This short list of key words associates a family of selected English words with the Greek family that they translate. Although I list only one word from each family, it will often help to introduce its relatives. Hence “ambition” helps with “ambitious,” for example, as does philotimia with philotimos. Similarly, the translation of words with meanings opposite to those listed often can be inferred from them. This list will help interested readers begin to follow a few Greek terms through the English translation, and it is also a convenient way for me to acknowledge some of the more important occasions on which a strictly consistent translation proved impossible. It is of course only a small step toward reducing the extra challenges that face the Greekless student of Greek texts.
“Able” and “capable” both translate dunamai. This family of words is based on the Greek word for “power,” and “power” is thus also used to signal the presence of a Greek word related to dunamai. The noun dunamis is always rendered as “power.”
“Advantage” is used to translate several different Greek words, all important especially for their relationship to what is good on the one hand and what is just on the other. Chief among them are sumpheron, sumphoron, and words related to pleon echō and pleonekteō. These last two phrases usually combine the notions of getting more than others and getting more than one’s fair share. They usually suggest, that is, the disposition to get more, the techniques used to get more, or both. Forms of the last two Greek terms will generally be translated by “getting,” “seizing,” or “taking” the advantage. Key passages include 1.6.25–41 and 6.1.55.
“Aide” is sometimes used to translate huperētēs, but “servant” is my more common rendering. Service may be done at a high level, however, so “aide” is sometimes more apt. A wide variety of terms is used to describe those who associate with Cyrus, and these terms themselves often have a wide range of meanings. The others listed in this glossary are “friend,” “companion,” “comrade,” “associates,” “followers,” and “chief aide.” The full array of pertinent Greek expressions is too long and complex for consistent rendering into English.
“Amaze” and “wonder” both translate thaumazō. At 3.1.5 I use “admire,” which is otherwise reserved for agamai.
“Ambition” translates philotimia, whose literal meaning is “love of honor.”
“As is / was to be expected” translates hōsper eikos, a set phrase with which the narrator of the Education comments on its action. I use similar translations for the kindred Greek phrases, hōs to eikon, hōs eikos, and kata to eikos. Cf. 2.1.1.
“Associates” translates sunontes, a participle from suneimi, and, when possible, I use “associate” to translate the verb. However, I was not able to render suneimi, a common and important verb, with strict consistency (cf. 8+2, 6.1.36, 3.1.39).
“Be at a loss” translates aporeō, which has as its core meaning “to be without resources.” Where intellectual matters are at issue, it indicates bewilderment. Cf. 3.1.6, 13–14.
“Beautiful” may translate kalos, which is more commonly rendered “noble.” “Handsome” is used when the beauty of a man is in question. “Fine” may also render kalos, especially when in its adverbial form. No one of these three English words is used to translate any word except kalos and its cognates. See “Noble.”
“Benevolent” translates philanthrōpos, whose etymology suggests the translation “friend of humankind.” That Cyrus consciously cultivated a reputation for benevolence helps raise the question of how far he deserves it (Cf. 8.2.1, 1.2.1).
“Blessedly happy” is the rendering for makarios, which is to be distinguished from eudaimōn, “happy.” These terms help raise and broaden the question of the effect of Cyrus’ rule on his subjects as well as on how to assess Cyrus’ own claim to be blessedly happy (8.7.8–9, 8.3.48).
“Care” is often used to translate epimeleia. Words with the root mel-occur very frequently in the Education, and it is impossible to employ a single word or phrase in the translation of all of them. “Discipline” and “training” (as at 8.1.43) are also used, and “neglect” is often used for the opposite quality.
“Chief aides” translates epikairioi on most of its appearances; “chiefs” does so on three. Its ety mology suggests “timely ones,” and it is especially Xenophon who uses this word to refer to men of authority, whether military or political.
“Companion” translates hetairos.
“Comrade” translates parastatēs, which occurs only at 2.1.13.
“Continence” translates enkrateia, many of whose cognates are translated by “control.” Continence or self-control was a quality of special importance for the Persians in general (1.2.8). Cyaxares’ amusing charge that his nephew is incontinent helps invite the reader to probe Cyrus’ claim to possess this quality (4.1.14).
“Custom” and “law” are used to translate nomos and the adjective nomimon. Nomizō, the related verb, is generally rendered by “believe.” Readers seeking to distinguish forms of eiothos, for which I usually reserve “accustomed,” will need to consult a Greek text. Cyrus’ complex blend of exploitation and criticism of Persian customs forms one of the chief themes of the Education.
“Educate” translates paideuō, whose importance for the book is signaled even in the title.
“Endurance” and “steadfastness” both are used to translate karteria.
“Envy” translates phthonos.
“Fitting” translates forms of three Greek words, harmottō, prepō, and prosēkō. The first of these is used only in Book 1, Chapter 3. The other two terms occur elsewhere, but I could not distinguish them in translation. A fourth word, eikos, can be very similar in meaning. Except when used in the phrase “as is likely,” I have rendered it “appropriate.”
“Followers” translates hoi amphi auton, whose literal meaning is “those around him.”
“Fortune” translates tuche, although “misfortune” translates sumphora at 4.2.5.
“Free” is my usual translation of eleutheros. The Greek word may also mean “generous” or “liberal.” “Independent” mightbetter capture its meaning at 8.3.21.
“Friend” always translates philos. The verb phileō, however, may be translated either by a word related to “friend,” as “to kiss,” or as “to love.” In the last case, I add an endnote to distinguish it from eraō. See “Love.”
“Gain,” when a noun, translates kerdos.
“Gratitude” translates charis, as does the noun “favor.” See 1.2.7 for the importance of this quality in the Persian republic.
“Happiness” translates eudaimonia. Distinguish ‘1’lessed happiness.”
“Holy” translates both hosios and eusebēs, as does “pious.” A cognate of eusebēs is translated as “irreverent” at 8.8.27.
“Honor” is generally used in the translation of words related to timē. For the most important exceptions, see “Peer” and “Ambition.”
“Human being” translates anthrōpos in most of its appearances. An anthrōpos is a human being without any claim to the special excellences or professed excellences of the male in particular. Anēr refers to the male and, often, to the male who possesses the qualities most admired by Greek males. The distinction between these two Greek words is evident in 1.1.6, for example, where Cyrns is called a man (anēr) and said to rule over human beings (anthrōpoi). See also 2.2.21. “People” may render anthrōpoi where “human beings” seems especially clumsy, but “the people” is reserved for dēmos. See “People.”
“Insolent” translates hubris. At 2.4.5, however, a weaker “ostentatious” is used. Hubris indicates excessive pride or insolence and the actions, sometimes violent, that issue from it.
“Jealous” translates zeloō, which occurs only at 5.2.12.
“Judgment” translates gnōmē. It is related to the verb gignōskō, though this relationship cannot be indicated in translation. See “Know.”
“Just” translates adjectives cognate with dikaiosunē, “justice.” When the word “right” is used with moral connotations, it helps translate axioō (as at 7.5.45, 47, 78) or the sole use of themis (at 1.6.6).
“Know,” as a verb, may render gignōskō, oida, or epistamai. I have not found a consistent way of distinguishing these words by their English translations, and it would become a distraction to try to solve this problem by endnotes. Indeed, in some of their uses manthanō and suniēmi are also difficult to distinguish from these more common words for “to know.” For careful study of the several Greek verbs that indicate cognition, one must know Greek. See “Understanding.”
“Knowledge,” the noun, translates only cognates of epistēmē.
“Law” and “custom” translate nomos. The related verb nomizō, however, is generally translated as “believe.” On several occasions it or participles formed from it will be translated as “custom” or a related word, as at 8.5.3.
“Leisure” translates scholē.
“Love” is used whenever a form of erōs is in the Greek. “Love” may also be used to render the verb related to philia (in which case I add an endnote) and in the case of Greek compound words, such as those translated by “lover of beauty” or “lover of labor” (and yet it is a relative of eraō, which is translated as “lovers of praise” at 1.5.12). Eros and philia are the two main words for “love” in Classical Greek. The latter often connotes friendship and friendly affection, the former sexual love. A third word, agapaō, I have generally translated as “cherish.” Eraō occurs with the greatest frequency at 5.1.10–18.
“Man” translates anēr. “Men” and “man” refer to adult males, and they may imply the presence of the qualities Greek males admired (cf. 2.2.21). See “Human being.”
“Master” translates despotēs everywhere but in 4.5.40, where “potentate” is used. Despotēs designates a master of the slaves who were a part of many Greek households or, by extension, “despots,” who ruled like slave masters.
“Moderation” translates sōphrosunē. The roots from which the word is composed suggest an original meaning of something like “of sound heart or mind,” and its meaning in Classical Greek ranges from restraint in matters concerning bodily desires to discretion or prudence. The Greek word implies more easily than its translation that the moderate person is generally sensible or even prudent (cf. 3.1.17). I have translated aphrosunē, the opposite of sōphrosunē, as “immoderation” at 3.1.18 and 4.12.41 and as “folly” at 1.5.10. Cyrus’ view of the relationship between moderation, insolence, and respect is reported at 8.1.30–31.
“Nature” is used to translate phusis as well as related words and phrases. Exceptions are noted. Its importance emerges especially in light of its distinction from law or custom.
“Necessity” is used to translate anagkē. I have used the adjective “necessary” to translate the Greek adjective anagkaios, though I hasten to stress that I have not generally been able to match parts of speech in translation.
“Noble” renders kalos, which has sometimes been translated also as beautiful,” “handsome,” or “fine.” See “Beautiful.”
“Peer” translates homotimos, whose literal meaning is “of like honor.” It refers above all to the small ruling class in the old Persian republic. Distinguish entimos, which is used of the upper classes in Armenia (3.1.8) and in the new Persian empire (8.1.6, 8).
“People” may translate anthrōpos, as it does at 6+11. “The people” translates dēmos, which serves as the basis for our word “democracy.” At 2.2.22 dēmos is used by a member of the Persian upper class to refer to those many Persians who were without military training and political rights, and the word translated as “commoner” has dēmos as its root. “The people” is thus not the entirety of the political community but a particular political group, even if a very large one. In the eyes of this upper class, the dēmos may be but a mob (ochlos, 2.2.21).
“Power” is a translation of dunamis or a related word. See “Able.”
“Praise” translates epainos.
“Provisions” or a phrase like “what is required” translates epitēdeia. “Sustenance” is used at 2.1.15.
“Prudent” translates phronimos.
“Relish” translates opsa. The Greeks—and Xenophon’s Persians appear to have been Greeks also in this respect—usually ate bread as the main item of a meal and referred to its tastier accompaniments as opsa (“relish”). Meat was for them a favorite relish, and greens seem even then not to have aroused much enthusiasm. Opsa is translated as “meat” where meat is the relish in question, as at 2.2.4–5, 10.
“Respect” translates aidōs. It might also be rendered “reverence.” Cyrus’ view of its distinction from moderation is given at 8.1.31.
“Rule” is my preferred rendering of archē. It has a wide range of meanings, however, and its cognates may be translated as “command,” “reign,” “sovereignty,” or “empire.” When the reference is to those who hold office, I have used “magistrates” or, in a military context, “officers.”
“Shameful” translates aischros.
“Soul” appears only when psuchē is in the Greek text, but on five occasions psuchē is translated as “life.” These are at 3.1.36, 3.1.41, 3.3.44, 4.6.4, and 6.4.5.
“Steadfastness” and “endurance” are both used to translate karteria.
“Substance” translates ousia. Its primary meaning in the Education is “substance” in the sense of “possessions,” but it can also mean “being.” It occurs only at.8+25 (twice) and 8.4.32.
“Teach” is the consistent translation of didaskō.
“Understanding” translates adjectives based on the noun epistēmē, which is rendered “knowledge” in this translation, but its meaning might also be captured by “science” or “scientific knowledge.” See also “Knowledge.”
“Vile” translates poneros, as does “worthless.”
“Virtue” translates arete and only aretē.
“Visible” is used to translate phainō, as is “manifest.” With a different grammatical construction, however, it may mean “appears” and is so translated. Although this word is important for helping to indicate that someone is putting on a show or is especially concerned with appearances, it cannot be translated with sufficient consistency to indicate to the English reader its presence in the Greek.
“Wonder” translates thaumazō. See “Amaze.”
“Wrong” translates hamartanō, which may refer to mere mistakes, where a moral judgment is not implied, as well as to acts of injustice. It occurs only at 3.1.15, 27–28, 38.