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Abbreviations |
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HWM |
History of William Marshal, ed. & trans. A.J. Holden, S. Gregory & D. Crouch, 3 vols (2002–6). |
|
ODNB |
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, ed. H.G.C. Mathew & B. Harrison (Oxford, 2004). |
PREFACE
spoken in France in barbarian times (fifth to ninth centuries)’. Paul Meyer described his visit to Sotheby’s and subsequent hunt for the mysterious ‘Norman-French chronicle on English Affairs (in Verse)’ in the article: ‘L’Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal, comte de Striguil et de Pembroke, régent d’Angleterre’, Romania, vol. 12 (1883), pp. 22–74.
comte de Striguil et de Pembroke. P. Meyer (ed.), L’Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal, comte de Striguil et de Pembroke, régent d’Angleterre de 1216 à 1219, 3 vols (Paris, 1891–1901).
Marshal had himself been fond of recounting. The manuscript of the History of William Marshal purchased by Thomas Phillipps and studied by Paul Meyer was eventually acquired by the Morgan Library in 1958 (where it is catalogued as M.888). This manuscript was used as the basis for the excellent modern edition and translation: History of William Marshal, ed. & trans. A.J. Holden, S. Gregory & D. Crouch, 3 vols (2002–6). It is to this edition, hereafter cited as HWM, with line number(s) specified, to which all subsequent references to this source refer. See vol. 3, pp. 23–41, for David Crouch’s illuminating discussion of the value and nature of this primary source.
Sidney Painter and David Crouch. The most important and authoritative accounts of William Marshal’s life remain: S. Painter, William Marshal: Knight Errant, Baron and Regent of England (Baltimore, 1933); D. Crouch, William Marshal: Knighthood, War and Chivalry, 1147–1219, 2nd Edition (London, 2002). Crouch’s work is particularly valuable because it was underpinned by the painstaking collation and analysis of all the primary source material relating to William Marshal’s career, much of it in unedited form. There can be no doubt that, in academic terms, Crouch established the foundation (and set the bar) for all modern study of Marshal’s life and influence. By contrast, George Duby’s fanciful Guillaume le Maréchal ou le meilleur chevalier du monde (Paris, 1940) cannot be recommended.
PART I
CHILDHOOD & YOUTH: BECOMING A KNIGHT
young William was duly led away to face his fate. HWM, lines 513–16, 519–20. This book is divided into four parts, each reflecting a different stage of William Marshal’s life. It should be noted that a number of methods for delineating the ‘ages of man’ were current in the Middle Ages, and not all conformed to the stages employed here.
that Christ and his saints were asleep’. Gesta Stephani, ed. & trans. K.R. Potter (Oxford, 1976), pp. 2–4; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. D. Whitelock, Revised Edition (London, 1965), p. 200.
William Rufus (1087–1100) and Henry I (1100–35). Among the most valuable overviews of this period are: R. Bartlett, England under the Norman and Angevin Kings (1075–1225) (Oxford, 2000); D. Carpenter, The Struggle for Mastery: Britain 1066–1284(London, 2004); N. Vincent, A Brief History of Britain: The Birth of the Nation (1066–1485) (London, 2011). D. Danziger & J. Gillingham, 1215: The Year of Magna Carta (London, 2003), is more focused, but illuminating and entertaining.
notorious in the history of the world’. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum, ed. & trans. R.A.B. Mynors, R.M. Thomson & M. Winterbottom, vol. 1 (Oxford, 1998), pp. 758–62.
‘enslaved by female seduction’. Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum, ed. & trans. D. Greenway (Oxford, 1996), p. 700.
his forceful and ambitious daughter Matilda. The seminal study of Matilda’s career remains: M. Chibnall, Empress Matilda (Oxford, 1991). See also: M. Chibnall, ‘Matilda’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, ed. H.G.C. Mathew & B. Harrison (Oxford, 2004); H. Castor, She-Wolves: The Women Who Ruled England Before Elizabeth (London, 2010), pp. 39–126.
acknowledge Stephen as the new monarch. On King Stephen’s reign and civil war see: R.H.C. Davis, King Stephen (1135–54), 3rd Edition (London, 1990); J. Bradbury, Stephen and Matilda: The Civil War of 1139–53 (Stroud, 1996); D. Matthew, King Stephen(London, 2002).
Stephen could manage neither. Walter Map, De Nugis Curialium, ed. & trans. M.R. James, rev. C.N.L. Brooke & R.A.B. Mynors (Oxford, 1983), p. 474; William of Malmesbury, Historia Novella, ed. E. King, trans. K.R. Potter (Oxford, 1998), p. 28.
the full penalties of the law’. J.A. Green, The Government of England under Henry I (Cambridge, 1986), p. 95; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 197–203.
before things were settled’. HWM, lines 44–51.
managed to walk to safety. HWM, lines 167–276; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 16–17.
extorting money and property from the Church. HWM, lines 316–18, 326–8; Gesta Stephani, p. 168; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 3–12; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 12–23; D. Crouch, ‘John Marshal’, ODNB.
church in Flanders burned to death. Gesta Stephani, p. 92; William of Malmesbury, Historia Novella, pp. 74–6.
‘a man of surprising subtlety’. Gesta Stephani, pp. 104–8; William of Malmesbury, Historia Novella, pp. 74–6.
He was given the name William. Painter, William Marshal, p. 9; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 17–19.
these emotions were widely experienced. On medieval childhood see: S. Shahar, Childhood in the Middle Ages (London, 1990).
that, supposedly, was still standing. Gerald of Wales, The Journey Through Wales and the Description of Wales, trans. L. Thorpe (London, 1978), pp. 142–3; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 20–1. On Gerald’s career see: R. Bartlett, Gerald of Wales: A Voice of the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1982).
John’s existing castle at Hamstead Marshall. D.J. Bonney & C.J. Dunn, ‘Earthwork Castles & Settlement at Hamstead Marshall, Berkshire’, Cornwall to Caithness, Some Aspects of British Field Archaeology, vol. 209 (1989), pp. 173–82.
a lull in the fighting followed. HWM, lines 399–466.
taken to the gallows for hanging’. HWM, lines 467–524; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 13–16; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 20–1.
no reference to John Marshal’s reaction. HWM, lines 525–710.
when his temper [was] aroused’. Peter of Blois, ‘Epistolae’, Patrologia Latina, ed. J.P. Migne, 221 vols. (Paris, 1844–64), vol. 207, pp. 48–9. On King Henry II and his accession see: W.L. Warren, Henry II (London, 1973); T.K. Keefe, ‘Henry II’, ODNB; E. Amt,The Accession of Henry II in England: Royal Government Restored, 1149–1159 (Woodbridge, 1993); G.J. White, Restoration and Reform, 1153–65: Recovery from Civil War in England (Cambridge, 2000); C. Harper-Bill & N. Vincent (eds.), Henry II: New Interpretations (Woodbridge, 2007).
Marshal as a much older man. HWM, lines 712–36.
performed by a paid administrator). Collectanea Topographica et Genealogica, vol. 2 (London, 1835), pp. 163–4; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 21–2.
was reapportioned in 1158. Crouch, William Marshal, p. 22.
as did his siblings. HWM, lines 737–68.
the land of his forefathers. On Normandy in this period see: D. Power, The Norman Frontier in the Twelfth and Early Thirteenth Centuries (Cambridge, 2004); D. Power, ‘Henry duke of the Normans (1149/50–1189)’, Henry II: New Interpretations, ed. C. Harper-Bill & N. Vincent (Woodbridge, 2007), pp. 85–128.
a very death to the envious’. Walter Map, p. 488.
to mould this warrior class. On the concept and practice of medieval knighthood, and the development of the aristocratic class see: M.H. Keen, Chivalry (New Haven & London, 1984); P. Coss, The Knight in Medieval England, 1000–1400 (Stroud, 1993); R. Barber, The Knight and Chivalry, 2nd Edition (Woodbridge, 1995); D. Crouch, The Image of the Aristocracy in Britain, 1000–1300 (London, 1992); D. Crouch, The Birth of the Nobility: Constructing Aristocracy in England and France, 900–1300 (Harlow, 2005); D. Crouch, The English Aristocracy, 1070–1272: A Social Transformation (New Haven & London, 2011); N. Saul, For Honour and Fame: Chivalry in England, 1066–1500 (London, 2011).
hold on to valiant knights’. HWM, lines 28–58.
a near-miraculous victory in 1099. On the First Crusade see: J.S.C. Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (London, 1986); J. France, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (Cambridge, 1994); T. Asbridge, The First Crusade: A New History (London, 2004).
at Rockley, in Wilshire, in 1157. Crouch, William Marshal, p. 24. On the Templar knights see: M. Barber, The New Knighthood. A History of the Order of the Templars (Cambridge, 1994); H. Nicholson, The Knights Templar (London, 2001)
to conquer Iberia from the Moors. For accessible translations of these two works see: The Song of Roland, trans. G. Burgess (London, 1990); The Chanson d’Antioche, trans. S.B. Edgington & C. Sweetenham (Aldershot, 2011).
tomb at Glastonbury in 1191. Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, trans. L. Thorpe (London, 1966); N.J. Higham, King Arthur: Myth Making and History (London, 2002), pp. 218–32; Saul, For Honour and Fame, pp. 39–59; M. Aurell, ‘Henry II and Arthurian Legend’, Henry II: New Interpretations, ed. C. Harper-Bill & N. Vincent (Woodbridge, 2007), pp. 362–94.
polish an otherwise underwhelming image. HWM, lines 769–804.
mistaken for bearded-Turks and accidently butchered. HWM, line 796; Daniel of Beccles, Urbanus Magnus Danielis Becclesiensis, ed. J. Gilbart Smyly (Dublin, 1939); Bartlett, England under the Norman and Angevin Kings, pp. 582–8; Danziger & Gillingham,1215, pp. 26–8; R. Bartlett, ‘Symbolic Meanings of Hair in the Middle Ages’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 4 (1994), pp. 43–60.
because he feared becoming fat. Walter Map, p. 476.
could ‘engage in battle confidently’. Roger of Howden, Chronica, ed. W. Stubbs, 4 vols (London, 1868–71), II, pp. 166–7.
or a staggering 4,500 sheep. R.H.C. Davis, The Medieval Warhorse (London, 1989); A. Hyland, The Medieval Warhorse: From Byzantium to the Crusades (Stroud, 1994); P. Latimer, ‘Early Thirteenth-Century Prices’, King John: New Interpretations, ed. S.D. Church (Woodbridge, 1999), pp. 41–73.
like a blacksmith on iron’. HWM, lines 1002–3; E. Oakeshott, The Sword in the Age of Chivalry, 2nd Edition (London, 1981); E. Oakeshott, Records of the Medieval Sword (Woodbridge, 1991). I am also indebted to Dr Tobias Capwell at the Wallace Collection, London, for his observations on medieval swords.
‘crafted by that master Wayland’. John of Marmoutier, ‘Historia Gaufredi ducis Normannorum et comitis Andegavorum’, Chroniques des Comtes d’Anjou et des Seigneurs d’Amboise, ed. L. Halphen & R. Poupardin (Paris, 1913), pp. 179–80.
a first taste of real battle. HWM, lines 815–26; Keen, Chivalry, pp. 64–82; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 28.
as the real fighting began. HWM, lines 827–908; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 19–22; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 32–6.
everyone broke into laughter. HWM, lines 909–1160.
prepared to seek his fortune. HWM, lines 1163–200.
PART II
ADULTHOOD: A KNIGHT IN SERVICE
the great craze of the day. On the history of medieval tournaments see: Keen, Chivalry, pp. 83–101; D. Crouch, Tournament (London, 2005); Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 192–9; R. Barber & J. Barker, Tournaments: Jousts, Chivalry and Pageants in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge, 1989).
it could not be tamed’. HWM, lines 1201–302. The story of the seemingly untameable mount may well be a literary topos.
‘the handsomest knight of all’. HWM, lines 1303–28.
even the notion of celebrity. HWM, lines 2928–30; Crouch, Tournament, pp. 19–56.
(‘Go get them Châtillon’). Crouch, William Marshal, p. 48; Crouch, Tournament, pp. 74–5.
and no more than that.’ HWM, lines 1329–80.
cannot be summoned when necessary’. Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, p. 166.
William ‘let him go’. HWM, lines 1339–41.
like Lancelot fighting at tournaments. Keen, Chivalry, pp. 1–63, 102–24; C.S. Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilising Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals, 939–1210 (Philadelphia, 1985); M. Strickland, War and Chivalry: The Conduct and Perception of War in England and Normandy, 1066–1217 (Cambridge, 1996); R.W. Kaeuper, Chivalry and Violence in Medieval Europe (Oxford, 1999); M. Aurell, Le chevalier lettré: Savoir et conduite de l’aristocratie aux XIIe et XIIIe sieclès, (Paris, 2006); Saul,For Honour and Fame, pp. 7–59.
fourteenth-century knight Geoffrey of Charny. R.W. Kaeuper & E. Kennedy, The Book of Chivalry of Geoffroi de Charny: Text, Context and Translation (Philadelphia, 1996); Geoffrey de Charny, A Knight’s Own Book of Chivalry, trans. R.W. Kaeuper & E. Kennedy (Philadelphia, 2005).
began to spread through France. HWM, lines 1381–525.
tournament champions of his day’. Crouch, Tournament, p. 22; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 24–5; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 36–7.
to see his worthy kin’. HWM, lines 1526–9.
another remarkable woman: Eleanor of Aquitaine. J. Martindale, ‘Eleanor of Aquitaine’, ODNB; B. Wheeler & J.C. Parsons (eds.), Eleanor of Aquitaine: Lord and Lady (Basingstoke, 2003); M. Bull & C. Léglu (eds.), The World of Eleanor of Aquitaine(Woodbridge, 2005); Castor, She-Wolves, pp. 131–222.
many of his supposed vassals. On King Louis VII of France and the Capetians see: R. Fawtier, The Capetian Kings of France: Monarchy and Nation, 987–1328, trans. L. Butler & R.J. Adam (London, 1960); E. Hallam, Capetian France, 987–1328, 2nd Edition (London, 2001); J. Bradbury,The Capetians: The History of a Dynasty (London, 2007).
journey by horse or ship’. Peter of Blois, ‘Epistolae’, Patrologia Latina, ed. J.P. Migne, 221 vols (Paris, 1844–64), vol 207, col. 197; Herbert of Bosham, ‘Liber Melorum’, Patrologia Latina, ed. J.P. Migne, 221 vols (Paris, 1844–64), vol. 190, col. 1322; Ralph of Diss, Opera Historica, ed. W. Stubbs, 2 vols (London, 1876), I, p. 351. The Angevin realm was never formally constituted as an empire, but in light of its power and geographical extent, many modern historians having taken to describing it as such. J. Gillingham,The Angevin Empire, 2nd Edition (London, 2001); M Aurell,The Plantagenet Empire, 1154–1224, trans. D. Crouch (Harlow, 2007).
the dispute remained unresolved. On the career of Thomas Becket see: F. Barlow, ‘Thomas Becket’, ODNB; F. Barlow, Thomas Becket (London, 1986); A. Duggan, Thomas Becket (London, 2004).
pillaging as they went. HWM, lines 1568–76; J. Gillingham, Richard I (New Haven & London, 1999), pp. 30–8.
to a semblance of order. Robert of Torigni, ‘The Chronicle of Robert of Torigni’, Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I, ed. R. Howlett, vol. 4 (London, 1889), pp. 235–6; HWM, lines 665–7. On the role and practice of raiding andchevauchées see: J. Gillingham, ‘War and Chivalry in the History of William Marshal’, Thirteenth–Century England II, ed. P. Coss & S. Lloyd (Woodbridge, 1988), p. 1–13; J. Gillingham, ‘Richard I and the Science of War’, War and Government in the Middle Ages, ed. J. Gillingham & J.C. Holt (Woodbridge, 1984), pp. 78–91; M. Strickland, War and Chivalry, pp. 258–90.
covered in blood’. HWM, lines 1619–720; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 26–7; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 37–8.
for them in any spot’. HWM, lines 1741–6.
he was now ‘in the gold’. HWM, lines 1721–888.
Henry II’s fawning courtiers. HWM, lines 1893–4, 1905–22; Gerald of Wales, ‘Topographica Hibernica’, Opera, vol. 5, ed. J.F. Dimock (London, 1867), p. 194. On the career of Henry the Young King see: O.H. Moore, The Young King, Henry Plantagenet (Ohio, 1925); E.Hallam, ‘Henry the Young King’, ODNB; M. Strickland, ‘On the Instruction of a Prince: The Upbringing of Henry, the Young King’, Henry II: New Interpretations, ed. C. Harper-Bill & N. Vincent (Woodbridge, 2007), pp. 184–214.
held without his daughter. HWM, lines 1910–22; A. Heslin [Duggan], ‘The Coronation of the Young King in 1170’, Studies in Church History, vol. 2 (London, 1965), pp. 165–78.
be they pagan or Christian’. HWM, lines 1950–8.
where Marshal’s loyalties really lay. HWM, lines 1935–48; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 24–51; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 31–2; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 41–2.
to the business of state. E. Mason, ‘“Rocamadour in Quercy above all other churches”: The Healing of Henry II’, Studies in Church History, vol. 19 (Oxford, 1982), pp. 39–54.
He is England’s forgotten king. Warren, Henry II, p. 580; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 41–2, offered a similarly damning appraisal of Young Henry’s character and capabilities.
Marshal presumably among them. HWM, lines 1967–74; Robert of Torigni, p. 253. King Henry II did pass through ports in England and Wales in this period, but did not return to England in any real sense.
reward for their loyal service. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis Henrici Secundi et Ricardi Primi, ed. W. Stubbs, 2 vols. (London, 1867), I, p. 177; Strickland, ‘On the Instruction of a Prince’, pp. 194–5, 206–7.
his son’s ‘counsel and household’. William of Newburgh, ‘Historia Rerum Anglicarum’, Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I, ed. R. Howlett, 2 vols. (London, 1884), I, p. 170; Robert of Torigni, pp. 255–6.
might turn on his master. Walter Map, p. 478.
the Old King’s beloved empire. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, pp. 35–6, 41; Robert of Torigni, pp. 255–6; Geoffrey of Vigeois, Chronique, trans. F. Bonnélye (Tulle, 1864), p. 117.
an enemy of the state. M. Strickland, ‘On the Instruction of a Prince’, pp. 207–8; Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, pp. 41–6; T.M. Jones, War of the Generations: The Revolt of 1173–4 (Ann Arbor, 1980).
mere puppet manipulated by others. Warren, Henry II, pp. 118–21; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 42–7.
seeds of a pitiless war. Jordan Fantosme, Chronicle, ed. R.C. Johnston (Oxford, 1981), lines 17–22.
anything else, just his chivalry’. HWM, lines 1975–2122; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 33–5; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 46.
in veneration of St Thomas. Ralph of Diss, I, pp. 382–3.
more in captivity in England. On the progress of the 1173–4 war see: Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, pp. 41–79; Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, pp. 45–69; Ralph of Diss, I, pp. 355–87, 393–5; Robert of Torigni, pp. 255–65; William of Newburgh, ‘Historia’, I, pp. 172–97; HWM, lines 2123–384; Warren, Henry II, pp. 117–41.
tournament world, even in 1176. HWM, lines 2385–438; Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, pp. 81–4, 91–9, 101–11; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 37–8; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 44–6.
packing him off to Normandy. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, pp. 114–15, 120–3.
for it on his return. HWM, lines 2471–576; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 39–44; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 192–9.
dishonesty was fair game. HWM, lines 2443–70, 2577–772.
drawn from the military household. R.J. Smith, ‘Henry II’s Heir: The Acta and the Seal of Henry the Young King, 1170–1183’, English Historical Review, vol. 116 (2001), pp. 297–326; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 42.
with Young Henry – seems authentic. HWM, lines 2773–874.
he accepted it nonetheless. HWM, lines 2875–3164.
the wretch had ‘suffered enough’. HWM, lines 3180–380, 4319–430.
must have made a fortune. HWM, lines 3007–9, 3381–424, 6677–864. It has previously been suggested that Roger of Jouy fought in opposing tournament teams, but the History of William Marshal clearly stated that ‘he belonged to the young king’s household’. Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 193–4; Crouch, Tournament, p. 98.
in a rather unscrupulous manner. HWM, lines 3888–4284.
refusing anything to any man’. HWM, lines 2637–95, 3572–96, 5051–9.
that he had taken away. HWM, line 3603; Ralph of Diss, I, pp. 428; M. Strickland, ‘On the Instruction of a Prince’, pp. 187, 211–3; Crouch, Tournament, p. 23.
for the rest of his career. Crouch, William Marshal, p. 47.
this death in September 1180. On the career of Philip II Augustus see: J. Bradbury, Philip Augustus: King of France, 1180–1223 (London, 1988).
clear for all to see. Robert of Torigni, p. 287; HWM, lines 4750–76; Crouch, Tournament, p. 24–5.
3,000 charging, battling knights. HWM, lines 4457–970; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 44–6; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 47, Crouch, Tournament, pp. 24, 36–7, 51, 76–7.
an additional 100 knights. Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, p. 266.
which Young Henry held rights. Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi, Chronicles and Memorials of the Reign of Richard I, vol. 1, ed. W. Stubbs (London, 1864), p. 143. The seminal study of Richard the Lionheart’s career remains: J. Gillingham,Richard I (New Haven & London, 1999). See also: Turner & R. Heiser, The Reign of Richard the Lionheart: Ruler of the Angevin Empire (London, 2000); J. Flori, Richard the Lionheart: Knight and King (London, 2007).
to his men to enjoy. Ralph of Diss, II, p. 19; Gervase of Canterbury, Opera Historica, ed. W. Stubbs, 2 vols. (London, 1879–80) I, p. 303; Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, p. 292; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 62–7. On the background to crusading history and events in the Holy Land see: T. Asbridge, The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land (London, 2010).
Rex Henricus – King Henry. Geoffrey of Vigeois, ‘Chronicon Lemovicense’, Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la France, vol. 18, ed. M. Brial (Paris, 1879), p. 212.
may be the third man. HWM, lines 5109–60; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 47–50; Smith, ‘Henry II’s Heir’, pp. 300, 317–8, 323, 325,
him with all his heart’. HWM, lines 5161–434.
not caused an earlier rift. R.W. Kaeuper, ‘William Marshal, Lancelot and the Issue of Chivalric Identity’, Essays in Medieval Studies, vol. 22 (2005), pp. 1–19; L. Ashe, ‘William Marshal, Lancelot and Arthur: Chivalry and Kingship’, Anglo–Norman Studies, vol. 30 (2007), pp. 19–40. I am grateful to Laura Ashe for her insights and comments on the representation of William Marshal during this episode in the History of William Marshal; I. Short, ‘Literary Culture at the Court of Henry II’, Henry II: New Interpretations, ed. C. Harper–Bill & N. Vincent (Woodbridge, 2007), pp. 335–61.
he was man or no’. Danziger & Gillingham, 1215, pp. 30, 89–93; Walter Map, pp. 210–14.
of these events remains hidden. HWM, lines 5435–90; Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, pp. 82–3; Ralph of Diss, I, p. 402; Crouch, Tournament, pp. 105–9; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 48–50.
King’s household had been reordered. HWM, lines 5491–652; Smith, ‘Henry II’s Heir’, pp. 321–2; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 50.
His exile had begun. HWM, lines 5693–848; Walter Map, pp. 488–90; R. Bartlett, Trial by Fire and Water: The Medieval Judicial Ordeal (Oxford, 1988).
a bloody war in Aquitaine. HWM, lines 5849–6305, 6527–606; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 49–51; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 52.
playing a dangerous, unpredictable game. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, p. 294; Warren, Henry II, pp. 580–7; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 69–72.
brother as his liege lord’. Ralph of Diss, II, pp. 18–19; Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, p. 295; Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, pp. 273–5; William of Newburgh, ‘Historia’, I, p. 233; HWM, lines 6309–52.
was not to be trusted. Gerald of Wales, ‘Topographica Hibernica’, p. 200. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, p. 297, described Geoffrey as the ‘son of perdition’.
would now back the Lionheart. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, p. 296; Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, p. 275; Warren, Henry II, pp. 590–3; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 72–3.
Marshal with all possible haste. HWM, lines 6353–552; Painter, William Marshal, p. 50; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 52.
unconscious and died soon thereafter. HWM, lines 6607–988; Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, pp. 297–301; Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, pp. 276–9; Geoffrey of Vigeois, ‘Chronicon Lemovicense’, pp. 214–7; Robert of Torigni, pp. 305–6; Ralph of Diss, II, p. 19; William of Newburgh, ‘Historia’, I, pp. 233–4; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 53–4; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 52–3.
Henry II later settled the arrears. HWM, lines 6989–7155; Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, I, pp. 301–2; Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, pp. 279–80. Howden reworked the representation of King Henry II’s reaction to his eldest son’s death between the writing of the Gesta and the Chronica.
It would not be his last. Ralph of Diss, II, pp. 20; Robert of Torigni, p. 306; William of Newburgh, ‘Historia’, I, p. 234; HWM, lines 7157–84.
all the world went begging’. Walter Map, pp. 278–82; Gerald of Wales, ‘Topographica Hibernica’, pp. 194–5; Bertrand of Born, The Poems of the Troubadour Bertan de Born, ed. W.D. Padern, T. Sankovitch & P.H. Stabelin (Berkeley, 1986), pp. 215–23; Gervase of Tilbury, Otia Imperialia, ed. & trans. S.E. Banks & J.W. Binns (Oxford, 2002), pp. 486–7; M. Strickland, ‘On the Instruction of a Prince’, pp. 186–7, 214; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 53–5.
prolonged, perhaps even permanent, absence. HWM, lines 7233–74; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 55–6.
thoughts of a Levantine future. For the history of the crusader states in this period see: B. Hamilton, The Leper King and his heirs: Baldwin IV and the crusader kingdom of Jerusalem (2000); B. Hamilton, ‘The Elephant of Christ: Reynald of Châtillon’, Studies in Church History, vol. 15 (1978), pp. 97–108; R.C. Smail, ‘The predicaments of Guy of Lusignan, 1183–87’, Outremer, ed. B.Z. Kedar, H.E. Mayer & R.C. Smail (Jerusalem, 1982), pp. 159–76.
their midst, victory was assured. HWM, lines 7292–4; A.J. Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades (London, 2001); Asbridge, The Crusades, pp. 104, 120–1.
the destructive storm of 1187 broke. HWM, lines 7275–99; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 55–6; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 55–6.
of inciting a massive reprisal. Hamilton, The Leper King, pp. 186–217; Asbridge, The Crusades, pp. 285–336.
to this rather disreputable raid. Hamilton, The Leper King, pp. 198–204; HWM, line 7290; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 57, n. 1.
mounting evidence of imminent collapse. Hamilton, The Leper King, pp. 211–4; William of Tyre, Chronicon, ed. R.B.C. Huygens, 2 vols. (Turnhout, 1986), pp. 1061–2.
his own day of judgement. HWM, lines 18184, 18201–26, 18231–6.
which the Angevins could not ignore. On the background to, and launching of, the Third Crusade see: Asbridge, The Crusades, pp. 337–80.
PART III
MIDDLE AGE: A LORD OF THE REALM
and access to crown favour. HWM, lines 7302–11; Painter, William Marshal, p. 61; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 57.
feared again in the future’. Walter Map, p. 374; N. Vincent, ‘The Court of Henry II’, Henry II: New Interpretations, ed. C. Harper-Bill & N. Vincent (Woodbridge, 2007), pp. 278–334.
a total cost of some £6,500. Danziger & Gillingham, 1215, pp. 16–19; Warren, Henry II, p. 234.
leave nothing untouched and untried’. Vincent, ‘The Court of Henry II’, pp. 319–33; Walter Map, pp. 2, 12–26.
remember everyone’s name and station. Walter Map, pp. 2, 25.
implied and nothing said openly. HWM, lines 525–654, 2875–3173; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 183–92.
and dependence upon, these retainers. Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 57–8, 167–8; F.J. West, ‘Geoffrey fitz Peter’, ODNB; R.V. Turner, Men Raised from the Dust: Administrative Service and Upward Mobility in Angevin England (Philadelphia, 1988).
hand to secure other advantages. HWM, lines 7312–18; Painter, William Marshal, p. 61; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 59.
prominent feature of William’s life. HWM, lines 7948–50; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 59, 161–3; D. Crouch, ‘John of Earley’, ODNB.
by way of recompense. HWM, lines 7304–18; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 59–61; N. Vincent, ‘William Marshal, King Henry II and the Honour of Châteauroux’, Archives, vol. 25 (2000), pp. 1–15.
the Lionheart in his place. Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 76–82.
only be secured at a price. Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 82–5.
children to become a crusader’. HWM, lines 7319–40; Asbridge, The Crusades, pp. 337–64.
back to the French heartlands. HWM, lines 7348–67.
have been ‘full of grief’. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, II, pp. 45–6; HWM, lines 7782–840.
grim feature of medieval warfare. Jordan Fantosme, lines 439–50; HWM, lines 7882–910; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 93–4; Gillingham, ‘War and Chivalry in the History of William Marshal’, pp. 5–6.
the Angevin realm by force. HWM, lines 8065–188. This is a simplification of a more convoluted period of intrigue and negotiation. For a fuller outline see: Warren, Henry II, pp. 619–22; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 94–8.
this] cruel act of treachery’. HWM, lines 8189–261.
and had to return empty–handed. HWM, lines 8262–332.
Marshal remained at Henry’s side. HWM, lines 8303–10; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 66–7; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 62–3.
‘they withdrew as enemies’. HWM, lines 8345–58; Ralph of Diss, II, p. 62.
would never abandon the city. HWM, lines 8361–82; Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, pp. 363–4; A. Bouton, Le Maine: Histoire économique et sociale (Le Mans, 1962), pp. 444–7.
heading ‘straight for Le Mans’. HWM, lines 8383–473.
his arm in the process. HWM, lines 8475–712; Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, pp. 363–4; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 68–70; Warren, Henry II, p. 623; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 63–4.
ordered William to return to his side. HWM, lines 8713–914; Gerald of Wales, ‘De Principis Instructione Liber’, Opera, vol. 8, ed. G.F. Warner (London, 1891), p. 286; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 98–9; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 64–5. It should be noted that William Marshal removed his own hauberk before riding from Le Mans and thus was himself unarmoured by the time of his confrontation with Richard the Lionheart [HWM, lines 8791–5].
then became a livid colour’. HWM, lines 8915–80.
a shroud and sing Mass. HWM, lines 8981–9290; Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, II, pp. 69–71; Roger of Howden, Chronica, II, pp. 365–7; Ralph of Diss, II, p. 64–5; Warren, Henry II, pp. 625–6; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 99–100; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 65–6.
with you over that matter.’ HWM, lines 9291–346.
for the north almost immediately. HWM, lines 9347–409; Gillingham, Richard I, p. 101.
made plans for their wedding. HWM, lines 9439–522; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 73–6; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 66–8.
quacks, belly dancers [and] sorcerers’. Danziger & Gillingham, 1215, pp. 57–64.
the maelstrom of power politics. HWM, lines 9523–50; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 76–9; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 68–71.
were bought for this occasion. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, II, pp. 78–83; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 107–9.
precursor to the white feather. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, II, pp. 155–6; Roger of Howden, Chronica, III, pp. 93–4; HWM, lines 9699–710; Gillingham, Richard I, p. 140; Asbridge, The Crusades, pp. 368–88.
kingdom to rule on his return. HWM, lines 9551–736. This account represents a significant simplification of the process by which justiciars and co-justiciars were appointed. For a more detailed examination of these events see: Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 109–22; J.T. Appleby, England Without Richard, 1189–99 (London, 1965), pp. 1–55.
a close association with the abbey. On the Cistercians see: J. Burton & J. Kerr, The Cistercians in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge, 2011).
creating a truly impressive fortification. R. Avent, ‘William Marshal’s building works at Chepstow Castle, Monmouthshire, 1189–1291’, The Medieval Castle in Ireland and Wales, ed. J.R. Kenyon & Kieran O’Conor (Dublin, 2003), pp. 50–71; R. Turner & A. Johnson (eds.), Chepstow Castle: Its History and Buildings (Almeley, 2006).
a few would betray his trust. Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 143–58, 217–25.
more than a decade earlier. Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 88, 175, argued that this Basilia was Strongbow’s sister (born in 1116), but she appears to have been her namesake, Strongbow’s illegitimate daughter.
amassed a considerable fortune. Painter, William Marshal, p. 49; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 52, 66, 152–7.
on William’s heart and soul. Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 72–3, 211–12.
Longchamp should the need arise. HWM, lines 9766–76.
whether he would ever return. Asbridge, The Crusades, pp. 398–445.
summer and early autumn of 1191. Richard of Devizes, Chronicon, ed. & trans. J.T. Appleby (London, 1963), pp. 44–6; HWM, lines 9784–5; Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, II, pp. 207–15.
of self-service seems undeniable. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, II, pp. 219–20; HWM, lines 9859–76; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 227–9; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 76–80.
a permanent corps of bodyguards. Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 226–9; Asbridge, The Crusades, pp. 446–9.
they were European Christians. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis, II, pp. 235–7; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 222–35; Appleby, England Without Richard, pp. 99–106.
free to wreak havoc in France. HWM, lines 9807–23; Richard of Devizes, pp. 46–7; Asbridge, The Crusades, pp. 444–516. For the detail of King Richard’s period in captivity and the process by which he was transferred into the hands of Emperor Henry VI of Germany see: Gillingham,Richard I, pp. 222–53.
servant of the crown. Roger of Howden, Chronica, III, pp. 204–5; HWM, lines 9877–10011; Appleby, England Without Richard, pp. 107–11.
finally seemed to be turning. HWM, lines 9883–964; Roger of Howden, Chronica, III, pp. 216–17.
‘thought him a fool’. HWM, lines 10168–70.
his own name by association. HWM, lines 10020–80; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 101–5; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 80–2.
office of royal master–marshal. HWM, lines 10081–152; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 102–3.
the other flayed alive. HWM, lines 10153–288; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 269–70.
He would never return. HWM, lines 10289–354; Roger of Howden, Chronica, III, p. 251.
his brother John found him. HWM, lines 10355–72, 10432–52.
serve in his brother’s army. HWM, lines 10373–425.
steadfast defence they had mounted. HWM, lines 10453–508; Ralph of Diss, II, pp. 114–15.
he might recover some favour. Rigord, ‘Gesta Philippi Augusti’, Oeuvres de Rigord et Guillaume le Breton, historiens de Philippe Auguste, ed. H–F. Delaborde, vol. 1 (Paris, 1882), p. 127; William the Breton, ‘Gesta Philippi Augusti’, Oeuvres de Rigord et Guillaume le Breton, historiens de Philippe Auguste, ed. H–F. Delaborde, vol. 1 (Paris, 1882), p. 196; M. Powicke, The Loss of Normandy, 1189–1204 (Manchester, 1913), p.101; Strickland, War and Chivalry, p. 223.
the love of his brother’. HWM, lines 10423–5; William of Newburgh, ‘Historia’, II, p. 424.
the ground for future reward. HWM, lines 10289–340; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 106–7; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 78–80.
and taking 220 prisoners. Ralph of Diss, II, pp. 116–17; Roger of Howden, Chronica, III, pp. 252–3.
special commendation from his king. HWM, lines 10581–676.
and enjoyed considerable favour. Painter, William Marshal, pp. 116–17; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 82–4.
Capetian interests in northern France. HWM, lines 10745–72; Roger of Howden, Chronica, IV, pp. 19–20; Ralph of Diss, II, pp. 152–3; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 84.
more damaging to the French. HWM, lines 11351–688.
younger men from earning renown. HWM, lines 11117–286; Roger of Howden, Chronica, IV, p. 16; Ralph of Diss, II, p. 152.
outbreak of unrest in Aquitaine. HWM, lines 10579–80, 11680–6, 11727–45; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 301–20.
who that successor might be? HWM, lines 11751–832; Roger of Howden, Chronica, IV, pp. 82–5; Gillingham, Richard I, pp. 321–34.
what you are doing now’. HWM, lines 11776–908; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 85.
PART IV
OLD AGE: ENGLAND’S GREAT MAGNATE
support of the English nobility. HWM, lines 11908–45; Roger of Howden, Chronica, IV, pp. 86–8.
associate of the Marshal family. M. Strickland, ‘William Longspée’, ODNB.
eased John’s path to power. Roger of Howden, Chronica, IV, p. 88.
first years of John’s reign. HWM, lines 11943–5; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 85–6.
the royal feast that evening. Roger of Howden, Chronica, IV, p. 90.
confident, attempt at understatement. Crouch, William Marshal, p. 200.
achieving a form of immortality. HWM, line 11944; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 122–4; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 86–8, 94.
to be an easy king to follow. R.V. Turner, ‘William (III) de Briouze’, ODNB.
and purpose to his behaviour. On the reign of King John see: W.L. Warren, King John, 2nd Edition (New Haven & London, 1978); R.V. Turner, King John (London, 1994); S.D. Church (ed.), King John: New Interpretations (Woodbridge, 1999); J. Gillingham, ‘John’, ODNB.
‘enemy of nature’ by contemporaries. Ralph of Diss, II, pp. 170–4; William of Newburgh, ‘Historia’, p. 402; Warren, King John, pp. 1–16; Danziger & Gillingham, 1215, pp. 103–5.
rewards without cause or warning. HWM, lines 12582–4.
The chance had been missed. Roger of Howden, Chronica, IV, pp. 96–7.
incapable of matching his opponent. Adam of Eynsham, Magna Vita Sancti Hugonis, ed. J.F. Dimock (London, 1864), p. 332; HWM, lines 12027–30.
little brother – John ‘Softsword’. On the Treaty of Le Goulet see: Warren, King John, pp. 54–63.
making another significant diplomatic blunder. Painter, William Marshal, pp. 125–8; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 90–1.
contentedly as it snapped shut. Roger of Howden, Chronica, IV, p. 119; Ralph of Diss, II, p. 170; N. Vincent, ‘Isabella of Angoulême: John’s Jezebel’, King John: New Interpretations, ed. S.D. Church (Woodbridge, 1999), pp. 165–219.
no small quantity of fine wine. HWM, lines 12059–404; Warren, King John, pp. 76–80.
the crisis had barely begun. HWM, lines 12500–12.
Arthur of Brittany was not seen again. Ralph of Coggeshall, Radulphi de Coggeshall Chronicon Anglicanum, ed. J. Stevenson (London, 1875), pp. 139–41; ‘Annals of Margam’, Annales Monastici, vol. I, ed. H.R Luard (London, 1864), p. 27.
William Marshal’s military career. William the Breton, ‘Gesta Philippi Augusti’, pp. 213–6; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 133–5; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 91–2.
that Normandy was now lost. HWM, lines 12674–704, 12783–92; Ralph of Coggeshall, p. 144; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 135–6.
of landholding was unavoidable. Warren, King John, pp. 93–9; M. Powicke, The Loss of Normandy, 1189–1204 (Manchester, 1913).
‘Softsword’ seems to have waivered. HWM, lines 12854–904; Ralph of Coggeshall, pp. 144–5; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 137–8; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 93.
the king for a long time’. HWM, lines 12944–13090; Layettes du Trésor des Chartes, ed. M.A. Teulet (Paris, 1863), p. 499, n. 1397; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 138–41; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 94–6.
who had assembled at Portsmouth. Ralph of Coggeshall, pp. 152–4; HWM, lines 13091–270; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 141–3; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 96.
to look to the west. HWM, lines 13271–8; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 143–4; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 97–100.
centre of trade and commerce. R. Eales, ‘Ranulf (III) of Chester’, ODNB.
Gerald of Wales’ own mixed heritage. Gesta Stephani, p. 14; Gerald of Wales, The Journey Through Wales, pp. 233–44, 255–64. On the history of medieval Wales see: D. Walker, Medieval Wales (Cambridge, 1990); R.R. Davies, The Age of Conquest: Wales, 1063–1415, 2nd Edition (Oxford, 2000).
little in the Wild West. Gerald of Wales, The Journey Through Wales, p. 236. On medieval Ireland see: S. Duffy, Ireland in the Middle Ages (London, 1997).
they were ‘surging with currents’. Gerald of Wales, The Journey Through Wales, pp. 147–56, 168–9; Gerald of Wales, The History and Topography of Ireland, trans. J.J. O’Meara (London, 1982), p. 58; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 86–7, 93–4.
for the term of one year. Gerald of Wales, The History and Topography of Ireland, pp. 34–5, 53–5; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 87–9.
of mixed Norman-Irish birth. Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 100–3, 218, 222–3.
Isabel had arrived in Ireland. HWM, lines 13311–422; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 145–8; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 102–3.
thwart William at every step. M.T. Flanagan, ‘Meiler fitz Henry’, ODNB; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 102–4.
judgement over the disputed territory. Rotuli Litterarum Patentium in turri Londinensi asservati, ed. T.D. Hardy (London, 1835), p. 72; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 104–5.
the Marshal dynasty from Leinster. HWM, lines 13429–61; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 154–5; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 105.
to be a dreadful miscalculation. HWM, lines 13462–550.
remained steadfast beside the earl. HWM, lines 13551–4, 13575–84; Rotuli Chartarum, ed. T.D. Hardy (London, 1837), pp. 171–3; Painter, William Marshal, p. 156; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 105–6.
was ‘greatly aggrieved at heart’. HWM, lines 13585–675, 13787–866.
scale [fought] throughout that land’. HWM, lines 13555–74.
‘shame lasts longer than destitution’. HWM, lines 13676–762.
would not accept other pledges’. HWM, lines 13763–86, 13867–88; Painter, William Marshal, p. 157; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 106–11.
clear in the starkest terms. HWM, lines 13889–937; Rotuli Chartarum, p. 176; Rotuli Litterarum Patentium, p. 80; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 111–12.
looking on from the sidelines. HWM, lines 13941–14116, 14433–46. Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 112–14, offered a more damning appraisal of Marshal’s treatment of Meiler.
in pursuit of a different quarry. Painter, William Marshal, pp. 167–8; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 113–15.
a calamitous rift opened. HWM, lines 13585–98; Roger of Wendover, Chronica Rogeri de Wendover liber qui dicitur Flores Historiarum, ed. H.G. Hewlett, 3 vols. (London, 1886–9), II, pp. 48–9.
this dispute without undue penalty. HWM, lines 14136–232.
the flesh of his cheeks. Turner, ‘William (III) de Briouze’, ODNB; S. Duffy, ‘John and Ireland’, King John: New Interpretations, ed. S.D. Church (Woodbridge, 1999), pp. 221–45.
were drawing to a close. HWM, lines 14233–484; Rotuli Litterarum Patentium, p. 98; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 161–70; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 115–16.
and the ‘most evil robber’. N. Vincent, ‘Peter des Roches’, ODNB; N. Vincent, Peter des Roches: An Alien in English Politics, 1205–1238 (Cambridge, 1996); D. Power, ‘Falkes de Bréauté’, ODNB.
gifted ammunition to his opponents. Warren, King John, pp. 154–73. On the pontificate of Innocent III see: J. Sayers, Innocent III: Leader of Europe (London, 1994); J.M. Powell (ed.), Pope Inncoent III: Vicar of Christ or Lord of the World? (Washington, DC, 1994).
according to one chronicler. ‘Annals of Barnwell Priory’, Memoriae Walteri de Coventria, vol. II, ed. W. Stubbs (London, 1873), p. 207; Roger of Wendover, II, pp. 61, 63. The classic study of the Baronial rebellion remains: J.C. Holt, The Northerners: A Study in the Reign of King John(Cambridge, 1961).
extended to a former opponent. Rotuli Litterarum Clausarum, 1204–27, vol. I, ed. T.D. Hardy (London, 1833), p. 132; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 116–18.
turned irrevocably against the king. HWM, lines 14588–90; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 172–4, 176–7; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 118–19.
from the brink of disaster. HWM, lines 14629–32; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 174–6; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 119.
would reshape William Marshal’s career. Warren, King John, pp. 217–24; Brabury, Philip Augustus, pp. 279–315; Holt, The Northerners, p. 100.
the Great Charter or Magna Carta. J.C. Holt, Magna Carta, 2nd Edition (Cambridge, 1992); N. Vincent, Magna Carta: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford, 2012).
Hubert of Burgh and John Marshal. Holt, Magna Carta, pp. 448–73.
conceived by a single mind. Painter, William Marshal, pp. 119–21; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 178–82.
at best, with ambivalence. Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, ed. H.R. Luard, 7 vols. (London, 1872–84), II, pp. 604–5; Painter, William Marshal, p. 180; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 122.
civil war was inevitable. Holt, Magna Carta, pp. 448–73; Vincent, Magna Carta, pp. 58–84.
Stephen’s reign, seventy years earlier. Roger of Wendover, II, pp. 170–2.
the Capetian monarch remained resolute. Gerald of Wales, ‘De Principis Instructione’, pp. 326–9; HWM, lines 15061–70, 15097–108; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 185–6; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 122–3; D. Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III (London, 1990), pp. 5–12.
had familial ties to France. Painter, William Marshal, pp. 186–7; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 123.
to ‘his lord and king’. HWM, lines 15117–28.
to Marlborough Castle were blocked. Rotuli Litterarum Patentium, p. 175; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 185–6; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 121–2.
Marshal’s fidelity was yet to come. HWM, lines 15135–8; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 188–9.
by the presence of John’. HWM, lines 15143–206; Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, II, p. 669; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 123–4.
could not be long postponed. HWM, lines 15185–91, 15207–28; S.D. Church, ‘King John’s Testament and the Last Days of his Reign’, English Historical Review, vol. 125 (2010), pp. 505–28.
for the last five decades. HWM, lines 15229–84; Painter, William Marshal, p. 192; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 192.
William retired to his rooms. HWM, lines 15287–397; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 192–5; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 125–6; Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, pp. 13–14.
difficult for you to endure’. HWM, lines 15398–464.
whatever it may cost me’. HWM, lines 15465–561; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 195–6; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 126.
to beg for my bread.’ Patent Rolls of the Reign of Henry III (London, 1901), p. 10; HWM, lines 15562–708; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 196–7; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 126–7; Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, pp. 15–17, 32.
prospects in the civil war. Painter, William Marshal, pp. 197–8; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 127; Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, pp. 17–22.
a swift and decisive confrontation. Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, pp. 22–6; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 198–205; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 127–8; Vincent, Magna Carta, pp. 82–6.
if they were to prevail. ‘Annals of Barnwell Priory’, p. 236; Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, pp. 26–35; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 128–9; C. Tyerman, England and the Crusades (Chicago, 1988), pp. 133–42.
‘play for the highest stakes’. HWM, lines 16085–130, 16168; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 211–13; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 128–9; Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, pp. 35–6.
steadfast courage and ruthless ferocity. HWM, lines 16131–235.
the French ‘down to Hell’. HWM, lines 16236–304; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 129–30; Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, pp. 36–7; F. Hill, Medieval Lincoln (Cambridge, 1965).
and the assault began. HWM, lines 16305–604; Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, pp. 37–9; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 131–2.
hard-pressed to hold his own. Roger of Wendover, II, pp. 215–16; HWM, lines 16605–85.
Thomas] died in this manner’. HWM, lines 16686–768; Painter, William Marshal, p. 218; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 133. Thomas of Perche was William Marshal’s distant cousin, as Thomas’ great grandmother had been Hawise of Salisbury, William’s aunt.
civil war had been turned. HWM, lines 16769–17068; Roger of Wendover, II, pp. 216–19; Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, p. 40.
invader set sail for France. HWM, lines 17069–726; Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, pp. 40–9; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 219–25; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 133–4; S. McGlynn, Blood Cries Afar: The Forgotten Invasion of England, 1216 (Stroud, 2011), pp. 217–34.
rule and saved the kingdom. ‘Annals of Barnwell Priory’, p. 239; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 225–7; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 134–5. William Marshal probably was over–generous (or simply naive) in agreeing to pay Louis of France 10,000 marks to secure peace, on the expectation (confirmed by oath, but subsequently broken) that Louis would do all in his power to persuade his father, King Philip, to return the continental Angevin territory lost by John to Henry III.
EPILOGUE
to New Ross in Leinster. HWM, lines 17727–876; Carpenter, The Minority of Henry III, pp. 50–127; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 228–74; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 135–8.
the responsibilities of office. HWM, lines 17877–936; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 275–6; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 138.
‘delivered of a great burden’. HWM, lines 17937–18135; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 276–9; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 139.
William in his dying days. HWM, lines 18136–982; Painter, William Marshal, pp. 279–89; Crouch, William Marshal, pp. 139–40, 214–16.
remained so to the very end. HWM, lines 18136–78, 18675–734.
be performed to the letter. HWM, lines 18124–35, 18180–225, 18243–60.
no man can find salvation. HWM, lines 18459–96, 18591–674, 18905–60.
have you for his own’. HWM, lines 18227–42, 18323–6, 18351–412, 18443–458. Ironically, Aimery of St Maur fell ill on his return to London and died even before William Marshal.
still be seen to this day. HWM, lines 18797–9215; Painter, William Marshal, p. 289; Crouch, William Marshal, p. 141.
the crown for personal gain. Carpenter, The Struggle for Mastery, pp. 300–37.
to a desperately premature end. R.F. Walker, ‘William (II) Marshal’, ODNB; D. Power, ‘Richard Marshal’, ODNB.
of King Richard II in 1399. Carpenter, The Struggle for Mastery, pp. 338–530; C. Allmand, The Hundred Years War: England and France at War, c. 1300–c.1450 (Cambridge, 2001).
in the dawn of modernity. Keen, Chivalry, pp. 102–253; Saul, For Honour and Fame, pp. 60–370; M. Prestwich, Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience (New Haven & London, 1996).
annals of the distant past. Aurell, ‘Henry II and Arthurian Legend’, p. 376; Kaeuper, ‘William Marshal, Lancelot and the Issue of Chivalric Identity’, pp. 1–19.
the figure behind the crown. The Fine Arts Commission Reports, vol. 4 (1845), vol. 7 (1847) vol. 8 (1849). I am very grateful to James Ford at the Palace of Westminster for his assistance on the issue of the redecoration of the House of Lords.