In a book of this kind, a book of history, almost every sentence is based on some anterior source—or sources. It is the nature of the beast. To inform the reader of the origins of all the bits of information that make up the narrative would require a second volume.
Limits are necessary, choices must be made, and such rules as exist are ambiguous. In the present instance the governing principle, which the author hopes is an unobjectionable one, has been to omit source notes for:
• Those things (dates, events, statements of fact or opinion et cetera) on which the credible sources have long agreed. For example, no one disputes that Alonso de Borja was born on December 31, 1378; citing a source is pointless.
• Those cases in which all the credible sources are not agreed (whether Cesare Borgia was born in 1474 or 1475, for example), no way of establishing the truth appears to exist, and even if resolved the question could in no material way change our view of the Borgias and their world.
Even after the exclusion of such things, an author is left with a substantial responsibility: to single out those statements of fact and opinion that remain material and disputable or are sufficiently obscure that an interested reader might have difficulty finding them. And then to provide either a source for the information or the reasons for the opinion.
This responsibility is particularly weighty, in the present case, in connection with the questions raised about the character of Rodrigo Borgia/Pope Alexander VI, the paternity of Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia and their siblings, Lucrezia’s alleged illegitimate child, and Alexander’s alleged mistresses. Therefore these matters, rather than being confined to the source notes provided below, are dealt with separately and at length in “Examining Old Assumptions,” which begins on this page.
If there exists an infallible, unarguable way of deciding which of thousands of items merit a source note, it is not known to the author. This is perhaps especially true of a work aimed at a popular readership rather than at the academic community; it is difficult to accuse E. R. Chamberlin of being irresponsible in offering fewer than two pages of “sources and notes” with his The World of the Italian Renaissance, for example, or to criticize Lauro Martines for appending only five such pages to his information-rich, immensely sophisticated Power and Imagination. The author of the present work has attempted to find an acceptable middle ground and beyond that can only invite any readers seeking further support of what he has written to contact him via the publisher.
The Borgia Problem: An Introduction
1. Nearly seven decades have passed … : Whitfield, “New Views,” p. 77.
2. In the seventh volume … : Gregorovius’s statement that the “secrets” of Rodrigo Borgia’s private life are unknown is in his History of Rome, p. 7:326. The statement that “nothing is known” is in his Lucretia Borgia, p. 6.
3. It is much the same with Burckhardt … : Burckhardt, Civilization, p. 78.
Prologue: One Whom All Did Fear
1. If the visit happened … : Sabatini, Life of Cesare, p. 447, says the tomb was destroyed “at the close of the seventeenth century.” An article in the January 18, 1954, issue of Time says it happened in 1527. Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 375, while giving no date, rather spoils the fun by saying that the identification of the body discovered under the road at Viana as Cesare’s is “conjectural only” and blames Yriarte for that identification. But Yriarte, Cesare Borgia, p. 222, specifically states that no such identification is possible.
2. Here in a little earth … : The translation used is taken from Sabatini, Life of Cesare, footnote p. 448.
PART ONE: Alonso
From Out of Nowhere
If there exists or has ever existed a book dealing solely or even mainly with the life and career of the Alonso de Borja who became Pope Calixtus III, the author has found no trace of it. The material about Alonso that constitutes the foundation of Part One has therefore been drawn from a multitude of limited and often fragmentary sources, all dealing principally with other subjects. The result is probably as comprehensive an account of Alonso’s career as is to be found anywhere.
At the narrow end of the completeness spectrum is the first volume of Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, which, amid detailed treatments of several popes, declares that “little need be said” of Calixtus and limits that little to three lines (perhaps because Calixtus’s life and reign provide little of the kind of sensational material in which Symonds specialized). Burckhardt, Civilization, doesn’t mention Calixtus at all, and Gregorovius gives him ten of the thousands of pages that make up the forty volumes of his History of Rome. The most extensive available treatments include Johnson, Borgias, which devotes fifty heavily illustrated pages largely to Calixtus, and Mallett, Borgias, which gives him and his reign twenty-three pages.
Chapter 1: A Most Improbable Pope
1. Every part of the process … : The College of Cardinals’ gradual assumption of sole power over papal elections is outlined in Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, p. 59.
2. Not that Nicholas has left them … : A detailed account of the reign of Nicholas V is in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:105–148.
3. The existence of the league requires … : Arnaldi, Italy and Invaders, p. 125, touches on the Italian League as a reflection of the midcentury balance of power. Its significance is explained in Hay, Europe, p. 185.
4. Coiled like a serpent … : The present work’s treatment of the place of the Colonna, Orsini, and other baronial families during the half-century of Borgia prominence in Rome is informed by the uniquely detailed information in Shaw, Orsini Family.
5. Through three tense days … : Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:104, describes the conclave of 1447 with emphasis on the failure of Cardinal Colonna.
6. So … some other compromise … : The dynamics of the conclave that elected Alonso Borgia are explained in Mallett, Borgias, p. 68.
Background: The Road to Rome
1. The records show … : The early history of the de Borja family in Valencia is outlined in Yriarte, Cesare Borgia, p. 17, and Mallett, Borgias, p. 59, and presented in exhaustive detail in De Roo, Material, vol. 1.
2. This assembly of the Church … : Barraclough, Medieval Papacy, p. 180, provides a succinct introduction to the Council of Constance, its purposes and significance.
3. Alfonso V at twenty-one … : An excellent introduction to Alfonso V and his career is in Prescott, Princes, p. 51.
4. He was also intelligent … : King Alfonso’s joke about marriage appears in Ryder, Kingdom of Naples, p. 71.
5. When Alfonso appointed him … : Alonso’s refusal to go to Basel is in Mallett, Borgias, p. 65. The significance of the council is explained in Barraclough, Medieval Papacy, p. 18, and Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:32.
6. The war for Naples appeared … : Prescott, Princes, p. 56, deals with Alfonso V’s experience as a prisoner of Filippo Maria.
Chapter 2: Surprises, Disappointments, Hope
1. According to this story … : The tale of Ferrer’s prophecy is recounted in Mallett, Borgias, p. 61.
2. The former Alonso Borgia … : The description of Calixtus III as “peaceable and kindly” is in Johnson, Borgias, p. 41.
3. Calixtus’s lifestyle, always simple … : The austerity of the papal household under Calixtus III is described in Mallett, Borgias, p. 80.
4. Not many of the pope’s envoys … : Ibid., p. 71.
Background: Il Regno—The Kingdom
1. It was under the Normans … : “The state as a work of art” is in Croce, Naples, p. 81.
2. In the fourteenth century the barons … : Machiavelli’s description of the Neapolitan barons appears ibid., p. 60.
Chapter 3: Pope and King, Friends No More
1. In the very month … : That Alfonso V supported Piccinino in his attack on Siena is attested by Johnson, Borgias, p. 46, and Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:154.
2. The alienation of pope from king … : The information in this sentence and the six following is in Ryder, Kingdom of Naples, p. 81.
3. Pressed for an answer … : Calixtus’s reply to Lucrezia d’Alagna is in Johnson, Borgias, p. 48.
4. Before long Calixtus was warning … : The exchange appears in Johnson, Borgias, p. 47.
5. Niccolò Machiavelli, who was still … : Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:156, is typical of nineteenth-century historians in asserting without evidence that Calixtus hoped to make Pedro Luis king of Naples. Mallett, Borgias, p. 75, suggests that this is probably true but unimportant. Johnson, Borgias, p. 51, appears to be on solid ground in describing the idea as “gossip.”
Background: Amazing Italy
1. The Italy for which Alonso … : For a detailed and insightful overview of the life, politics, and culture of the Italy of the fifteenth century, nothing compares with Martines, Power and Imagination.
Chapter 4: Family Matters
1. We see Rodrigo … : Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 25, is good on Rodrigo Borgia’s early benefices, as are Mallett, Borgias, p. 86, and Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 11. De Roo, Material, vols. 1 and 2, are cumulatively comprehensive on the subject. Mallett, Borgias, p. 84, deals with the exemptions granted by Nicholas V to permit the young Rodrigo to depart Spain for Italy.
2. It would later be said … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 77, claims that in 1456 a number of cardinals objected to Calixtus’s promotion of men “so young and so untried” to the Sacred College, but he goes on to suggest that other reasons were undoubtedly more important.
3. The scholarly diplomat Enea … : Piccolomini’s words about the newly appointed Cardinal Rodrigo are in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 40.
4. Alfonso V, always happy … : The dispute between pope and king over the March of Ancona and other properties is in Pius II, Memoirs, p. 95.
5. Calixtus was prodded into action … : The story of Rodrigo’s subduing of Josias in Ascola appears in abbreviated form in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 38.
Background: The Men in the Red Hats
1. Typically, the cardinals pledged … : The emergence and intent of capitulations is detailed in Hay, Europe, p. 278.
2. Most of them had charge … : Majanlahti, Families, p. 53, describes in detail the structure and responsibilities of the Curial bureaucracy. Mallett, Borgias, p. 49, is also helpful on the subject.
3. Of the fifteen cardinals … : The national origins of cardinals present at various conclaves are in Hay, Church in Italy, p. 41.
4. The complex ironies of the situation … : Gonzaga’s advice to his son the cardinal appears in Martines, Power and Imagination, p. 306.
Chapter 5: The End of the Beginning
1. “Would to God …”: The translation of Cardinal Piccolomini’s letter to Rodrigo Borgia appears in De Roo, Material, p. 2:67.
2. He was to report to Rome … : The position of vice-chancellor and its place in the papal bureaucracy are detailed in Majanlahti, Families, p. 77.
3. No one was more delighted … : Calixtus’s words are in Johnson, Borgias, p. 51.
4. No less significantly … : Illegitimacy as a barrier to inheritance of a crown is explained in De Roo, Material, p. 1:175.
5. He pledged to “do my utmost …”: Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 7, and Johnson, Borgias, p. 48.
PART TWO: Rodrigo
A Long Apprenticeship
The three and a half decades when Rodrigo Borgia served as vice-chancellor of the Roman Catholic Church kept him at the center of the reigns of five popes and so of Italian and European affairs. Therefore his public career through all these years is thoroughly documented, and the fact that his private life generated nearly no comment in spite of his prominence is curious if his posthumous reputation for scandalous behavior is deserved.
Chapter 6: Surviving
1. Attention now turned … : Exceptionally detailed accounts of the conclave of 1455 are in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:166, and Mallett, Borgias, p. 68.
2. What happened next … : Cardinal Piccolomini’s own account of his exchange with Rodrigo Borgia and subsequent election is in Pius II, Memoirs, p. 80.
3. The new pope was a remarkable man … : Piccolomini’s life story is in Ady, Humanist Pope, and in Mitchell, Laurels and Tiara.
4. When on September 26 … : Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 12, gives the cause of death as malaria without qualification, but his certainty on the point is not explained.
5. As conceived by Pius … : The innovative character of the Mantua conference is explained in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:182.
6. One was a proclamation … : Ibid., p. 7:183.
7. It was prompted … : For the significance of the Pragmatic Sanction, see Barraclough, Medieval Papacy, pp. 183, 187.
Background: The Eternal City, Eternally Reborn
1. The Rome of Pius II’s time … : As a source of information about and insight into its subject, nothing surpasses Stinger, Renaissance in Rome.
2. “The city is for the most part …”: Latour, Borgias, p. 15.
3. As the historian Theodor Mommsen … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 36.
4. A chronicler described … : Majanlahti, Families, p. 42.
Chapter 7: Pius II: Troubles Rumored and Real
1. Beloved Son, We have learned … : Translations of both of Pius II’s letters to Cardinal Rodrigo about the Siena affair are in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 56.
2. There has probably never been … : Gaspar of Verona’s description of Cardinal Rodrigo appears in Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, p. 9.
3. He was rather stolidly … : Alexander’s religious conservatism is discussed in Mallett, Borgias, p. 240.
4. His reputation has suffered … : The slanderous pamphlet is discussed by Pastor, History of Popes, p. 6:114.
5. This encouraged further … : Guicciardini’s claim that Rodrigo Borgia was “mightily lustful of both” appears in Deiss, Captains of Fortune, p. 23.
6. Pius II in his Memoirs … : Pius II, Memoirs, p. 254.
7. The fare was so plain … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 229.
8. The German Ludwig Pastor … : Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:386.
9. A twentieth-century historian … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 82.
10. Even Guicciardini conceded … : De la Bedoyere, Meddlesome Friar, p. 65.
11. It may have been bafflement … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 82.
12. There was a continuing war in Naples … : For the story of Ferrante saving his throne with the help of the pope and the Sforzas, see Gregorovius, History of Rome, pp. 7:185, 197. Ady, Humanist Pope, p. 103, is good on the troubles in Rome that obliged Pius to return from Tuscany.
13. As the rebellious barons … : Ferrante’s dark side is illuminated in perhaps excessively lurid detail in Prescott, Princes, p. 65.
14. In 1462, unable … : De Roo, Material, p. 3:71.
15. It was the discovery … : Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:209.
16. He hurried to Rome … : Castro’s words are in Pius II, Memoirs, p. 233.
17. He died the next day … : The aborting of Pius’s crusade is in Norwich, History of Venice, p. 343.
Background: Il Papa
1. The story of the popes … : See Barraclough, Medieval Papacy, for the story of the medieval popes, and Pastor, History of Popes, for the Renaissance papacy.
Chapter 8: Paul II: The Poisoned Chalice
1. The conclave that followed … : Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:218.
2. Therefore they made it … : For the capitulations of 1464, ibid., p. 7:221.
3. (If betrayal it was …): Stinger, Renaissance in Rome, p. 162.
4. Even as a young man … : Paul II’s life story is in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:218, with much additional detail in Robertson, Tyranny.
5. But when he demanded reforms … : See Robertson, Tyranny, p. 68, for detail on how Paul’s settlement with Bologna strengthened the Bentivoglii.
6. Most humiliating of all … : The revolt of the abbreviators and the slanders of Bartolomeo Platina are in Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, p. 297.
7. Negropont was a key Venetian stronghold … : The fall of Negropont and its importance are in Norwich, History of Venice, p. 347.
Background: The Inextinguishable Evil-Heads
1. Malatesta: the word translates … : For more on the Malatestas, see Jones, Malatesta of Rimini, and Prescott, Princes, the three chapters beginning on p. 278.
2. “I am Sigismondo Malatesta …”: Ady, Humanist Pope, p. 194.
Chapter 9: Sixtus IV: Disturbing the Peace
1. Della Rovere seemed a perfect choice … : Della Rovere’s career before his election is in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:242.
2. The selection of Rodrigo Borgia … : Rodrigo Borgia’s mission to Spain is described in unparalleled detail in De Roo, Material, vol. 2, and also receives extensive attention in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 71, and in Mallett, Borgias, p. 93.
3. Rodrigo moved on to Castile … : Cloulas, Borgias, p. 48, is exceptionally good on Cardinal Rodrigo’s activities in Castile.
4. Having earlier accused Rodrigo … : For Cardinal Ammannati-Piccolomini’s accusations about and communications with Cardinal Rodrigo, see Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 65.
5. Still in Milan … : The alleged plotting of Sforza and Cardinal Riario is discussed in Burckhardt, Civilization, p. 75.
Background: War, Italian Style
1. Most of them were … : For further information about the condottieri and their place in Italian history, see Deiss, Captains of Fortune; Prescott, Princes; and Mallett, Mercenaries.
Chapter 10: Innocent VIII: Plumbing the Depths
1. And so was hatched … : Cronin, Florentine Renaissance, p. 254.
2. He summoned Lorenzo to Rome … : The conflict between Sixtus and the league supporting Florence is told in detail in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:261.
3. When a hard-pressed Venice … : The terms on which Venice made peace with the Turks in 1479 are in Norwich, History of Venice, p. 357.
4. Lorenzo bet everything … : An account of Lorenzo’s trip to Naples is in Hibbert, House of Medici, p. 152.
5. The withdrawal was hailed … : The occupation of and subsequent withdrawal from Otranto is in Stinger, Renaissance in Rome, p. 114, and Norwich, History of Venice, p. 357.
6. A Christian counteroffensive … : Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:266, offers the opinion that attacks on Constantinople and Greece could have succeeded.
7. He said they could have … : Venice’s “savage attack” on Ferrara, and the political context, are treated at length ibid., p. 7:268.
8. Rome exploded in an orgy … : Ibid., p. 7:287.
9. This was Rodrigo’s fourth … : Interestingly varying accounts of the conclave of 1484 are in ibid., p. 7:287; Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:233; Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 20; and Mallett, Borgias, p. 97.
10. Cibo’s roots contributed … : Cronin, Florentine Renaissance, p. 262; Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:350; and Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:290.
11. Other signs of favor followed … : De Roo, Material, vol. 2, is comprehensive on the benefices granted to Rodrigo Borgia by Innocent among other popes, and he contradicts what is said in Mallett, Borgias, p. 102, about the purchase of the duchy of Gandía for Pedro Luis Borgia.
12. The tragedy opened this time … : The destructive consequences of Alfonso duke of Calabria’s visit to Rome are described in Prescott, Princes, p. 72, and Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:293.
13. Thus, when Alfonso later … : Innocent’s continuing difficulties with Naples are detailed in Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:274.
14. The character of their marriage … : Caterina’s lament that “you cannot imagine the life I lead” is in Prescott, Princes, p. 117.
15. The extent of his commitment … : The troubles confronting Innocent as 1491 ended are discussed in Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:311, and in Elliott, Imperial Spain, p. 90.
PART THREE: Alexander
Pope at Last
The great challenge for anyone examining the reign of Alexander VI is to decide which of the vast number of things said about his personal life and conduct during his papacy (including the many examples of which there is no record predating his death) should be regarded as at least possibly if not certainly true. One work is indispensable in this regard: Peter De Roo’s five-volume Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, which offers incomparably more documentation and analysis than any other source. Ferrara,Borgia Pope, whose conclusions echo De Roo’s and undoubtedly are to some extent based on them, is useful as a succinct introduction to the key questions.
Chapter 11: The Best Man for the Job
1. I am Pope!: Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 109.
2. I! I am Pope!: The anonymous and influentially slanderous pamphlet in which this version of Alexander’s supposed exclamation first appeared is discussed in De Roo, Material, p. 2:336; Pastor, History of Popes, p. 6:113; and Hibbert, Borgias and Enemies, p. 37.
3. He wrote—and influenced … : The accusations of simony are in Guicciardini, History of Italy, p. 13, and challenged by De la Bedoyere, Meddlesome Friar, p. 86; Mallett, Borgias, p. 117; and De Roo, Material, p. 2:339.
4. And that the 1492 conclave … : Quoted are words from Guicciardini, History of Italy, p. 13.
5. He could be ridiculously … : Hibbert, Borgias and Enemies, p. 61.
6. From the point at which … : Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, p. 312.
7. Even as intransigent … : Infessura’s words are in Latour, Borgias, p. 31.
8. In one of these missives … : Ferrante’s complaints to Spain about Alexander are in De Roo, Material, p. 4:74.
9. “Rest assured,” López replied … : Ibid., p. 4:76.
10. “He is small and ill-made …”: Contarini’s description is in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 184.
11. At the end of 1493 … : The Briçonnet mission to the papal court is in De Roo, Material, p. 4:163, and Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:359.
Background: Madness and Milan
1. All the Visconti and Sforza … : Prescott devotes more than fifty pages to the history of Visconti in Lords and almost as many to the Sforza dynasty in Princes.
2. “Do you not know, you fool …”: Prescott, Lords, p. 299.
Chapter 12: The Coming of the French
1. There survives a unique … : The Ferrarese ambassador’s description of the adolescent Cesare appears in Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, p. 57.
2. He was at least … : Burckhardt, Civilization, p. 28.
3. Other support was needed … : The favors bestowed on various Borgias by kings of Naples are in Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 59.
4. It was typical of the relaxed view … : Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:427.
5. They brought with them … : The revolutionary effects of the new artillery, including its contribution to the quick collapse of Naples, are in Taylor, Art of War, pp. 83, 132.
6. His troops marched under standards … : De la Bedoyere, Meddlesome Friar, p. 117.
7. That the arrival of the French … : The French invasion’s immense consequences for the future of Italy are outlined in Martines, Power and Imagination, p. 277.
8. If it is true as alleged … : Strathern, Artist, Philosopher, p. 72, states that Ascanio Sforza persuaded the Colonna to seize Ostia for the French.
9. He told the assembled … : King Charles’s demands of the Florentines are in Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, p. 429.
10. “The triumph of France …”: Alexander’s warning about the consequences of the French invasion are in Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 71.
11. Also necessary, he noted … : Cronin, Florentine Renaissance, p. 285.
12. Charles, he says, is “young and …”: Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 193.
Background: Florence: An Anti-Renaissance
1. He gave early evidence … : Savonarola’s words are in Cronin, Florentine Renaissance, p. 269.
Chapter 13: The French Depart
1. In short order they formed … : The terms of the Holy League are in Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:467.
2. When a new round of appeals … : Ibid., p. 5:469.
3. With him went also … : The extreme estimates are by Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:396, who says twenty thousand mules, and by Cronin, Florentine Renaissance, p. 287, who says five thousand.
4. Something worse than wailing ladies … Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 472.
5. The ensuing battle of Fornovo … : A clear and detailed account of the battle is in Mallett, Mercenaries, p. 242.
6. When it was over … : Prescott, Princes, p. 25.
7. The result, hastily arrived at … : The Peace of Vercelli is in Norwich, History of Venice, p. 378.
Background: The Paternity Question: An “Apology”
1. A rare exception is Michael Mallett … : Mallett’s Borgias describes De Roo’s work as a “vast collection” (p. 325) and as a “vast apologist work” coated with “whitewash” (p. 329).
2. He says forthrightly … : De Roo, Material, p. 1: xi.
3. The four young Borgias … : Ibid., p. 1:132, and Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 168.
4. Gregorovius, interestingly, says he … : Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, p. 13.
5. The author of the present work … : Genealogical information about the Borgias of Spain is in Imhof, Genealogie viginti, pp. 19–28.
6. Various documents supposedly … : De Roo’s exploration of the forgery question is in Material, pp. 1:447–529, and is followed by eighty pages of documents and extracts from documents.
7. De Roo devotes eighty-three pages … : The statement about a bull of legitimization being the “fabrication of some criminal ignorant of the habits of the Roman Curia” is ibid., p. 1:417.
8. Typical are a 1493 ambassador’s letter … : De Roo’s extensive discussion of the use of such terms as “son” and “nephew,” “daughter” and “niece” begins ibid., p. 1:420.
9. A Spanish royal brief … : Ibid., p. 1:197.
Chapter 14: A Shattering Loss
1. One of them would remember … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 145.
2. Ascanio Sforza for one … : The Sforza cardinal’s clash with Juan Borgia is in Bellonci, Lucrezia Borgia, p. 93, and Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:493.
3. “The duke of Gandía is dead …”: Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 113.
4. Of the Orsini he said nothing … : Reasons to suspect the Orsini are in Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:506, and for not suspecting Cesare are in the same work, p. 511; Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 114; and Mallett, Borgias, p. 154.
5. He announced that he was creating … : The work of Alexander’s reform commission and the lack of result are in De Roo, Material, p. 3:171.
6. This was made freshly apparent … : The arrest of Alexander’s former secretary and confession to forging documents are in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:432.
7. He was now fully formed … : Paolo Capello’s words are in Bradford, Lucrezia Borgia, p. 18.
Background: The Young Ones
1. Everything known about Cesare’s eldest brother … : Extensive information about the first duke of Gandía is in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 166.
2. Cesare, financially independent … : Cesare’s early life is in Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 24.
Chapter 15: Valentino
1. For him to submit … : The quote appears in the detailed account of Alexander’s handling of the Savonarola affair in Pastor, History of Popes, p. 6:7.
2. “Oh prostitute Church …”: Ibid., p. 6:17.
3. On May 12, yielding to demands … : Pastor, History of Popes, p. 6:19.
4. But beyond that, he promised … : Louis XII’s benefactions are in Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 132.
5. “Are you aware, monsignor …”: Pastor, History of Popes, p. 6:63.
PART FOUR: Cesare
Caesar or Nothing
It is evidence of the stagnation of Borgia scholarship that, a century after its publication, W. H. Woodward’s Cesare Borgia remains not only unsurpassed but unchallenged as a source of information on its subject. Yriarte, Cesare Borgia, is superior in its treatment of Cesare’s final career in Spain.
Chapter 16: The Landscape Changes
1. “Should I have to perish …”: Caterina’s words are in Breisach, Caterina Sforza, p. 207.
2. Learning of this … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 177.
Chapter 17: Conqueror
1. At a point when … : Castellini’s description of Lucrezia is in Bellonci, Lucrezia Borgia, p. 187.
2. One historian has suggested … : Whitfield, “New Views,” p. 79.
Chapter 18: “Longing for Greatness and Renown”
1. Cesare is loved by his soldiers … : This translation of Machiavelli’s famous and variously translated words is in Strathern, Artist, Philosopher, p. 105.
2. Of the almost preternaturally … : Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:452.
3. The historian Pandolfo Collenuccio … : Sabatini, Life of Cesare, p. 241.
4. In a flash of almost … : Strathern, Artist, Philosopher, p. 90.
5. The two talked all night … : Bellonci, Lucrezia Borgia, p. 241.
6. A retainer of Francesco Gonzaga … : Strathern, Artist, Philosopher, p. 117.
7. “I cannot conceal my fears …”: Prescott, Princes, p. 175.
8. On September 2, in bidding … : Strathern, Artist, Philosopher, p. 119.
9. He helped to hold her down … : Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, p. 282.
Background: Superstitions: Another Side of the Renaissance
1. We want to think of it … : Purcell, Great Captain, p. 183.
2. The Gian Galeazzo Visconti … : The examples are all from Prescott’s Lords: Gian Galeazzo Visconti on p. 322, Ludovico Sforza on p. 146, and the complaint about the latter on p. 208.
Chapter 21: Alone
1. As a priest at the Vatican … : Bellonci, Lucrezia Borgia, p. 261.
2. The Florentine authorities … : Villari, Machiavelli, p. 357.
3. “He spoke with words full of poison …”: Strathern, Artist, Philosopher, p. 289.
4. The duke had a plan … : The size of Cesare’s remaining military forces is in Villari, Machiavelli, p. 361.
5. He intended to “prevent …”: Strathern, Artist, Philosopher, p. 293.
6. Another newly minted cardinal … : Soderini’s words on Cesare are in Villari, Machiavelli, p. 361.
7. Cardinal Lloris … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 249 and 251, Strathern, Artist, Philosopher, p. 293.
8. At one point … : Strathern, Artist, Philosopher, p. 299.
9. Evidently he remained … : Ibid., p. 366.
10. Now recovered from his injuries … : Quote is ibid., p. 367.
Aftermath
The literature on Lucrezia Borgia is, for the most part, as credulous and unjustifiably sensational as it is extensive. Bradford, Lucrezia Borgia, is the best biography and unquestionably superior to everything that precedes it. Bradford does not, however, consider the paternity question or even acknowledge that such a question might exist, and neither De Roo nor Ferrara appears in her otherwise impressive bibliography. Ferrara, Borgia Pope, is good on the Borgia family and its relations after the death of Lucrezia.
1. In almost all ways … : Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, p. 159.
2. But as the Borgia biographer … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 262.
3. Her descendants, like Lucrezia’s … : Ibid., p. 260.
4. When he fell sick …: Gonzaga’s account of the deathbed scene is in Bradford, Lucrezia Borgia, p. 200.
5. Considered by many … : Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, p. 281.
Examining Old Assumptions
1. Because to let go … : Lucas-Dubreton, Borgias, p. 57.
2. As noted in the introduction … : Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:326.
3. An English historian … : Robertson, Cesare Borgia, p. 11.
4. A more recent historian … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 101.
5. “All experience of psychology …”: Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, p. 290.
6. Did she become Rodrigo’s mistress … : Pastor’s opinion is in his History of Popes, p. 5:361. “Shortly before 1470” is in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:327.
7. “We find,” he writes … : That “there must have been several” Vannozzas is in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 147.
8. Ferrara concludes … : Ibid., p. 152.
9. He was several years older … : Conti’s assertion about pressure to make Farnese a cardinal is in Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:417.
10. As Ferrara says … : Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 154.
11. Madonna Adriana and Giulia have arrived …: Ibid., p. 158.
12. W. H. Woodward … : Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 125.
13. Writing earlier, Ludwig Pastor … : Pastor, History of Popes, p. 6:128.
14. In her fourth chapter … : Bellonci, Lucrezia Borgia, p. 108.
15. When Bellonci returns … : Ibid., p. 180.