Notes

NOTES TO BOOK I

1 See Glossary, “People.”

2 Glossary, “Human being.”

3 Epistamenōs is the adverb based on epistēmē. See Glossary, “Knowledge.”

4 There were two peoples called Phrygians, the Greater and the Lesser.

5 As with many other aspects of his career, the conquests of Xenophon’s Cyrus are not identical with those of the historical Cyrus. See Hubert A. Holden, The Cyropaedia of Xenophon, Books I and II (London: Cambridge University Press, 1887), 91–4.

6 Other important mss. read “love of gratifying him” instead of “desire of gratifying him.” See Glossary, “Love.”

7 Basilikōs, kingly; 1.3.18 suggests a distinction between kings and tyrants.

8 Thaumazō is also translated as admire, as in 1.1.1. See Glossary, “Wonder.”

9 Perseus was the son of Zeus and Danae. His most famous exploit was killing the Gorgon Medusa, which he managed to do with help from Athena and Hermes. Xenophon does not show Cyrus being directly aided by his divine ancestors, but the belief that he descended from them was useful to him (4.1.24, 7.2.24).

10 The three terms used to describe the public view of the main natural qualities of Cyrus’ soul are superlatives based on the words philanthrōpos, philomathēs, philotimos. They might be more literally translated as “loving human beings,” “loving learning,” and “loving honor.” The last of these words (and its cognates) will often be rendered by “ambitious” (and its cognates). The term used to describe Cyrus’ bodily form is the superlative of the word kalos, of which this is the first use. See Glossary, “Noble.”

11 More literally, “in shape [morphē] and soul.”

12 Miller makes the most forceful statement of the common view that this Persia is based not on Persia at all but on Sparta. Xenophon, Cyropaedia, ed. Walter Miller (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968), viii-ix. For some of the evidence, see Lacedaemonian Republic 2.2ff. and Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 118oa24–30. And see Glossary, “Vile.”

13 See Glossary, “Rule.”

14 See Glossary, “Moderation.”

15 The reference is not to the class of elders (geraioi) but to everyone older (presbuteroi) than the boys, as the possessive pronoun is meant to suggest here and elsewhere. I translated presbuteroi as adults in 1.2.2.

16 See Glossary, “Continence.” Listing enkrateia (continence) separately from sOphrosyne (moderation) of course suggests a distinction. Cf. 8.1.30–32. For Aristotle’s distinction, see Nicomachean Ethics 1145b8–20.

17 See Glossary, “Relish.”

18 Koinon. Literally, “for the common,” where a noun such as “good” or “interest” is understood. Greek readily uses an adjective to imply a noun, so that a more literal translation would be filled with such phrases as “a great,” “the common,” “this most wretched,” “a beautiful.” The translator is thus often obliged to select a noun from among several candidates that have different shades of meaning. I shall note only the most important of such cases.

19 The kopis was apparently a short sword with a curved blade. Though anachronistic, “scimitar” suggests the basic form of this weapon.

20 See Glossary, “As is/was to be expected.”

21 See Glossary, “Rule.”

22 Perhaps this curious phrase emphasizes that men are not always what they are called. The adjective translated as “mature” in order to designate the previous age group is teleios, and it also means “complete” or “perfect.”

23 “Public” is a tempting translation of koinon, but I reserve it for dēmosion, which was used above at 1.2.10 and 12, and will be used just below. Perhaps this use of koinon also helps to show that what is common may not be common to everyone, but only to some. See note 18 above.

24 The Greek could also be in the masculine. Faced with the ambiguity, I have translated in the neuter because Xenophon’s initial interest in Cyrus was not primary but derivative from an interest in successful rule.

25 Kalas kagathos. This common adjectival phrase is made up ofwords whose literal meanings suggest nobility or beauty on the one hand and goodness on the other. Others often translate it as “gentleman,” which among other recommendations has the advantage of suggesting that the kaloi kagathoi as commonly perceived belonged to the upper crust. Xenophon’s Oeconomicus is devoted in significant part to Socrates’ investigation of the kalos kagathos (6.112f.). Clumsy though it is, “noble and good;” will be my rendering, and its very clumsiness may help to call attention to Xenophon’s use of this important phrase.

26 Translated as “affectionate,” philostor gos may also refer to the desire to receive affection.

27 See Glossary, “Beautiful.”

28 The Greek adjectives are philokalos (loving beauty) and philotimos (loving honor). See Glossary, “Ambition.”

29 Xenophon here begins to use indirect discourse. That is, the Greek implies that Xenophon is reporting the report of others, not himself vouching for its veracity. I have dropped most phrases such as “it is said that he said,” for they are much clumsier in English than in Greek. I translate the last such phrase so the reader can see where the indirect discourse ends (section 12, at “it is said that he said”).

30 Kallion,the Greek word translated as “finer,” is also the word for “more beautiful.” More than does the English translation, the Greek thus links this beauty contest between Persian and Median dining practices with the one above regarding dress (1.3.2).

31 This name appears to be based on the servant’s nationality. As was noted back at 1.1.4, the Sacians are among Cyrus’ later conquests. Another important Sadan turns up in 8.3.25–50

32 Hupoptēssō refers more commonly to the cringing of an animal or the fear one feels in the presence of a powerful enemy. It is also used in 1.5.1 and 1.6.8.

33 Literally, “This most wretched.” I reserve “fellow,” “person,” and “troops” foruse as nouns that are implied by masculine adjectives but are not expressed. See note 18.

34 This speech andthe others in sections 15 and 16 are in in direct discourse. note 29.

35 Metron will be translated with a form of the word “measure,” as it was above at 1.3.14.

36 Pleonekteō. See Glossary, “Advantage.”

37 Eraō. Glossary, “Love.”

38 Enthousiaō is based on entheos, whose etymology implies possession by a god.

39 For other instances of the oath, by Hera, cf. 8.4.12; Memorabilia 3.10.9, 3.11.5, 4.2.9, 4.4.8; Symposium 4.45, 4.54, 8.12, 9.1; Oeconomicus 10.1, 11.19.

40 Ek tou isou. This might rather mean “on equal terms.” A similar phrase occurs in 1.6.28.

41 “In kingly fashion” might also modify “forbade,” on which policy see 4.6.3–4.

42 Peltastēs (targeteer) usually refers to such light-armed troops as carried small leather shields. Although many kinds of weapons and soldiers are referred to in The Education of Cyrus, the main distinction among foot soldiers is between light-armed troops who skirmished from a distance and more heavily armed troops who came to close quarters with the enemy.

43 The Assyrian prince divides his forces into three main parts, an infantry guard in the rear, a group of infantry to pillage the country, and a group of cavalry to discourage the Medes from attacking those doing the pillaging.

44 Literally, “many Assyrian human beings.”

45 Hippeus will continue to be translated as “horseman” when the context refers especially to the ability to ride well. Either “knight” or “cavalry” will be used when the reference is to mounted troops.

46 The word theaomai can refer to the mind’s contemplation, to the watching of a play, to the reviewing of troops. In this context, it appears that Cyrus is gloating.

47 Timaō, “to honor,” can also mean “to esteem.”

48 Paidikos logos. The meaning of the adjective paidikos may be limited to what is merelyboyish or playful, but here, as often, it has erotic overtones.

49 This section, except for two of its statements, is in indirect discourse, so “it is said” is implied throughout. The two exceptions are when the Mede swears by the gods (27) and when he tells Cyrus that it is time to kiss him again, for he is going away (28).

50 This character is finally identified by name in 6.1.9, but he appears next at 4.1.22.

51 To koinon, which often means “the common [interest],” can also refer to the authorities who govern (as I have taken it here and in the next sentence), or to what we might call the commonwealth in general. See note 18.

52 Homotimos is made up of words that suggest the meaning of like honor, and Xenophon’s use of it here makes it still more clear that the Persian regime is sharply divided between two classes, the homotimoi and the dēmos (see Glossary, “Peers,” “People”). It is also implied here, and will be stressed below, that the two classes differed also in the weapons they used and the military training they received. The name, the powers, and the way of life of this tight circle have made it common to see the Spartan homoioi as their model, though important similarities should not obscure important differences.

53 Greek phrases whose literal translations would be “with the gods,” “with gods,” and “with god” occur eighteen times in The Education of Cyrus. I have added an apostrophe and “[help]” for clarity in English, and for the same reason I have not been strictly literal regarding the translation of the Greek article: I sometimes translate “gods” as “the gods” and “the god” as “god.”

54 Pais was translated as “my boy” when it was used by Astyages and Mandane in 1.4.

55 Themis generally refers to fundamental laws or customs, especially those regarding or deriving from the gods.

56 Athemitos refers to what is contrary to what has been set down (by the gods). Themis was translated as “right” just above, and thesmos, another related word, was rendered as “what has been set down.”

57 Dokimōs. This rare adverb means more literally “in a way that has been tested and approved.”

58 Ta epitēdeia. See Glossary, “Provisions.”

59 Stratēgia is usually best rendered “generalship,” as in 1.6.14 just below. Here, however, it seems to have a narrower meaning, which Cambyses seeks to expand.

60 One family of mss. reads “care” (epimeleia) instead of “arts” (technē).

61 There is disagreement about whether it is Cyrus or his father who speaks this sentence.

62 The Greek words for “love” in this section and the next are forms of phileō. See Glossary, “Love.”

63 Pleonekteō is the verb; the word translated as “heat” is actually helios, “sun.” The words pleonekteō, pleon echein, pleonexia, and pleonektēs are all important for this part of the discussion, and together they occur seventeen times in sections 25–41. See Glossary, “Advantage.”

64 Idiotēs. Since the context is rule in the army, it might also be translated “private [soldier].”

65 Pleon echein (literally, to have more). Like pleonekteō, it usually refers to getting an advantage over someone else. Here, however, Cambyses refers to the relative advantages of attacking as compared with not attacking. Cyrus uses the same phrase in his response, but he adds “the enemy” as its object and thus narrows the issue. See Glossary, “Advantage.”

66 As with the English word “simple,” haplous can mean “uncompounded” or “uniform” as well as “plain” and “straightforward.” Both meanings are in play here. See the word’s next appearance, at 1.6.33.

67 I have translated the emendation printed by Marcel Bizos in his translation of Cyropédie, vol. 1 (Paris: Belles Lettres, 1971). The mss. support this rendering: “I do not know whether you would leave any of your enemies [alive].”

68 Literally, “the greatest.” For other uses of this phrase and for Cyrus’ view of the greatest subjects of education and the greatest things, see 1.5.11 and 1.6.24.

NOTES TO BOOK II

1 The Greeks generally held that the good omens appeared from the right.

2 A group of rnss. reads “into the city” instead of “into Persia.”

3 Editors uniformly print “thirty thousand” in order to make this figure match the numbers called for in 1.5.5. As Christopher Nadon points out (Xenophons Prince: Republic and Empire in theCyropaedia” [Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001], 61), good statesmanship may require bad math. I have translated the text as we receive it from all manuscripts.

4 Another ms. reads “our work” instead of “your work.”

5 The root of the word translated as “born” is “nature” (phusis). See Glossary, “Nature.” Cf. 1.2.1.

6 Ta epitēdeia is here translated as “sustenance.” See Glossary, “Provisions.”

7 The prefix of the verb hupotrephomai hints that the lower class must do its nurturing of daring secretly.

8 Glossary, “Fitting.”

9 Chōra, translated as “station” here, was translated as “land” in section 15, just above.

10 Litèrally, “ruler of five.” Although I have employed familiar terms for military units and their leaders, the size of the various units is not quite what contemporary usage might suggest. The military ranks and their translations here are as follows:

11 Kratistos, translated as “best” in this section, also often means “strongest.”

12 Or, with other mss., “greater hopes were held out,” without Cyrus necessarily having raised the hopes himself. Cf. 1.6.19.

13 Translated as “less,” meionexia, a rare word, is the opposite of pleonexia. See Glossary, “Advantage.”

14 Meion echein, “to have less.” See note 13.

15 Or, with a different ms., “So he took a piece, and what he took seemed to him rather small, sohe threw down what he had taken with the intention oftaking another. The cook, thinking that he no longer wanted any meat, passed the tray away before he took another [piece].”

16 I take huper hou to refer to the butt of each of the jokes. If hou is neuter instead of masculine, it would be better translated as “make a joke concerning what they are speaking and boasting about.”

17 Euphemeō has a literal meaning of something like “speak well,” but its strict use was to discourage speech that might be offensive during sacred ceremonies.

18 Most editors depart from the ms. and replace “lieutenant” with “captain” to make it correspond with sections 2.2.6 and 2.2.15.

19 Literally, “good learnings for their boys.”

20 This clause might also mean “There is consequently no excuse for us not to afford you a laugh.” The next line is similarly ambiguous and could refer both to Aglaitadas laughing and to his causing laughter in others.

21 The appointment referred to might also be to Cyrus’ appointment of officers more generally, rather than to overseers of contests. The word is epistatēs.

22 Translated here as “the community,” to koinon is more literally “the common.” Se note 18 of Book I.

23 Or, with another ms., “For of labors and other such things, I see wishing very boldly to have less than anyone.”

24 Some mss. read “soldiers.”

25 Persia did not have good horses (1.3.3).

26 One may infer that Cyrus refers to the goodness of his insistence that the army be purged, but he speaks in very general terms.

27 Suneimi (to be together with) may refer to an intimate association, as in 6.1.32.

28 The verb translated as “love” is phileō. Glossary, “Love.”

29 Or, with other mss., “At least I see him more pleased when he gives them whatever he has than when he keeps it himself.”

30 Demotikē agōnia might also be rendered “struggle with the people.”

31 Or, with a different ms., “many others from each of the two [classes] rose and spoke as advocates [of the proposal].”

32 There are thus four formations. The movement is from a single long column to a front that has the breadth of sixteen men and a depth of six (with either a corporal or a sergeant at the head of each short column; the sergeants both rule a squad of five and rule a corporal responsible for the second squad of five in each squad of ten). There are also four lieutenants and the captain himself, for a total of one hundred and one soldiers.

33 See Glossary, “Aide.”

34 This is the first mention of a “squad of twelve” (as opposed to five or ten). If the corporal and sergeant are included in the count, a “squad of ten” would become a “squad of twelve.”

35 Hubrizomai, here translated as “be ostentatious,” is based on hubris. To specify that Cyrus’ dress shows no hubris could imply a contrast either with Cyaxares’ dress or, perhaps, with Cyrus’ own conduct. Glossary, “Insolent.”

36 The kings of Assyria, Armenia, Hyrcania, and India will often be referred to simply as “the Assyrian,” “the Armenian,” “the Hyrcanian,” and “the Indian.” Greek may imply a noun without expressing it; I leave the-noun to the reader’s inference.

37 More literally, “the just” (to dikaion).

38 A parasang, according to Herodotus (2.6), represented a distance of thirty stadia. The stadion is estimated by some to be six hundred feet, by others to be as much as six hundred and twenty-four feet. Thus Xenophon’s parasang would probably have been about three and a half miles.

NOTES TO BOOK III

1 Ta onta, which in a philosophic discussion might be rendered “the things that are” or “the beings,” in other contexts may designate one’s material possessions.

2 See Glossary, “Wrong.”

3 Xenophon leaves it to the reader to judge which of the Armenian’s two sons is here described.

4 One might also take dikaia as a predicate, which would suggest this translation: “these your [answers] are just.”

5 Translated here as “wise man,” sophistēs derives from sophos, which means “skilled” or “wise,” and our word “sophist” comes from it. Although by the fifth century sophistēs could suggest either sham wisdom in general or the for-profit teaching of rhetoric in particular, it could also still be used to refer to someone wise or skilled.

6 Sophrōn is based on Greek words that mean something like “of sound wits.” Its opposite is aphrōn, “senseless.” Glossary, “Moderation.”

7 The two terms Cyrus opposes are the nouns pathēma and mathēma. The former might be rendered “something experienced,” the latter “something learned.” Pathēma is translated as “sorrowful event” at 7.3.6 and 8.

8 Panta ta onta in other contexts might be translated “all the beings.” Ta onta occurs also in sections 32 and 35 (where it is translated “what you have”). See note 1 of Book III.

9 The verb is a compound based on phileo. See Glossary, “Love.”

10 Glossary, “Soul.”

11 Cyrus’ first word here is an exclamation thatcan express grief, admiration, or both.

12 I translate the text of Bizos, which is based on an emendation by Stephanus (see note 67 of Book I). One group of mss. would read “more lacking in learning,” while another would read “more moderate.”

13 Tropos might also be translated as “character” rather than as “manner.” Perhaps this ambiguity is meant to help examine whether Cyrus has a generous manner or a thoroughly generous character. The issue is taken up more directly later, in 8.2.15–23.

14 See Glossary, “Chief aides.”

15 The word translated as “desirous” is erōtikos, so a more literal rendering would be “after he had made them in love with doing something.”

16 This could also be rendered, “if any of the other gods came to light …”

17 A parasang was about three and one-half miles.

18 Literally, “Whatever is this?”

19 It is ambiguous in the Greek whether all three predictions are based on the sacrifices. Nor is it clear in the Greek to whom the gods have promised a battle, a victory, and safety.

20 The Dioscuri were warrior heroes worshiped by the Greeks and especially the Spartans. Other mss. omit the reference to the Dioscuri and mention Cyrus by name as the one who begins the paean.

NOTES TO BOOK IV

1 “You” is in the singular.

2 Cf. 1.4.27–28.

3 The grammar of the Greek sentence is ambiguous as to whether the benevolence referred to is that of Cyrus or that of his grandfather. I infer the former.

4 This phrase could refer to the favor or gratitude they expect to earn from Cyrus by their support of him, as well as to the gratitude they feel for past favors received from him (which is the more obvious reading).

5 A parasang was about three and one half miles.

6 Instead of “something good,” another ms. has “something soft.”

7 Or, with a different ms., “But it does not seem to me to be a greater gain to take it than to purchase the result, by appearing to be just to them, that they come to delight in us still more than they do now.”

8 Literally, “of the best women.”

9 Or, with another ms., “with which we seem to turn our enemies….”

10 Hōn pephykoton dendrōn. The phrase is curious; perhaps the primary thought is that trees are naturally incapable of attack or pursuit, especially because they are rooted and cannot move.

11 Ergon. More literally, “were not at a loss for work.”

12 Apronoētōs, which occurred also in 1+21. Cyaxares’ thought might also be rendered “so lacking in consideration for me.”

13 Literally, “goods.” According to historical sources, the Magi were a priestly class among the Medes.

14 Literally, “the common.” See note 18 of Book I.

15 The word translated as “successes” would be more literally rendered as “goods.”

16 “You” is in the singular throughout the entirety of Cyrus’ remarks to the uncle he says has not been left alone.

17 Literally, “make them so they do not blame.”

18 Ta onta might be rendered “the things that are” or “the beings.”

19 Literally, “the best in looks” (ta eidē), rather than “those who looked best.”

20 Doulos might be translated here as “vassal” rather than “slave,” for the person to whom it refers was himself a master of slaves. “Slave,” however, does help emphasize the vast scope of sovereign power in Assyria, which is confirmed in the episode about to be recounted.

21 Phileō is here the verb for “love.” See Glossary, “Love.”

NOTES TO BOOK V

1 The incident is described in 1.4.26.

2 The Greek words for “man” and “woman,” anēr and gynē, are the same as those translated as “husband” and “wife.”

3 “Ties of hospitality” is used for xenos. Such ties were used as diplomatic channels.

4 “Looks” is here used to translate eidos, elsewhere rendered “form.”

5 Phunai is rendered “begotten.” It is based on phusis, the Greek word for “nature.”

6 The manuscripts actually read, “Yes, by Zeus.”

7 Theaomai, “gazing,” was translated as “see” in the previous sentence and also at the end of the previous section. See note 46 of Book I.

8 The verb translated as “prepare” is suskeuazō. Its use at 3.1.43 suggests the translation “pack up and carry away.”

9 When Cyrus says “I am grateful,” he does not mean to settle the debt but to acknowledge it. One might thus translate, “I have an obligation to you.”

10 Cf. 1.4.27–28.

11 Cf. 1.4.25.

12 Cf. 1.4.27.

13 “Stewards” would be more literally rendered as “those in the tents.” Cf. 4.2.35.

14 Literally, “in a generation of human beings.”

15 Literally, “whatever these things were,” an echo of a Socratic question.

16 A Daric was a coin not minted until the time of Darius, a successor two generations after Cyrus. For an explanation of this anachronism, see Nadon, Xenophons Prince, 86, note 56.

17 Cf. 4.6.8.

18 The main mss. seeming to make no sense in this phrase, I try to follow here the reading of a minor manuscript.

19 Eleutherios might also be rendered here with its more specific meaning, “generous” or “liberal,” the adjectival form of the virtue Aristotle discusses in his Nicomachean Ethics at 1119b22ff. Its use at 5.2.16 helps to recommend “free” as its translation, however. See Glossar, “Free.”

20 Literally, “in thirty days,” but the words were also more loosely used and hence may not have implied so definite a promise.

21 “Teach” is my regular rendering of didaskō, here translated as “explain.”

22 Editors of the Greek text disagree about whether this clause is an interpolation and about where it should be located. E. C. Marchant ed., Xenophontis Opera Omnia, vol. 4 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910) at 5.3.15.

23 I have translated the mss., but several editors replace this reference to Gadatas (“hhim”) with a text that reads “shall we invite some of them.”

24 Other mss. read “one thousand mounted archers,” and still others read “twenty thousand mounted archers.”

25 Oikonomia, “household management,” is here translated “disposition.”

26 If all the Conμnoners were indeed armed with breastplates, as was indicated in 2.1.19, and if there were no demotions, then this number should equal the total number of original troops minus the number turned into knights. Since 2,000 of the original Persian contingent have become knights, the infantry should number 29,000. Hence the front would be almost three times broader than the depth (290 versus 100). A broad front puts more troops into a position where they can engage the enemy, and a shallower depth would reduce the tendency for gaps to form during a rapid march at night. The next note invites one to question either or both of the first two hypotheses of this note, however.

27 Since the light-armed Commoners were given the weapons of the Peers, it is not clear who these light-armed Persians are. One candidate is the reinforcements sent for in 4.5.16 (but whose arrival will not be mentioned until 5.5.3). Another is that the promotions of 2.1.9 were followed by demotions.

28 Or, more literally, “when he knew the matter” (to pragma).

29 Or, if the context were philosophical, “when they knew being” (toon).

30 There is no possessive adjective in the Greek text, and one might infer “my friends” rather than the “your friends” printed here.

31 Here “harm,” adikein is elsewhere translated as “to be unjust to.”

32 Cf. 4.5.52, 4.6.11, 5.1.1.

33 Cf. 4.5.16, 31.

34 Cf. 4.5.31.

35 Cf. 4.2.11.

36 Archē is translated here as “command.” See Glossary, “Rule.”

37 Cf. 1.5.4.

38 Cf. 3.3.24.

39 Cyrus’ words to Cyaxares on this point are not recorded. Cf. 4.1.13.

40 Oikeiotatos, the word translated as “most dearly,” is based on the word for the household or family.

41 The verb here translated as “love” is phileo. See Glossary, “Love.”

NOTES TO BOOK VI

1 Cf. 1.4.27, 4.1.22, 5.1.24.

2 Cf. 4.6.8.

3 Dēmos is the word translated as “bulk.” See Glossary, “People.”

4 Another ms. reads “weaker” instead of “stronger,” which accords with the common view that the strong take the offensive. Cyrus seems to be suggesting that in the winter, it is better to be on the defensive in well-stocked forts. In extreme conditions such as have prevailed in more than one winter campaign in Russia, the defense may be favored even if the forts are not so well stocked.

5 One soldier fought from the chariot (or from near it, if he descended), and another drove it. If the best fighters fought from chariots and also chose good soldiers to be their drivers, 300 chariots would take away 600 good men from the main body of infantry. As the next sentence indicates, Cyrus not only changes the design and tactics of the chariot, he also puts only one soldier on each.

6 A cubit (pechus)was about 20 inches long.

7 This is the first of over twenty occasions on which Xenophon is explicit in looking beyond Cyrus and in referring to the continuation of certain of his policies after his death. (Since the last chapter of the entire book is devoted to the aftermath of Cyrus’ rule, I do not include it in this count.) In these passages “the king” refers not to Cyrus in particular but to a king of the dynasty established by him. The Greeks referred to such a king as “the Great King” or simply “the King.”

8 Phileō is the verb used here. Except where noted, it is erao that is translated by “love.”

9 Parakatathēkē is translated as “sacred trust” but means “deposit” more literally. It was used simply of monetary deposits, but it was also used of persons who were entrusted to guardians and of deposits at temples. It hence raised issues of piety as well as of justice.

10 These same lines occur at 6.4.2. Scholars incline to think they were written by a copyist rather than by Xenophon.

11 Delebecque here departs from the manuscripts. His revision might be translated “… pull this most innovative platform of the siege engines” (Xénophon, Cyropédie, vol. 3, trans. Édouard Delebecque [Paris: Belles Lettres, 1978]).

12 That is, about three times the length of one’s outstretched arms. The “fathom” is thought to have been about or just under 6 feet.

13 If Xenophon means an Attic talent, which was about 56 pounds, each yoked team pulled about 1,400 pounds of baggage. When pulling the towers, each team pulled about 850 pounds. Since there were eight teams, the total weight of the tower would have been about 6,750 pounds. If Xenophon meant an Aegean talent, however different weights given here should be increased by about 40%.

14 Euthumia (delight) is related to thumos, translated as “spirit.”

15 “Meats and side dishes” here translates opsa. See Glossary, “Relish.”

16 Cf. 6.2.25.

17 Literally, “whenever the things of the gods are fine [kalos].” See Glossary, “Noble.”

18 Or, more literally, “in order that they might learnbeing [to on] moie clearly.” Cf. 5+7.

19 That is, about 7 miles.

20 For “aides,” see Glossary. It appears to refer to the group of knights mentioned in the previous section, those who were always with Cyrus, ready for instant use. Hence the “he” giving the orders at the end of this sentence would be Cyrus, not Hystaspas.

21 Literally, “learn the beings of the enemy” (ta ton polemiōn ta onta).

22 6.1.38 is the passage in which Cyrus comes closest to making a promise to Araspas in particular.

23 The stadion is estimated by some to be to) feet, by others to be as much as 624 feet. Forty stadia would thus be between 24,000 and 25,000 feet. Scholars agree that the soldiers had about 3 feet in which to stand. Thus the front would have been between and 8aoo men across (and 30 deep). Still leaving apart the separate order of 120,000 Egyptians (according to 6.2.10), the total would be between 240,000 and 250,000.

24 I have translated in brackets the emendations accepted and printed by Delebecque (see note 11 above). The mss. read “Then you, Araspas, take the right wing, since you have it.” The mss. are suspected especially because Araspas has notyet been mentioned as having any command. The proposed emendations rest especially on 7.1.3, where Arsamas is mentioned as commanding the infantry on the left side and Chrysantas as commanding the cavalry on the right.

25 “Hoplite” transliterates the Greek word for “heavy-armed foot soldier.”

26 The Greek word is teleutaios. The context makes its main meaning clear, just as section 27 makes clear the importance of such a rear guard.

27 The “you” in this sentence is singular, whereas those of the previous section are plural.

28 One reason for the difference is that the thigh pieces of the horses that were ridden were designed in part to protect their riders (7.1.2).

29 It is apparently the case that linen could offer protection if multiple layers of it were first saturated with a solution of vinegar and salt and then compressed and dried. Mentioned also in Horner (Iliad 2.529, 830), these breastplates are only one of several Unfø between this scene and the great tragic poetry that preceded its writing.

30 Kosmos is elsewhere translated as “adornment.”

NOTES TO BOOK VII

1 The group in question was identified in 6.4.12.

2 More literally, “were thigh pieces for the man.”

3 Twenty stadia are about two and one-third miles.

4 In order to take advantage of his longer line, Croesus must halt the center and advance his wings so that these wings can attack the flanks of Cyrus’ army at about the same time their front lines clash. Each side of his army will therefore have a right angle, or “hinge,” like the Greek capital gamma or like our capital L. All troops on the wings will have to march in a 90° arc in order to face in against the flanks of the enemy, but those near the extremities will have to cover a distance much greater than those near the hinge. Even against a lesser opponent than Cyrus, this strategy requires good judgment about where to put the hinges in the line and when to halt the center. Nor would it be easy to keep the wings of a vast army in a straight line, since different parts of the wing must march at different speeds.

5 The metaphor is of a club or perhaps a group of banqueters each of whom contributes to the common fund. In the case of this most noble or most beautiful club or feast, the participants contribute good actions rather than money or food.

6 Cf. 6.3.36.

7 “Love of victory” literally translates the etymology of philonikia. It might also be rendered “competitiveness” and can have strongly negative connotations, such as “contentiousness.”

8 Although the situation of Cyrus’ army is clear, the metaphor used to make it clear is not. If plinthion can mean “roof tile,” then the reference is to the way one U-shaped tile nests inside another. Thinking it cannot mean “roof tile” but must mean “brick,” Delebecque amends the text so we have one Greek letter pi placed inside another. (Se Book VI, note 11.)

9 That is, to Ares, the god of war.

10 That is, Cyrus not only attacks outward with his heavy infantry, against the face of the enemy’s wing; he also attacks with his heavy cavalry from beyond the tip of the enemy’s wing against its flank. He thus outflanks the wing intended to outflank him.

11 This serves to remind readers that the enemy chariots served merely as transportation for a single infantryman. Cyrus’ armored chariots were designed rather to crash into the enemies’ lines and throw them into confusion.

12 In a military context, the Greek word for “good” (agathos) often means “brave” above all else.

13 Cf. 6+17.

14 Another ms. reads “on behalf of those who betrayed you.” It is certainly possible, however, that Cyrus means to imply that not his troops but the Egyptians’ allies will bear the responsibility for their slaughter, so Xenophon may have written “by” rather than “on behalf of.”

15 This fragment obviously requires one to understand a clause such as this: “You could save yourselves and your nobility, …” Other mss. have Cyrus demanding that the Egyptians do surrender their weapons (while yet implying that doing so does not compromise their nobility).

16 For Herodotus’ account of the curious tests to which Croesus subjected the oracle at Delphi, see 1.46–48.

17 The Greek word translated as “descended,” phuō, is based on the root “nature,” so Croesus tries to account for Cyrus’ superiority on the basis of the threesome formed by gods, nature, and practice. Cf. 1.1.6. The claim that Cyrus was “born from the gods” is reported in 1.2.1.

18 That is, his ancestor Gyges had been a slave before he became a king.

19 The verb here translated as “love” is phileō.

20 More literally, “to the suffering [pathos].” I here retain the “one thousand knights” of the ms. in preference to the “some knights” of Delebecque’s emendation.

21 Sphazō is the verb, and it is most commonly used of the killing of victims offered up in sacrifice. A closely related verb is used in the next section in regard to the eunuchs’ self-slaughter.

22 Satrap was the title given to the provincial governors of the Persian Empire.

23 Cyrus is distinguishing this Phrygia from the Phrygia in the interior, which was between Lydia and Cappadocia. Cf. 1.1.4

24 “Rulers [archontes]” would be a more consistent translation than “officers.” See Glossary, “Rule.”

25 Cf. 2.1.18.

26 Cf. 1.1.4.

27 Or, with a different ms., “he filled out the Persian knights to no fewer than forty thousand.”

28 Rather than have all his troops back away from the city and so become even more spread out as their circumference expands, Cyrus holds one part stationary (“the middle”) and has the troops on the opposite side of the city peel back and so reinforce the depth of the ever-shrinking line. The result is a line of double depth around half the city. As the sequel indicates, when the front lines in heavy armor peel back, they go behind the inferior light-armed troops that had been stationed behind them, so the latter then become encircled and hence protected both from the enemy and from any temptation they might have to flee.

29 That is, about 1,200 feet.

30 The Greek word for “to grow” is phuō, and it is related to the noun meaning “nature” (phusis). See Glossary, “Nature.” A plethron was about 100 feet.

31 One group of mss. omits the phrase “fearing nothing within.”

32 Prosēkousi, the word for “relatives,” could also be translated as “those fit [for the task].” See Glossary, “Fitting.”

33 On the connection between the seizure of the city and the offering of booty to the gods, cf. 7.5.73.

34 Cf. 2.3.16, where the principle of reward on the basis of merit is established, with Cyrus as the judge of merit.

35 Literally, “teach” (didasko).

36 Cf. 1.4.27.

37 Cf 4.1.21–24. Artabazus performs another important service for Cyrus at 5.1.24–26.

38 The verb therapeuō is normally rendered as “to serve,” but it may refer to cases in which one serves, pays attention to, or even flatters in the hope of securing favors in retam. In this sense its translation will employ the English word “court.”

39 Cf. 5.4.51.

40 “AU the world” is more literally “all human beings.”

41 The Greek word is sunousia, and it often has erotic connotations.

42 This is the only place in The Education of Cyrus in which there is an oath to a Persian god. Cf. Oeconomicus 4.24.

43 Cf. 7.5.46.

44 Editors of the Greek text agree that it is here corrupt, but they offer different conjectures as to what it might have been. I have translated the text printed by Marchant, Xenophontis Opera Omnia, vol. 4, at 7.5.56.

45 “No place on earth” is more literally “no place among human beings.”

46 Pleonekteō. See Glossary, “Advantage.”

47 Hubristai, “unruly,” is an adjective related to hubris. See Glossary, “Insolence.”

48 More literally, “near his own body [soma].” This Greek sentence does not require the reading that in making his servants eunuchs, he made the eunuchs that became his servants.

49 Archē may mean “empire” in particular. See Glossary, “Rule.”

50 I have translated an emendation that appears to be accepted by all editors. The verb they reject is mēnouō, a rarely used word that may mean “betray” or “denounce.” It is indeed easier to imagine Cyrus telling his troops not to “slacken in” their practice of virtue than to imagine him telling them not to “betray” or “denounce” this noble practice. But if Cyrus demands the show of virtue rather than its substance, the ms. reading can be defended.

51 More literally, “labors and good things.”

52 Ponerōs, here translated as “worse,” is an adverbial form of the word usually translated as “worthless” or “vile.” See Glossary, “Vile.”

53 More literally, “for those whoare always closest to their weapons, whatever they may wish for is most their own [oikeios].”

54 Agathois may be either masculine or neuter. Hard work either makes the fruits of success (“the good things”) more pleasant or increases the pleasures of the successful (“the good people”), or both.

55 Andragathia is a compound of the words for “man” and “goodness.”

56 There is also good manuscript authority for reading “in honor [entimoi]” instead of “Peers [homotìmoi].”

NOTES TO BOOK VIII

1 Delebecque adds philoi to his text, so it would read “many other friends.” (See Book VI, note 11.) I translate the ms.

2 “Those in honor” translates entimoi. See Glossary, “Peer.”

3 Or “making the same things lawful.”

4 “Among the greatest things [ta megista]” would be more literal than “among the most important ways.”

5 Ta kratista might be more literally translated as “the strongest things” or “the best things.” Previous uses of “the most important things” have translated ta megista.

6 Translated as “administrative matters,” oikonomika is the adjective based on the noun oikonomia, “household management.”

7 Noting that the captains (taxiarchoi) are omitted from the list, Delebecque amends the Greek text to include them. I have translated the ms.

8 Ta oikeia is here translated as “what belonged to.” As with oikonomia, this word is related to oikos, “household.”

9 Cf. 1.6.3–4.

10 The Greekword aidos means not only “reverence” or “respect” but also “modesty.”

11 Cf. 8. 1.10.

12 The forms of the word “love” in this section, in the next section, and in the conclusion at 8.2.28 translate forms of the word philein. Cf. 1.6.24–25. Glossary, “Love.”

13 Or “differs in being [to onti] and in the pleasure it affords.”

14 This sentence, like the previous and the next, is in indirect discourse. Understand, “It is said that …”

15 After “happiest” the mss. also have “and his money” or “also in respect to his money,” but editors have bracketed or deleted it.

16 Cf. 2.3.7-I5.

17 This was apparently a security measure to impede assassination attempts. Cf. Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.1.8.

18 Instead of “really,” one might translate “in being” (to on).

19 Five stadia are approximately 3,000 feet.

20 Gennaiotes, translated “gentility,” means more literally “of high birth” and often refers to the upper classes.

21 The referent of this pronoun is ambiguous also in the Greek, though it seems likely that it is Cyrus and not Gadatas. If so, this statement of Cyrus’ enjoyment in the company of another is unique.

22 This collection of proverbs is mentioned in 8.4.16.

23 See Glossary, “Substance.”

24 Eleutherios: see Glossary, “Free.” “Illiberality,” as used just below, refers to the opposite quality.

25 Delebecque here departs from the mss. I translate one family of mss.; the other reads, “are deceived.”

26 Delebecque accepts the emendation pleonekēmata. See Glossary, “Advantage.”

27 “Officers” is more literally “rulers,” archontes. See Glossary, “Rule.”

28 Titheneō means “to nurse” or “to tend as a nurse.” Cyrus’ sojourn in Media is described in 1.3–4.

29 “Subjects” is more literally “human beings.”

30 Literally, the Red Sea. Holden explains this as meaning the Indian Ocean with its two gulfs, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. See Hupert A. Holden, The Cyropaedia of Xenophon, Books VI-VIII (London: Cambridge University Press, 1887), 186. So too with the similar phrase in the next section.

31 Meionekteō “got less,” is the opposite of pleonekteō. See Glossary, “Advantage.”

32 Or, more literally, “better [or stronger, kreitton] than accords with a human being.”

33 Karpaō was translated as “to harvest” at 1.5.10 and elsewhere. The Greek allows that what is believed to be noble is his harvest rather than the source of his harvest, as my translation implies.

34 One might also translate, “how should I, justly being blessedly happy, not obtain remembrance for all time?”

35 Oikeioteros, translated as “more familiar,” is based on the word for household (oikos). Cyrus’ argument requires the inference, which the Greek encourages, that friendliness increases with familiarity. What the Greek encourages, however, it does not necessarily require, and Cyrus himself did not entirely trust or respect ties of familiarity (1.6.8–9, 2.2.26).

36 More literally, “is more familiar to” (oikeios).

37 More literally, ‘by paternal gods” (patroos). The same adjective occurs at 1.6.1 and 8.7.3. I use the word “ancestral” at 8.7.1 for a different but related word.

38 Literally, “the Red Sea.”

39 The reference is to the younger Cyrus, not to the Cyrus of The Education of Cyrus. See Anabasis, 2.6.1.

40 Athemistos means “lawless,” especially as regards laws held to be ordained by the gods.

41 Polemistērion, “military affairs,” is commonly used with a narrower meaning and could refer simply to the war chariots spoken of in the context: “… how their war chariots are …”

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