CHAPTER FOUR
The destructive Civil War of 68ñ69 ended with the rebellion and accession of Vespasian, a man of relatively humble origins who founded a dynasty of his own. This was an important consideration for any candidate to the throne (as Vespasians predecessor, Vitellius, recognized). The Romans had lived for nearly a century under the ruling house of the Julio-Claudians. Heirs, if anything, meant stability.
Stable succession was one of the principal reasons Vespasian hailed his two sons as Caesars, and immediately struck coins portraying them as heirs to the throne. Further, Vespasian went to great lengths to demonstrate his ties with the Julio-Claudians, both literally and spiritually. He celebrated the glories of the Augustan age, which began at the Battle of Actium almost exactly a century before his own accession. The new emperor made full use of the propaganda value of coins by copying coin designs associated with Augustus and his descendants.
The dynasty that Vespasian founded was not terribly long-lived, but it did salvage Rome from its costly civil war and serve as a conduit between the decaying Julio-Claudian dynasty and ìadoptiveî emperors of the 2nd century. But it must be said that the Flavians were in some respects merely a compressed version of the Julio-Claudians, for the dynasty began on a high note and ended in disgrace.
The Flavian dynasty is neatly composed of the family lines established by two brothers, which developed separately in the first generation, but were tied together in the second generation by two marriages of second-cousins. No fewer than nine members of the Flavian family are represented on coinage, including a boy of Domitianís who died in infancy, and whose name is not recorded in the sources which have survived to the modern day.
The portraits on Flavian coins are usually well executed, though the degrees of realism or idealism vary depending on the minting facility and the period. Later in the reign of Domitian the portraits take on a much softer appearance, though not at the expense of their individualism or accuracy. The portraits of the Flavian women typically bear a striking resemblance to the emperors with whom they were associated, as was often the case in the long history of Roman coinage.
And finally, another of the great institutions of 1st Century Roman coinage, the mint at Lugdunum, ceased operation during the Flavian dynasty, probably in about 79, but perhaps in 82. The mint at Rome had regained its role as the principal Imperial mint in the west either in 37, the first year of Caligulaís reign, or more likely c. 64, during the reign of Nero (54ñ68).
Note: Names in CAPITALS are of emperors; names in italics are of people not found on coinage.
VESPASIAN A.D. 769ñ79
A.D. 69ñ71: SOLE REIGN (WITH TITUS AND DOMITIAN, AS CAESARS)
A.D. 71ñ79: SOLE REIGN (WITH TITUS AS IMPERATOR; DOMITIAN, AS CAESAR)
HUSBAND OF DOMITILLA THE ELDER
FATHER OF TITUS, DOMITIAN, AND DOMITILLA THE YOUNGER
FATHER-IN-LAW OF DOMITIA
GRANDFATHER OF JULIA TITI
GREAT-GRANDFATHER OF VESPASIAN JUNIOR.
Titus Flavius Vespasianus, A.D. 9ñ79. With Vespasian we find a clean break from the Julio-Claudians and their revolutionary successors, for he was a simple man of modest family background. Indeed, the ancient historians speak principally of his humble lifestyle, his affability, and his sharp sense of humor as opposed to vices and moral bankruptcy, which is principally what we learn of the Julio-Claudians.
Vespasian was born at Reate, in Sabine country not far from Rome, with his father having been the first man in the family to amass a small fortune. This he did as a tax collector in Asia, and later as a banker in the Helvetian territory (mod. Switzerland). His motherís family was of equestrian rank, and Vespasianís maternal uncle entered the senate and held a praetorship.
Vespasianís older brother, Flavius Sabinus, led a distinguished career, while the future emperor held somewhat undistinguished and predictable posts. He was military tribune in Thrace in 27, then quaestor on Crete and aedile in 38. Finally, he became praetor under Caligula in 40.
However, it was not until his family came to enjoy the patronage of Claudiusí freedman, Narcissus, that his career took off. In 43 he had commanded Legio II Augusta in Claudiusí invasion of Britain. In that campaign he was closely associated with the emperor and is said to have fought some 30 battles and taken 20 cities as he reduced most of the southern part of Britain and took the Isle of Wight. For all of this, Vespasian was awarded an ornamenta triumphalia and two priesthoods, and later was important enough to be elected consul suffectus for the last two months of 51.
Thereafter he falls into relative obscurity, for he and his brother owed their prominence to Narcissus, and consequently came under the suspicion of Agrippina Junior, the wife of Claudius. Thus, it is not until later in the reign of Nero that we hear much of Vespasian again. In 62 or 63 he was proconsul of Africa, but did not abuse his position for financial gain, and consequently was spared bankruptcy only by a loan from his brother. In 66 he was part of Neroís entourage, travelling with him on his tour of Greece. However, Vespasian offended Nero by falling asleep at one of his singing performances, and as a result was expelled from the emperorís entourage.
Since it was the habit of Nero to appoint governors and generals in the provinces who were of no extraordinary merit, he gave Vespasian command of three legions in 66, with which he was to direct the war in Judaea that is commonly known as the First Revolt or the Jewish War. In February of 67, Vespasian was appointed governor of Judaea. The future emperor conducted a difficult campaign, but by mid-68, when Nero was overthrown and replaced as emperor by Galba, he had pacified most of Judaea.
During the next year, from mid-68 to mid-69, Vespasian continued to direct the war in Judaea as the West became embroiled in civil war. Three successive emperors ó Nero, Galba and Otho ó fell in only 10 months. By mid-69 an unsavory character named Vitellius was in command, and Vespasian realized now was the time to act.
So, on July 1, presumably upon learning of Othoís defeat and suicide, his revolt began. Vespasian was hailed emperor by the legions in Alexandria under command of the prefect Tiberius Julius Alexander. Two days later, on July 3, Vespasian was hailed by his own legions in Judaea, and by mid-July (shortly before Vitellius entered Rome), he was also acclaimed by the legions in Syria, which were under the command of the governor, Gaius Licinius Mucianus. Though the senate did not officially recognize his principate until December 21, 69, Vespasian always considered July 1, when the soldiers hailed him emperor, to be his date of accession. This was a serious annoyance to the senate, but helped maintain his popularity with the soldiers.
Not only did Vespasian have excellent qualifications for the post, but he also had two sons as heirs, and a brother who was city prefect in Rome. Furthermore, there were many omens favorable to his accession, including one in which a dog brought a severed hand to his breakfast table, and another more ancient superstition that held that at about this time the rulers of the world would come from Judaea.
Vespasian based his revolt in Antioch and instructed Mucianus to lead 20,000 of his soldiers on a slow march to Italy. While in Antioch, Vespasian struck the first coins of his as-yet-unofficial reign. It was hoped that by the time Mucianus approached Rome, Vitellius would have been overthrown, or at the very least, would have lost popularity. Vespasian left his eldest son, Titus, in charge of the Judaean campaign (for Jerusalem had not yet been taken) so that he himself could move to Alexandria and take control of the grain supply, which was vital to Rome.
Meanwhile, legions in Spain and the Balkans supported Vespasianís claim. In the process, however, he did gain an unwanted ally in Marcus Antonius Primus, a commander who managed to gain control of several legions in Pannonia and Moesia. To give some legitimacy to what was little more than a personal adventure, Primus decided to act in the name of Vespasian. However, in his lust for glory, Primus created an opportunity for a Sarmatian invasion of Moesia, and sparked a nationalist rebellion in Gaul and Germany led by the Batavian prince Julius Civilis.
By October, Primus had invaded Italy with five legions and had out-maneuvered the Vitellian forces that had been left to defend northern Italy. After defeating the Vitellians decisively at the Second Battle of Bedriacum on October 24 and 25 of 69, Primus allowed his soldiers to plunder nearby Cremona for four successive days. Thereafter, Primus marched south to Rome, with the legions of Mucianus (who was delayed in Moesia repelling the Sarmatian invasion) not far behind.
Though Vitellius was still popular in the capital, his odds of survival diminished daily. They took a critical turn on December 17, when Primus met the Vitellian army at Narnia, some 40 miles outside Rome. Before a battle erupted, Primus convinced the Vitellians to defect, which left him a clear path to Rome. When news of the defection reached Rome, anarchy broke out in the streets and Vitellius approached the city prefect Flavius Sabinus (the brother of Vespasian) with an offer to abdicate.
Though acceptable to both men, the praetorian guards and the mob in Rome were incensed by the plan, and events in Rome moved violently and rapidly. Not only were Sabinus and many of his supporters besieged on the Capitoline Hill and killed, but Vitellius himself was brutally murdered shortly thereafter, on the 20th of December. Either on that day or the following, Primus and his Danubian legions entered Rome in the name of Vespasian. The plundering and massacre that ensued was halted only when the Syrian legions of Mucianus arrived shortly thereafter and ousted Primus.
While all these events were unfolding, Vespasian remained in Alexandria. Indeed, he stayed there for another six months or so awaiting the end of the Judaean war (then being directed by Titus), but it dragged on. Unable to wait any longer, Vespasian departed Egypt in the summer of 70 via ship to Italy. During this period, Mucianus continued to hold Rome for the emperor and reduced the size of the praetorian guard, which had been greatly enlarged by Vitellius.
The new emperor landed at the Italian port of Brundisium and made his way to Rome by land. While en route, the Judaean war ended (in September, though Masada held out until 73). Vespasian arrived in Rome in October of 70, some 15 months after he had been hailed by his soldiers, and more than nine months after the senate had formally recognized his regime.
But even after Vespasian had secured power in Rome, he still had to contend with the nationalist revolt led by Julius Civilis in Gaul and Germany. The rebellion had been raging for about a year, and had cost Rome every legionary outpost north of Mainz. Vespasian appointed Quintus Petillius Cerialis as the new governor of Lower Germany, the province in which Civilisí revolt was based. Sharing command of an army with Annius Gallus and Vespasianís 18-year-old son, Domitian, Cerialis set out to crush Civilis. The operation was over quickly, and Gaul and the two Germanies were restored to Rome late in 70.
Everything was largely under control now, and the healing process could begin. Suetonius tells us that Vespasian estimated he would need 400,000,000 aurei to get the Empire back on solid footing. With such significant fiscal demands, he soon acquired a reputation for greed and stinginess ó qualities that may have been inborn to his personality, but that were exacerbated by the financial crisis of the Empire. He raised money in every possible way, even charging entrance fees to public restrooms.
Vespasian shamelessly and openly sold pardons to convicted criminals, and took bribes from politicians and from those who desired posts in government. It is said that he purposely solicited bribes from the greediest applicants, knowing they would steal the most money, thus assuring there were would be more money for Vespasian to acquire when he charged them with extortion. Suetonius tells us this was so common a practice with Vespasian that these appointees were nicknamed ìspongesî because he ìÖ put them in to soak, only to squeeze them dry later.î However, it must be said that through such extreme measures, Vespasian restored the fiscal health of the Empire. Furthermore, he was not stingy in how he spent the money, frequently spreading it among the most unfortunate.
Vespasian had a fairly static routine when in Rome. He rose early and worked hard, though he was certain to reserve sufficient time each day for pleasurable activities. He left much of the day-to-day operation of government to others; at first to Mucianus, but soon thereafter to his son, Titus. He may also be credited with introducing men of talent into important government posts, regardless of their family status.
Vespasian also added to the size of the Empire by annexing Commagene in 72, and later by annexing northern England and southern Scotland, and bringing order to Wales. Leading the British expeditions were Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the father-in-law of the historian Tacitus. Another famous governor who served under Vespasian was Marcus Ulpius Trajanus, the father of Trajan, the future emperor. He served with distinction in the East, and dissuaded the Parthians from invading Syria when Vespasian refused to help them repel an invasion of their kingdom by the Alans.
Vespasian was responsible for much building in the West, including a new temple of Capitoline Jupiter, the temple of Peace in the Forum, and the Colosseum in Rome (the Amphitheatrum Flavium), which he began to build in 71 but which was incomplete at his death. Vespasian died of fever at a family villa in the Sabine country outside Rome on June 24, 79. Just as one might expect of this hardy man, he requested to be propped up on his feet just before he expired, for he believed that an emperor should die standing.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The coinage of Vespasian begins with two series of coins struck in Judaea while he served as governor there under Nero. After his bid for the throne became official, Vespasian first struck coins at Antioch and Alexandria as he awaited the downfall of Vitellius in Rome. Throughout his principate Vespasian struck coins not only for himself, but also for his two sons, both of whom held the rank of Caesar
He struck a great many denarii and aurei in the East, principally at Antioch and Ephesus. The style of these pieces is remarkably fine, and they are easy to distinguish from the products of Rome and other western mints. Some of the coins attributed to Antioch, however, are better given to Alexandria, where Vespasian was in residence while awaiting the downfall of Vitellius. Two key diagnostics on these coins are the ìscallopedî truncation of Vespasianís bust and the unusual letter G at the end of AVG, which appears more like a Sigma.
Since Vespasian emerged victorious from the civil war which began virtually on the centennial of the Battle of Actium, it comes as no surprise that many of his coin designs are inspired by Augustan prototypes. This had specific context because the civil war brought about the extinction of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and Vespasian wanted to demonstrate some continuity for the dynasty he had established in its place. Also of interest are the denarii (or cistophori) that were countermarked during Vespasianís principate, probably at Ephesus in the 70s. These countermarks ó usually applied to coins of older vintage ó take the form of a sunken rectangle containing the raised letters IMP. VES (or similar), often in ligature.
DOMITILLA THE ELDER
WIFE OF VESPASIAN
MOTHER OF TITUS, DOMITIAN, AND DOMITILLA THE YOUNGER
MOTHER-IN-LAW OF DOMITIA
GRANDMOTHER OF JULIA TITI
GREAT-GRANDMOTHER OF VESPASIAN JUNIOR
Flavia Domitilla (I), d. before A.D. 69. A woman of humble origins, Domitilla the Elder had only Latin citizenship at birth. Suetonius tells us she gained Roman citizenship only after her father Flavius Liberalis, a quaestorís clerk from Ferentium, argued on her behalf before an arbitration board.
Though we have virtually no further details of her life or marriage, we do know that Domitilla married Vespasian in 39 or 40, and bore Vespasian two sons, Titus and Domitian, and a homonymous daughter. Coins were issued in the names of all three of these children. Both Domitilla and her daughter died sometime before Vespasian held a magistracy.
Prior to their marriage, Vespasian had as a mistress a freedwoman and secretary of Antonia named Caenis, and Domitilla was in a relationship with an African knight from Sabrata to whom she was possibly a slave, or ìbond woman.î According to Suetonius, when Domitilla died, Vespasian renewed his association with Caenis, ìÖ who remained his wife in all but name even when he became emperor.î After Caenis died, Vespasian continued to have relations with other mistresses on a daily basis.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Since Domitilla the Elder was not consecrated or hailed Augusta, it must be assumed that the aurei and denarii bearing the bust of a young woman identified as DIVA DOMITILLA AVGVSTA belong to her daughter, Domitilla the Younger (the sister of Titus and Domitian). As such, it would appear that there are no portrait coins of the wife of Vespasian, and that only the carpentum sestertii struck during the reign of Titus are attributable to her. The reverse inscriptions (which name the 8th consulship of Titus) date the coins to 80ñ81.
DOMITILLA THE YOUNGER
AUGUSTA: POSTHUMOUSLY
DAUGHTER OF VESPASIAN AND DOMITILLA THE ELDER
SISTER OF TITUS AND DOMITIAN
GRANDMOTHER OF VESPASIAN JUNIOR
AUNT (POSTHUMOUSLY) OF JULIA TITI
Flavia Domitilla (II), d. before A.D. 69. Like her mother, Domitilla the Younger died before Vespasian ascended the throne in 69. Unlike her mother, however, she was consecrated. Of this point we are certain, but it is of some interest that Domitilla the Younger also received the title of Augusta posthumously, for it accompanies the DIVA on her coin inscriptions. This escaped the attention of ancient sources such as Tacitus, Suetonius and Dio Cassius.
Little is known of Domitilla the Younger, except that she gave birth to two boys (who were tutored by Quintilian) and one daughter, who bore the same name as her mother and grandmother, and is thus called Domitilla III by historians. This youngest Domitilla married Flavius Clemens, who was one of two grandsons of Flavius Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian. Domitilla III and her husband had several children, one of whom was the unfortunate Vespasian Junior, who was adopted by and then murdered by Domitian.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The attribution of coinage with the name Domitilla remains a point of confusion among numismatists. Most sources, including RIC, give all such coinage to Domitilla the Elder, the wife of Vespasian. Other sources, such as Cohen, apportion the carpentum sestertii to Domitilla the Younger. However, they are best attributed as follows: aurei and denarii inscribed DIVA DOMITILLA AVGVSTA belong to Domitilla the Younger, and the carpentum sestertii inscribed MEMORIAE DOMITILLAE (or simply DOMITILLA) belong to her mother, Domitilla the Elder.
Since the series of aurei and denarii herein attributed to Domitilla the Younger bear no reverse inscription that precisely dates them, they have traditionally been given to the reign of Titus, when the dated carpentum sestertii and the divi coinage of Vespasian were struck. However, metrological evidence argues for the reign of Domitian ó specifically to c. 82 to 83, after his monetary reform of 82. (See I. Carradice, Coinage and Finances in the Reign of Domitian, A.D. 81ñ96, BARIS 178, Oxford, 1983, pp. 16ñ22.)
In addition to the metrological evidence, there are other aspects of the aurei and denarii that call for their association with Domitian s principate. Perhaps foremost is the fact that Domitian s facial features can be seen so clearly in Domitillaís portrait. This argument is especially valid when the coins of Julia Titi are taken in comparison, for her facial features are strongly assimilated with those of Titus. Also, it seems likely that Domitilla the Younger was hailed Augusta (posthumously) at the same time that Domitianís wife Domitia was given that title. Since Domitia seems to have been hailed in 82, and that date corresponds with the metrological and iconographical evidence already mentioned, the conclusion seems probable that these coins are best given to Domitilla the Younger.
TITUS A.D. 79ñ81
A.D. 69ñ71: CAESAR (UNDER VESPASIAN, WITH DOMITIAN)
A.D. 71ñ79: IMPERATOR (UNDER VESPASIAN; DOMITIAN, AS CAESAR)
A.D. 79ñ81: SOLE REIGN (WITH DOMITIAN, AS CAESAR)
SON OF VESPASIAN AND DOMITILLA THE ELDER
BROTHER OF DOMITIAN AND DOMITILLA THE YOUNGER
FATHER OF JULIA TITI
GREAT-UNCLE OF VESPASIAN JUNIOR
Titus Flavius Vespasianus, A.D. 39ñ81. Though he was destined to rule only about 27 months, Titus was the ideal successor to his father, for the moral character of both men was well-suited for supreme power. His rave review by Suetonius as the ìdelight and darling of the human race,î may have been well-deserved, but so generous a review is tempered by Dio Cassius, who queried whether he would have been judged in so positive a light had he ruled longer.
Because of the great favor his father and uncle enjoyed during the regime of Claudius (41ñ54), Titus was brought up at court along with the emperorís son, Britannicus, with whom he shared the same teachers and curriculum. They became very close friends, and Titus was seated near him at the fateful dinner at which Britannicus was poisoned. Having shared some of the poisoned wine from his friendís cup, Titus himself fell seriously ill as a result.
Suetonius relates a memorable story about the early life of Titus: ìÖ when one day Claudiusí freedman Narcissus called in a physiognomist to examine Britannicusí features and prophesy his future, he was told most emphatically that Britannicus would never succeed his father, whereas Titus (who happened to be present) would achieve that distinction.î
Titus was given the same name as his father, but was called by his praenomen, Titus. He had two siblings, a sister named Flavia Domitilla (Domitilla the Younger) who died while still a young woman, and a brother, Domitian, who was 12 years his junior. Titus was married twice, the first time to Arrecina Tertulla, the daughter of one of Caligulaís praetorian prefects, and later to Marcia Furnilla. Both women bore him a daughter named Julia, though only the one from the second marriage (who is usually called Julia Titi), is represented on coinage.
The career of Titus was accelerated in his 27th year, when he joined his father in conducting the war in Judaea, of which the emperor Nero had given Vespasian command in 66. Though Titus assisted his father in military and diplomatic capacities throughout the campaign (himself commanding Legio XV), he was given sole command after mid-69, when Vespasian became occupied with the details of his rebellion against Vitellius. At this time, both Titus and his younger brother, Domitian (who remained in Rome), were hailed Caesars by their father.
Titus finished the war in Judaea by taking Jerusalem late in 70, and consequently was hailed Imperator by his soldiers. Because of the suspicion aroused by the extreme loyalty of his soldiers, Titus sailed at once for Italy, arriving early in 71. Upon reaching Rome he surprised his father (who was not expecting him), saying ìHere I am, father, here I am!î Together, he and his father celebrated the Judaean triumph, with young Domitian at their side.
Though both Titus and Domitian were named as heirs from the very outset of Vespasianís revolt, it was Titus in whom Vespasian had firmly placed his hopes for succession. Indeed, once Titus was in Rome, he took over command of the praetorian guards from Mucianus, the former governor of Syria who had held that post since he occupied Rome for Vespasian in December of 69.
During his tenure as Caesar and Imperator, collectively from 69 to 79, Titus was not very popular. Indeed, his considerable intellectual and physical attributes, as well as his pleasant singing voice, served as haunting reminders of the principate of Nero. Also adding to his unpopularity was his ruthless suppression of the two leaders of a plot against his father, and his love affair with the princess Berenice, whom he had met in Judaea. Berenice lived in Rome from about 75 to 79, and was only reluctantly sent away by Titus at the insistence of Vespasian, who died shortly thereafter, on June 23 of 79.
Titus succeeded his father smoothly, and his brief reign was marked with a host of accomplishments and some unfortunate natural disasters. The most significant of the latter was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius on August 24, 79. Much of the Bay of Naples was coated with its emissions, and the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed completely. A serious fire and outbreak of the plague also occurred in Rome in the following year. The fire was severe, causing the destruction of the newly rebuilt Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, the Temples of Isis and Serapis, and many other important structures.
One of the positive events was the completion and dedication of the Colosseum in Rome (the Amphitheatrum Flavium) in June of 80. It is estimated that 50,000 could be seated in the amphitheater, which ever since Titusí reign has been an enduring symbol of Rome.
The unpopularity Titus suffered prior to his accession was reversed during his principate. His relations with the senate were cordial, for he refused to put any of them to death or to confiscate property. Perhaps the most famous story of Titus concerns his generous spirit. We are told that at dinner one night he realized that he had done no good deed during that day, at which point he lamented, ìFriends, I have lost a day.î
While only about three months away from his 42nd birthday, Titus died on September 13, 81, of fever in the very same country home where his father had died slightly more than two years before. Though his relationship with Domitian was certainly strained, it is unlikely that Titus died of poison administered by Domitian, as is sometimes alleged.
For all the good Titus had done for the state and the people of Rome, he was not entirely guilt-free, for on his deathbed he is said to have uttered the words ìI have made but one mistake.î Historians have long debated what he meant by this, but to no avail. Perhaps it was his regret for having ended his relationship with the princess Berenice at the insistence of his father and public clamor. Alternatively, it may have involved his unfulfilling relationship with Domitian, or possibly the adulterous affair he was alleged to have had with his brotherís wife, Domitia. The truth, regrettably, will never be known.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Titus first had coins struck in his name by his father Vespasian, who did so both at Imperial mints and in the provinces from 69 to 79. Thereafter, Titus became emperor and struck coinages in his own name, but for a much briefer period, from 79 to 81. During his tenure Titus also struck coins in the name of his younger brother Domitian (who retained the rank of Caesar throughout), his daughter, and his deceased mother and father.
Also of interest is a series of ërestorationí coins Titus struck with the designs of various Julio-Claudian bronzes, all of which must have been familiar to the people. Not only was this series in line with Flavian dynastic propaganda, but it also testifies to the staying power of aes coinage in commerce, for the types honored would have been in circulation for 40 to 70 years. Titus honored ten different issuers with more than 60 varieties recorded; his brother continued the series, but on a more modest scale.
Titusí most famous issue, however, is his sestertius which depicts the colosseum and which commemorates its dedication in June of 80 ó an event followed by 100 days of celebration. The colosseum sestertii are dated by the inscription COS VIII to the period January 1, 80 through his death in September, 81. Gold coins with the reddish ìboscorealeî toning were essentially created during Titusí reign. The coins of this famous cache acquired their distinctive tone from centuries of burial in the ashes issued from Mount Vesuvius, which erupted in the summer of 79.
JULIA TITI
AUGUSTA, C. 79ñ90/91
DAUGHTER OF TITUS
NIECE OF DOMITIAN AND DOMITILLA THE YOUNGER
GRANDDAUGHTER OF VESPASIAN AND DOMITILLA THE ELDER
Flavia Julia, A.D. 64/65ñ90/91. Julia Titi was born to Titus and his second wife, Marcia Furnilla, just before they divorced. She had an older half-sister, also named Julia, who was born to Titusí first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, and who is not represented on coinage. Shortly after the death of her grandfather Vespasian, and the accession of her father, Titus, Julia Titi was given the title of Augusta.
Her father had taken a strong personal interest in her marriage, for she figured prominently into the propagation of the fledgling dynasty. At first Titus tried to marry her to his younger brother, Domitian, but the latter was already married to Domitia and did not want to divorce. So, Titus arranged that she marry her second-cousin, Flavius Sabinus, one of two grandsons of Vespasianís brother (who also was named Flavius Sabinus).
This generation of the Flavian dynasty had two second-cousin marriages ó one being the above-mentioned, another being between Flavius Clemens, the brother of the Flavius Sabinus, and Flavia Domitilla III, the homonymous granddaughter of Domitilla, the wife of Vespasian. This Domitilla, the third in the family line, was the first cousin of Julia Titi, and the mother of Vespasian Junior, the unfortunate lad who was half-heartedly adopted by Domitian.
Though already married to Flavius Sabinus, Julia Titi engaged in an illicit love-affair with her uncle, Domitian, the man who had refused to marry her the first time around. The affair had begun while Titus was still alive, but only came to public attention after Domitian divorced and exiled his own wife, Domitia, in c. 83. Thereafter, he openly lived with Julia Titi, behaving in all manners as if they were husband and wife.
In about 84, Domitianís attachment became so strong that he executed Julia Titiís husband, Flavius Sabinus, on the flimsy pretext that a herald had mistakenly declared him emperor instead of consul (the post to which he had been elected jointly with Domitian in 82). Julia died either in 90 or 91 while attempting to abort a child that presumably was fathered by Domitian. The emperor was devastated at her passing, and in 91 consecrated her. Suetonius tells us that after Domitian was murdered, his ashes were mixed with those of his beloved Julia Titi.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Though by no means common, the coinage issued in the name of Julia Titi is extensive and was struck over a long period. The first issues (limited to denarii and dupondii) occur under Titus, and celebrate her being hailed Augusta. Later issues were struck by Domitian, both during her lifetime and after her deification. The first issue under Domitian (c. 81 to 82) is of aurei featuring her bust paired with her deified father. Other issues of aurei, denarii and cistophori were struck in her name alone, perhaps as early as 81. Her consecration coinage under Domitian is limited to a rare, undated issue of aurei and two issues of sestertii dated to 90ñ91 and 92ñ94 based on their reverse inscriptions. Some provincial aes were also struck in her name.
Some of the coinage struck by Domitian for his wife, Domitia, and his common law wife, Julia Titi, feature peacocks as reverse types. Interestingly, the bird on Domitiaís coinage is shown in profile with its tail feathers folded, whereas the bird on Julia Titi coins is shown facing, with its tail in splendor.
DOMITIAN A.D. 81ñ96
A.D. 69ñ71: CAESAR (UNDER VESPASIAN, WITH TITUS)
A.D. 71ñ79: CAESAR (UNDER VESPASIAN; TITUS AS IMPERATOR)
A.D. 79ñ81: CAESAR (UNDER TITUS)
A.D. 81ñ96: SOLE REIGN
SON OF VESPASIAN AND DOMITILLA THE ELDER
BROTHER OF TITUS AND DOMITILLA THE YOUNGER
HUSBAND OF DOMITIA
FATHER OF A DEIFIED SON AND A DAUGHTER, NAMES UNKNOWN
UNCLE OF JULIA TITI
ADOPTIVE FATHER AND GREAT-UNCLE OF VESPASIAN JUNIOR
Titus Flavius Domitianus, a.d. 51ñ96. As the last of Suetoniusí famous ìTwelve Caesars,î Domitian occupies a precarious position in Roman history. Because of his autocratic, heavy-handed ways, he was despised by the senate, and because he increased salaries and led campaigns in person, he was loved by the army. His assassination comes as no surprise, for his regime, much like that of Commodus a century later, became increasingly despotic with the passage of time.
Domitianís upbringing was not as privileged as that of his brother, Titus, who was a dozen years his senior. While only 16 years old, Domitian got his first taste of the political and military chaos that accompanies civil war. The dangers became especially apparent when in mid-69 his father, Vespasian, was hailed emperor by the legions in the East (where he and Titus were leading the war in Judaea). Upon his father being elevated, Domitian and Titus were made Caesars. Considering Vespasianís revolt was in opposition to Vitellius ó who was then in power at Rome ó it was a far from secure situation for Domitian and his uncle, Flavius Sabinus, who was the city prefect of Rome.
It all came to a head in the middle of December 69, as the Danubian and Syrian legions loyal to Vespasian were advancing on Rome. Domitian and his uncle were attacked by unruly soldiers and withstood a siege in the temple of Capitoline Jupiter. Though his uncle was captured and executed, Domitian donned a disguise and fled to safety as the inviolable temple was burning to the ground. Within a day or two Vespasian had been recognized as emperor by the senate, and Domitian was out of immediate danger.
After his father arrived from the East in October of 70, Domitian was given a junior command in the campaign to end the nationalistic revolt of Julius Civilis in Gaul and Germany. The war was a quick success, and Domitian returned to Rome shortly before his brother, Titus, arrived from the east, himself having brought the war in Judaea to a conclusion. Together, in 71, the three men of the Flavian dynasty celebrated a magnificent triumph before crowds who no doubt welcomed the stability they represented to the war-torn Empire.
Throughout the next decade, however, Domitian played a minor role in government, even though the honors he received (including seven consulships) were considerable. It was clear to all that Titus was destined to inherit the throne from his father. When Vespasian died in 79, Titus was hailed emperor without opposition.
Domitianís relationship with his brother was not ideal, but certainly was not as bad as Suetonius would lead us to believe, for that historian suggests that Domitian ìÖ never once stopped plotting, secretly or openly, against his brother.î Most historians are equally quick to dismiss the rumors that Domitian either poisoned Titus, or took measures to expedite his death after he had fallen ill.
Even after Titus died late in 81 after ruling for 27 months, it was not entirely clear that Domitian was meant to succeed him. But we are told that Domitian took no chances, for he quickly covered the 40-plus miles from their family villa to Rome before his brother had yet died, and had the Praetorian Guards hail him emperor. As callous as this may appear, it no doubt was a practical necessity in the event any coups were in waiting. On the next day, September 14, Domitian was confirmed by the senate, and soon after had his brother (who was popular with the senate) consecrated.
Much like his brother and father, Domitian had inherited considerable talents. Even the hostile Suetonius tells us Domitian was an archer of the greatest skill, and that he was able to place an arrow between the spread fingers of a hand without error. He also inherited the work ethic and sense of responsibility that his father and brother had possessed, and which he used to better the government.
Domitian sometimes was too strict in enforcing the standards of conduct both in the government and in the private sector. In one of his more famous acts, Domitian executed four of the six Vestal Virgins: three for incest and one, the head Vestal, for her numerous love affairs. The head Vestal, named Cornilia, was buried alive, and her lovers were publicly beaten to death in the Forum. Such moral righteousness, however, demonstrates his hypocrisy, for Domitianís sex life was anything but pedestrian or moral.
Domitian married Domitia Longina while he was still in his late teens, and they remained married for about 13 years. However, he engaged in frequent affairs, and is said to have considered sex to be ìbed wrestling.î Most perverse, however, was his incestuous relationship with his niece, Julia Titi. After he divorced and exiled his wife in about 83, Domitian openly began to live with Julia Titi in the manner of husband and wife. Only her death in 90 or 91 from an attempted abortion ended the affair, and provided the opportunity for Domitia to re-enter the Imperial palace.
Even though Domitian left a surplus in the treasury after his death, he was not as capable as his father at managing finances, for he had to resort to heavy taxation, confiscations and debasement of the coinage to support his enterprises. Most troublesome was the fiscal drain caused by the army. But the soldiers were his strength both within and outside the Empire, so Domitian thought it best to spend his money on the army. In addition to other incentives, Domitian raised the annual pay of a legionnaire from 300 to 400 denarii.
His reign was relatively peaceful throughout the vast Empire, but was troubled by invasions along the Rhine and Danube. Though hardly a general of great repute, Domitian was the first emperor since Claudius to campaign in person while in office. During the course of his 16-year reign, Domitian led one campaign on the Rhine and three on the Danube.
The earliest campaign, in 83, was against a Germanic people called the Chatti, who lived on the far side of the Rhine. Two years later, a more serious war broke out on the Danubian front, where Romans battled Dacians led by the king Decebalus. The costly war raged from 85 to 88, only to be solved by diplomacy so that the Romans could fight the Quadi and Marcomanni on the Upper Danube. Later still, Domitian waged war against the Sarmatians on at least one occasion. The governor of Britain, Agricola, also made important progress during Domitianís reign by advancing into northern Scotland before he was recalled.
Late in 88 or early 89 a revolt was sparked by Lucius Antonius Saturninus, the governor of Upper Germany. However, it was unsuccessful because the Rhine thawed unexpectedly, and Saturninus was starved of the auxiliaries he had recruited in Germany. Left only with his two legions, which probably reconsidered their loyalty to Saturninus, the rebel was easily defeated by Lappius Maximus, the governor of Lower Germany. This was one of the few events that reflected poorly upon Domitianís command of the army.
The failed revolt of Saturninus proved to be a turning point in Domitianís reign, for with the passage of time, he became increasingly paranoid and severe. But, as Domitian so rightly observed: ìno one believes in a conspiracy against the emperor until it has succeeded.î The execution of senators increased and he came to rely upon spies, informants and the torture of suspects to gather the information he desired. By 93, his regime had become despotic, and few if any noblemen or senators felt secure in their person or their possessions.
In 95 his frequent executions (including at least a dozen ex-consuls) touched too close to home, as he executed his second-cousin, Flavius Clemens, and banished the manís widow, Flavia Domitilla III, who was Domitianís own niece. We may also presume he murdered or exiled the unfortunate coupleís children, two of whom were Domitianís adopted heirs.
Now that not even those close to Domitian could feel secure, a successful coup was formed. The pattern of events which led to the coup, as well as its participants and its method of execution, bear an uncanny resemblance to those which caused the downfall of Commodus almost a century later. Among those leading the plot against Domitian were the leaders of the Praetorian Guards, certain freedmen and chamberlains, and Domitia, the wife whom he had recalled from exile about five years before.
Domitianís murder, which occurred about one month before his 45th birthday, was particularly gruesome. Having been relieved of the sword (or dagger) he always kept under his pillow, Domitian was set upon by the chamberlain Stephanus, who had been the steward of the recently exiled Flavia Domitilla III. Domitian was stabbed in the groin by Stephanus, and a fierce struggle ensued in which Domitian tried to gouge his attackerís eyes. But before Domitian could save himself, other conspirators burst into the room and hacked him to death.
Not surprisingly, the senate was overjoyed at the news and condemned his memory, though the army was angered at the passing of their benefactor. The circumstances permitted a momentary recovery of power by the senate, which elected an elderly senator named Nerva to fill the Imperial vacancy. However, the army soon came to its senses and Nerva was forced to adopt a military man, Trajan, as his son and intended successor.
Domitianís legacy is severely tainted by his declining years, and by an understandably hostile literary record written by members of the senatorial class. Though Domitian did not receive a dignified funeral, the nurse who cremated his body later returned to Rome and mixed his ashes with those of his beloved niece, Julia Titi.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: Much of Domitianís coinage was struck while he was Caesar ó from 69 to 79 under his father Vespasian, and from 79 to 81 under his older brother Titus. Though his most common type as Augustus is that of Minerva standing, various interesting designs occur on gold, silver and base metal coinages, some showing elaborate scenes of sacrifice or architectural objects. Among his most interesting reverse types are those celebrating the Saecular Games of 88, which sometimes combine ritual with architecture. In addition to coinage struck in his own name, he also produced issues for his deceased sister, brother and son, and ërestoredí aes coinages of six of his Julio-Claudian predacessors. Additionally, he struck a large coinage for his beloved niece/common law wife Julia Titi, and a single provincial issue for his would-be heir, Vespasian Junior. With the accession of Domitian we find a return to idealism in portraiture which had been so widely used in the Augustan age, but which had been abandoned during the civil war and its aftermath. Like Otho, Domitian was a wig-wearer, and his lush toupee is carefully modeled on the coinage.
DOMITIA
AUGUSTA, A.D. 82ñ96
WIFE OF DOMITIAN
MOTHER OF A DEIFIED SON AND A DAUGHTER, NAMES UNKNOWN
SISTER-IN-LAW OF TITUS AND DOMITILLA THE YOUNGER
DAUGHTER-IN-LAW OF VESPASIAN AND DOMITILLA THE ELDER
Domitia Longina, c. A.D. 50ñ55ñc. 140. The daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, the most renowned general of Nero (whose victories in the east were rewarded only with his execution in 66), Domitia was already married to a certain Lucius Lamia Aemilianus when she came to be pursued by Domitian. With his own father, Vespasian, now in supreme power Domitian was able to wrest Domitia from her husband. He initially took her as a mistress, then, in 70 (or later), as his wife.
The story of her association with Domitian is tragic, though it did not come to a crisis until after he became emperor. That Domitia was not a chaste woman is attested not only by her affair with the actor Paris that caused her to be exiled, but also by a great many other affairs, including one allegedly with her husbandís brother, Titus. If this was true, Domitian may have viewed his own affair with Titusí daughter (which had begun long before Titus died) as a measure of reciprocation.
Despite their mutual fondness for extramarital affairs, they were compatible for the first decade or more of their marriage. Domitia bore two children, though exactly when they were born is disputed by historians ó the girl may have been born in 73 and the boy in 74, or in 82 and 83, respectively. Since Domitia was hailed Augusta in 82, the latter seems more likely. Unfortunately for the Imperial couple, both the daughter and the son were short-lived.
Though the details are sketchy, it is known that Domitian divorced and exiled Domitia c. 83, about the time she probably gave birth to her ill-fated son. The reason Suetonius gives for this parting of the ways was that Domitia had become romantically involved with an actor named Paris, who, as a result, was murdered on orders of Domitian openly in the streets of Rome. (This Paris is not to be confused with the actor of the same name whom Nero murdered because he considered him to be a serious professional rival on the stage.)
In any event, after Domitia was exiled, Domitian became more public about the incestuous relationship he had already been engaged in with his niece, Julia Titi. The uncle-niece relationship was essentially a common law marriage, for they openly behaved as if husband and wife. The relationship lasted until 90 or 91 (opinions vary), when Julia Titi died during a botched abortion of a child whom Domitian presumably had sired.
Emotionally devastated and under public pressure, Domitian recalled Domitia from exile soon after Julia Titiís death and renewed his relationship with her. In the end, this proved to be a foolhardy move, for Domitia became involved in the plot of 96 in which her husband was murdered. Domitia ó then a wealthy woman ó survived her husband and lived in grand style to a ripe old age.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The coinage issued jointly in the names of Domitian and Domitia seems to belong to the period 81ñc. 83, whereas those which honor her alone belong both to this early period and to years after she returned from repudiation. See the Numismatic Notes for Julia Titi and ìSon of Domitianî for other details which apply to Domitiaís coinage.
DEIFIED SON OF DOMITIAN
SON OF DOMITIAN AND DOMITIA
GRANDSON OF VESPASIAN AND DOMITILLA THE ELDER
NEPHEW OF TITUS AND DOMITILLA THE YOUNGER
Name unknown, born c. A.D. 74 or 83. The infant boy portrayed on certain coins of Domitia, the wife of Domitian, died in infancy (or perhaps at two or three years old), and was consecrated. He is one of two children Domitia bore Domitian, a brother and sister, both of whom died young without their names being recorded in any source that survives. We can be certain, however, that this boy is not one and the same as Vespasian Junior, the great-nephew whom Domitian later adopted as his successor.
Exactly when the two children of Domitian and Domitia were born is disputed. The confusion derives from a passage in Suetonius, which reveals that Domitia . . had presented Domitian with a daughter during his second consulship and, in the following year, with a son.ì This could mean his second consulship, which began in 73 and continued into 75 (while he was still Caesar under Vespasian), or his second consulship as Augustus (Cos VIII), which occurred in 82.
Historians have interpreted Suetoniusí passage both ways with equal frequency, and are still divided on the matter. However, considering Domitia was hailed Augusta in 82, the latter scenario may be more likely, as the wives of emperors were often hailed Augusta upon the occasion of giving birth (and that would be the year she gave birth to the girl).
Domitian seems to have divorced his wife and sent her into exile for her adulterous activities c. 83, about the time she would have given birth to the boy if the latter circumstance is the correct one. Thus, speculation is invited: did Domitian suspect the boy had been sired by one of Domitiaís lovers (Paris, perhaps?), or did he believe that since Domitia had produced a viable heir to the throne it was practical to put her aside?
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The unnamed, deified boy makes his most remarkable appearance on aurei and denarii of Domitia, which portray him as young Jupiter, with raised arms, seated on a globe among the stars in the constellation of the Great Bear, surrounded by the inscription DIVVS CAESAR IMP DOMITIANI E On rare occasions, this reverse type is mistakenly (?) muled with an obverse of Domitian. The boy is also represented on two other rare series of coins: denarii with the inscription PIETAS AVGVST showing him as a child standing before Domitia (who, in the guise of Pietas, is seated left) and on sestertii with a similar scene but with the inscriptions DIVI CAESAR MATRI or DIVI CAESARIS MATER.
VESPASIAN JUNIOR
ADOPTED SON, AND HEIR OF DOMITIAN
GRANDSON OF DOMITILLA THE YOUNGER
GREAT-NEPHEW OF TITUS AND DOMITIAN
GREAT-GRANDSON OF VESPASIAN AND DOMITILLA THE ELDER
NEPHEW OF JULIA TITI
Titus Flavius Domitianus (Junior), d. A.D. 95/6(?). A considerable drawback to Domitianís principate was his lack of an heir. Thus, sometime prior to 95 (but certainly late in his reign), he adopted two of his great-nephews, and re-named them Vespasian and Domitian. Of the boys we know very little, except that they were tutored by the renowned rhetorician Quintillian, who counted Pliny the Younger among his pupils.
The boys were two of seven children born to Domitianís niece, Flavia Domitilla III and her husband (and second-cousin) Flavius Clemens, the grandson of Vespasianís brother, Flavius Sabinus, and the brother of Flavius Sabinus, the husband of Julia Titi. This particular Flavia Domitilla was the third generation of a family line of homonymous women: her mother was the sister of Titus and Domitian (listed as ìDomitilla the Youngerî), and her grandmother was Vespasianís wife (listed as ìDomitilla the Elderî).
Thus, the boys were of fine Imperial lineage, being great-grandsons of Vespasianís brother on the paternal side, and great-grandsons of Vespasian on the maternal side. It is worth noting that scholars disagree as to whether their father, Flavius Clemens, was the grandson or the son of Vespasianís brother. The confusion may be traced to the historian Eusebius, who, writing more than two centuries after the fact, refers to Flavia Domitilla III as Clemensí niece rather than his second cousin. Eusebius makes a further error by suggesting Clemens and wife were Christians, when they were more likely proselytes to Judaism.
Not only was Clemens an unsavory character (Suetonius describes him as being of ìdespicable idlenessî), but he was also the only legitimate rival to the throne who was of age. So, in 95, the year in which Clemens was consul, Domitian leveled charges of atheism against him and Domitilla as well, executing Clemens and exiling his wife to Pandateria. Since we hear nothing of their boys, Vespasian Junior and Domitian Junior, after 96, we may presume they were killed or exiled as a result of the downfall of their parents.
Domitian took these violent measures against the family of Flavia Domitilla III to eliminate relatives-in-waiting for the throne. Though Domitian no doubt justified these treacherous measures as acts of self-defense, they only served to expedite his murder, which occurred in September of the following year at the hands of Stefanus, the steward of Flavia Domitilla III.
NUMISMATIC NOTE: The identification of the Vespasian Junior on coins of Smyrna is secured by the obverse inscription OYECΠACIANOC NEΩTEPOC, which names the young man portrayed as ëthe younger Vespasian.í The portrait is youthful and resembles no other Flavian male. As if more proof were necessary, some of these Smyrnian coins share reverse dies with issues of Domitian as Augustus, thus linking them to a period more than 15 years after Vespasian died. No coins are known which name or portray Domitian Junior.
Sometimes incorrectly attributed to Vespasian Junior are small bronzes struck at Aegae in Aeolis with the obverse inscription OYHCΠHCIANOC KAICAP, meaning ëVespasian Caesar.í This curious issue features portraits of two radically different styles ó one readily identifiable as Vespasian, and another inexplicably youthful. Despite the variant portraits and unusual inscription, the issue must be given to Vespasian himself, and probably to c. 69/70, at the beginning of his reign. Beyond the fact that we have no evidence of Domitian giving Vespasian Junior the title Caesar, we must also consider that all three members of the early dynasty ó Vespasian, Titus and Domitian ó are represented on that same series of coins. This circumstance alone takes the Aegae coinage out of context for the adopted Vespasian Junior, for it is at least 15 years too early, and in all likelihood about 25 years too early.
The strangely youthful bust of Vespasian would seem to have been produced upon the arrival in the East of news concerning Vitelliusí overthrow, and thus it reflects little more than the die cutterís speculation as to Vespasianís appearance. When the official innagios arrived in the East shortly thereafter, the Vespasian portrait issue was continued, but now with an accurate image of the new emperor. In the same series at Aegae there are coins with the confronted busts of Titus and Domitian, with the former being laureate and the latter bare-headed. Since both sons were named Caesar upon Vespasian being hailed Augustus, they understandably were included in the issue of Aegae. The fact that Titus is laureate may easily be explained by the fact that he was Vespasianís heir apparent, and by the fact that he was then directing the war in Judaea, and was hailed Imperator by his soldiers after he took Jerusalem late in 70.