus, Agrippina Senior, Claudius and Galba. No doubt, these types were largely meant to hearken back to an age before the destructive civil war.