9
Introduction
We have seen in the last chapter that the period of the Enlightenment was characterised by five main features: a belief in the power of scientific reasoning, faith in progress, human rights, freedom of thought and enquiry and the desire to promote education as a means of furthering the 'Enlightenment project'. The Enlightenment was followed by a radical change of values in the last part of the eighteenth century, what Isaiah Berlin has called 'the greatest single shift in the consciousness of the West that has occurred'.1
The difficulties of defining Romanticism have led to many different interpretations of the word. Some writers have in fact denied the legitimacy of the general term 'Romantic', stating that we can effectively examine only different romanticisms.2 Broadly speaking, Romanticism can be said to be concerned with some aspects of the following: the modern in contrast to classicism; a union of love, religion and chivalry; an escape from the Industrial Revolution; a bourgeois revolt against the aristocracy; a desire to soar into the infinity; an emphasis on individuality and self-assertion; and the secret and inexpressible delight of the soul. Berlin would include in Romanticism the joy of every day Nature, novelty, revolutionary change, nostalgia, energy, force, and will, a sense of alienation, toleration of eccentricity, and the rejection of knowledge, past, present and future.3 The Romantic movement was responsible for dramatic changes in art, literature, music and architecture both in form and content, resulting in new ways of looking at the world. Its influence on educational thought was also considerable.
The main difference between writers of the Enlightenment and those of the Romantic period was in their attitude towards Nature. The former saw Nature as a universal mechanism operating according to a set of natural laws. When these were discovered, man would be able to control his own destiny. The Romantics, on the other hand, believed that Nature could not be analysed but was to be accepted as a mysterious, brooding force whose moods were to be interpreted. More important for education was the contrast between the Enlightenment view, that man could control his destiny by the use of reason, and the Romantics, who stressed that the human condition was a much more complex process and that feelings rather than the intellect were of paramount importance. Rejecting the notion that man had progressed in history through the use of reason, they argued that man was linked to the past by an unbroken flow of experience.4
Whilst it may be useful to contrast the Enlightenment and Romantic views in order to illustrate their main differences, in practice the dividing line between the two philosophies is often blurred. For instance, if we examine the educational precepts of Rousseau which were dealt with in the previous chapter, we can see that his writings often consist of sentiments which belong at times to the old order and in other places to the new. This is not surprising in a figure such as Rousseau, who was a mass of contradictions in his personal life, and this was reflected in his writings. Perhaps his most memorable words which place him in the Romantic tradition occur at the opening of his The Social Contract, published in 1762, 'Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains.' In Emile, Rousseau exalts the 'noble savage' and advocates the 'Back to Nature' movement. Rousseau was also an early exponent of child-centred education and the notion of child development, both of which were taken up by the Romantics.
However, when we examine the term 'nature', we can see that there are at least three important meanings:
In his educational theory, Rousseau draws on all three meanings.5 Furthermore, Rousseau's own five stages of education are somewhat prescriptive and at times positively unenlightened. Nevertheless, his advocacy of a revolt in education, from convention to nature, although not the first, was the most striking, inspiring later Romantics in formulating their views on education.
The Influence of German Romantics
Although Rousseau's contribution to Romanticism deserves due acknowledgement, its true origins are to be found in Germany rather than in France. Unlike England and France, Germany in the late eighteenth century was not a unitary state and there were literally hundreds of princes with their own territories. Its culture was, compared with the rest of Europe, somewhat provincial, and its scholarship tended to be pedantic. Lutheranism had led to an examination of the relationship between man and God, stressing the individual suffering of the human soul. Pessimism was rife, as expressed in the Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) movement which prevailed in the 1760s and 1770s, typifying the philosophy of the time.
Perhaps the earliest and most influential philosopher who brought to bear revolutionary changes in outlook was Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant, in his Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Critique of Pure Reason) (1781), challenged the Cartesian notion that all knowledge is innate, that knowledge of the world comes only from our senses, by experiencing things. Mathematical concepts, he stated, are not the result of the functioning of our senses any more than our sense of duty or of beauty. Our judgements about things and their relations to one another are made because of categories inherent in the structure of the mind. The senses supply the crude materials of knowledge but the mind itself completes the process by adding factors which come from elsewhere. The mind is unable to know the ultimate nature of things; we only know their outward appearance and how they act. The educational implications of Kant's philosophy are important. In contrast to Enlightenment thinkers, he saw that every individual is an end in him or herself and never a means for another's end: 'Be a person and respect all others as persons.' Individualism and humanity were two of the hallmarks of Romanticism.
An acquaintance of Kant, Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803), who made important contributions to the study and advancement of history, was one of the few Romantics who had a close personal experience of school teaching. When he was at Weimar between the years 1776 and 1788 as Generalsuperintendent, one of his duties was as inspector of schools. During this time he carried out a number of practical reforms, founded new educational institutions and outlined a plan for studies in his book Ideen zur Philosophic der Geschichte der Menscheit (Philosophy of Man) (1800). Herder stated that the development of human groups could best be described by reference to Nature, with its biological and botanical growth. All actions need to be understood in their historical context and the intentions of the participants examined. An object, he claimed, could not be described without reference to the purpose of its maker and it was therefore necessary to enquire into the maker's mind and motives. It would then be possible to understand why a particular society's art, philosophy, political system and geography developed. It could also help discern why different civilisations flourished or declined and why progress was made in some countries and not in others. In this view Herder thus anticipated both historicism and evolutionism.
He concluded that each human group has its own internal life and that each person belonging to it should speak the truth as he or she understands it. Such individuation of societies postulated the tolerance of differences in ideas, culture and traditions without seeking for unity, that is, individuals not having to fit into a given structure and with freedom of action. One of Herder's main contributions to educational theory was to develop naturalistic explanations for culture in such spheres as language, history, religion and the mind.6
Among the many early German Romantics, Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805) stands out as an educational thinker. He was primarily a dramatist who strongly believed that art had a beneficial and humanising effect. When he was 36, he published Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen in einer Reihe von Briefen (Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man) (1795) which influenced later educationists such as Pestalozzi, Herbart and Froebel. The major educational problems of his day raised five questions: was education to be controlled by the State for its own ends or should it be private and concerned with improving humanity; should education be directed towards the passive and receptive or towards the active and the creative; how to bring about the transition from sensory experience to abstract thinking; how to change people to act on moral principles and disinterested motives; and finally, how to educate man for freedom in a mechanically determined world.
Schiller's answers to these questions show his debt to Kant. Aware of the public debate then taking place in Germany on the matter of the relationship between the individual and the State, he deplored any attempts by the State to suppress individuality. Moral improvement, he believed, stemmed from individuals and would therefore lead to a better society. Spiritual freedom and freedom of the mind were essential.7 However, he believed that the mind was passive and receptive and our desires and emotions the result of animal spirits. One of the problems confronting educationists, then, was how the mind could best become engaged in art, moral conduct and rational thinking. Schiller thought it could be achieved by imposing inner images on outer matter, as creativity is the chief function of the soul. It is the artistic impulse in man that unites a concept with sensory experience.
Schiller also expounded a theory of play which is not confined to children, but is also applied to the creative faculty in adults:
Reason makes the following demand: there shall be interaction between the impulse-to-form and the material impulse - that is, there shall be a play instinct - because it is only by the unity with form, of the accidental with the necessary, of the passive state with freedom, that human nature is completed.
An important aspect of Schiller's thinking was his attention to the need for aesthetic education. He regarded the sublime as the peak of spiritual experience. The sublime was the feeling of awe when contemplating for the first time a scene of natural beauty, or contemplating some great event in history. The sublime, he argued, could be regarded in education as part of the process of emotional development and in elevating man to a higher plane of morality. In considering infinity, time and space, the individual can be both aware of his own insignificance and at the same time inspired to express his vision.
This leads to his theory of aesthetic education. To develop from the lower level of the sensuous to the moral, man must use imagination to create new images of art in order to transcend the laws of Nature. The highest point is reached when man can apply his art to his own personality. It was for this reason that Schiller advocated that dancing, poetry, music, drama and art should be taught from an early age. No worked-out system was adumbrated by Schiller, though he suggested three stages of development through which individuals must pass - the physical, the aesthetic and the moral. At the first stage, the child is still an animal in harmony with Nature; the aesthetic instinct of artistic interest may also develop towards the end of this stage. In youth and early manhood, he becomes aware of moral beauty and spiritual pleasure, and now looks towards a moral unity. In his theory, Schiller expressed the idea that the child recapitulates the cultural history of the species, the cultural epoch theory, which was widely accepted at the time.
Schiller's views, although in many respects flawed, proved to be a great stimulus to subsequent educators. He advanced Rousseau's advocacy for 'the harmonious development of all powers', a concept which was taken up by Pestalozzi in his work. Herbart's theory of education of taste and the development of sympathy were also derived from Schiller. Froebel's principles of creativity, self-realisation and socialisation were similarly inspired. In putting forward the doctrine of play as the chief means by which the child constructs an interpretation of reality,8 Froebel wrote, 'Every person forms his world for himself, an almost exact quotation from Schiller's Thirteenth Letter in Letters On the Aesthetic Education of Man.
An exponent of what Isaiah Berlin terms as unbridled Romanticism was Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775-1854). At the age of 23, he was appointed professor of Philosophy at Jena University, then the main centre of the movement. He admired Kant, Fichte and Spinoza, and became acquainted with Goethe at Weimar where Schelling was also domiciled. The latter's studies of physical science led to his book Ideen zur Philosophie der Nature (Thoughts on the Philosophy of Nature) in 1797, and he developed his views on Naturphilosphie in subsequent writings. Briefly, Schelling applied to the philosophy of Nature insights gained from Kant and Fichte to propose a theory of three stages of knowledge, described as progressing from sensation to perception, from perception to reflection and from reflection to will.
Schelling also presented his views on higher education in his Vorlesungen über die Methodic des akademischen Stadiums (Lectures on the Method of Academical Studies) (1804). His philosophy can be summed up in the phrase 'Nature is invisible mind, mind invisible nature.' Schelling regarded Nature as a living entity, starting with rocks which are the will in a state of total unconsciousness, through to plant life, then animals. Nature is striving to achieve some unknown purpose, whilst man is self-consciously aware of what he is striving for; through his efforts, the world is brought to a higher consciousness of itself. This doctrine was important in influencing the contemporary theory of art and aesthetics which stated that the only works of art which are valid are those depicting Nature as a living, though not wholly conscious, thing. Great works of art and music were the embodiment of the artist's infinite spirit which he is able to articulate through the operation of the unconscious. Schelling's interest in symbolism, mythology and the dualism between appearance and things in themselves contributed to his standing as one of the more influential of the Romantic thinkers.
August Schlegel, a contemporary writer on Romanticism, claimed that the movement was influenced by three main factors: the French Revolution, Fichte's theory of knowledge and Goethe's Wilhelm Meister novels.9 Although Fichte's idealist philosophy will be dealt with in the next chapter, a brief reference to his educational ideas must be mentioned here. Before being appointed to a chair in Philosophy at Jena in 1794, Fichte had for several years been a tutor in various parts of Saxony and Switzerland, becoming friends with Pestalozzi and studying his writings. Schlegel was the author of a book Die Problematik der aphoristichen Form (Aphorisms on Education) (1804), written after Germany's defeat by Napoleon, where he attributed the defeat to the country's moral decay and the corruption of its citizens. He adopted Pestalozzi's notion that the educator's task is to motivate the child to learn, preferably through active rather than by passive means; if a child could become self-motivated, this would lead him from the realm of the selfish and sensuous to a pure and moral life. Moral education, he claimed, could best be achieved by surrounding the pupil with good examples. Young people should be taken away from their homes and educated in State-run institutions, staffed by carefully selected teachers, in order to train them in the ways of moral rightness. Much of Fichte's educational philosophy was based on his theory of knowledge. He believed that contemporary knowledge was ineffective, as knowledge is an instrument for the purpose of an effective life, of knowing how to live. 'We do not act because we know', he wrote, 'we know because we are called upon to act.' Unlike some of the early Romantics, Fichte saw an individual's freedom was to be obtained through action rather than by passive contemplation.
The writings of Goethe were influential, as we have seen, among the Romantics even though, as he himself admitted, 'For philosophy in the strict sense I had no organ.' Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) had studied law at Leipzig where he met Herder, who was to become his intellectual mentor. Goethe was a man of wide interests. He was employed by the Duke Karl August of Weimar at his Court, and apart from his official duties and his literary interests, he undertook research and published works on anatomy, geology, biology and optics. He was also director of the Weimar Theatre and was involved in the administration of Jena University. Goethe's biological studies, particularly the metamorphosis of plants, led him to believe that organisms were constructed on a uniform plan. His interest in science was based on a quest for a unifying law which would explain the diversity of forms and species in Nature.10
Goethe's own educational experience consisted of tutoring, when he was a young man, three children from humble backgrounds and he assumed responsibility for the education of the son of an aristocratic woman friend in Weimar. His success as a tutor was only modest. Goethe never formulated any theories on education, but it is through his novels that his views and convictions on the subject can be seen. Two of his major novels are Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre (Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship Years), published in 1795-96, and 20 years later, Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre (Wilhelm Meister's Wandering Years). The first book caused a sensation when it first appeared. It is to a large extent autobiographical, with Goethe himself as the hero, and gives an account of his own development, with reminiscences of books he has read, and it contains discussions on aesthetics. Goethe later told one of his disciples, 'Basically, the whole work seems only to be trying to say that, despite all the stupidity and confusion, man, led by a higher hand, eventually reaches a happy ending'.11
The first book, with its intricate plot interspersed with allegorical tales, depicts Wilhelm Meister's intellectual and cultural development. It is an account of Wilhelm's progress from the time when he leaves his parents' home to the point where, having completed his apprenticeship, he is entrusted with the education of his son. He advocates a view of education which was based on trial and error; only through searching and erring, through independent confrontation with the world, will the individual be able to discover his or her innate talents. The notion of the importance of the development of one specific skill in accordance with one's talents becomes central to Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre. Here the emphasis is on renunciation; Wilhelm has to relinquish his aim of cultivating his mind in an aristocratic society. The aim now is the acquisition of a practical skill in order to be a useful member of the community. Wilhelm entrusts his son to the 'education province', an educational Utopia, dedicated to practical activities and the inculcation of reverence: reverence to God, of one's fellow human beings and of Nature (the earth, suffering and death), leading to the highest form of reverence, self-reverence. There is a distinction between education (Bildung) and inner development, the latter a process capable of changing a character, leading him to a goal, unspecified, which society has set for him. By the end of the novel, Wilhelm has advanced towards that goal.12 To Goethe, education was evolutionary, drawing forth from the individual that which was best, 'the realisation, as completely as possible, of the general type of the species'. His motto was 'In the beginning was action': he therefore urged 'Do, and by doing you will attain to your highest and best'. In the education of infants, as in the government of nations, he thought that repressive measures were futile. 'Man,' he said, 'is naturally active: open a way for action, and he will follow you.'
Goethe in many respects typifies the Romantic movement. Not all the thinkers mentioned in this section consistently subscribed to the idea characterising the movement. Goethe himself, towards the end of his long life, declared 'Romanticism is a disease, classics is health.' Others, such as Rousseau are difficult to classify under any one particular label with some describing their views which would at different times fit under either the Enlightenment or Romantic headings. Nevertheless, the influence of German Romanticism reached beyond that country and found ready roots in countries such as England.
British Romantics
The outbreak of Rousseaumania between the 1760s and the 1790s had many manifestations, not least in Britain. Thomas Day's Sandford and Merlon (1783-89) was but one example of a number of educational novels which highlighted the benefits of a natural as distinct from a formal education. Day's novel tells the story of how Tommy Merton, a corrupt and idle child, is transformed by a tutor, Mr Bob Henry Sandford, into a child of nature. David Williams, a radical deist, organised a school on principles described in Emile, and Richard and Marie Edgeworth's Practical Education (1798) argued that educational principles should be based on child nature. A wide range of people became interested in education at this time, including Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen, the philosopher and novelist William Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Erasmus Darwin, the scientist, who all wrote works influenced by Romanticism.13
Much more closely linked with the mainstream of the German Romantics was the writer and poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834). In early youth he had been a subscriber to the materialist philosophies and theories of human nature. At the age of 26, Coleridge went to Germany to study the works of Kant and Schelling at Gottingen. Shortly afterwards, in his own words, Kant took hold of him 'as with a giant's hand'.14
Coleridge's philosophical ambitions were to provide a new synthesis and 'reduce all knowledge into harmony'. This proved to be unrealisable, but his views on childhood and its educational implications are valuable. Some of these views were shared by some of his contemporaries, but Coleridge's expression of childhood displays an unusually superior intellect. It will be convenient to discuss them under four headings: innocence; morality; imagination; and language.
To emancipate the mind from the despotism of the eye is the first stop towards its emancipation from the influence and intrusions of the senses, sensations and passions generally. Thus most effectually is the power of an abstraction to be called forth, strengthened and familiarised, and it is this power of abstraction that chiefly distinguishes the human understanding from that of the higher animals - and in the different degrees in which this power is developed, the superiority of man over man mainly consists.
Coleridge wrote in his Biographia Literaria. 'I include in the meaning of a word not only its correspondent object, but likewise the character, mood and intentions of the person who is representing it.' For instance, in the 'eternal language' of Nature, as depicted in his poem 'Frost at Midnight', in a statement reminiscent of Schelling, Coleridge affirmed that the child should perceive not just lakes and sandy shores, crags and clouds, but the 'processes and results of imagination by which these natural forms echo or reflect each other:
the clouds
Which image in their bulk both lakes and shores
And mountain crags.
Coleridge was conscious of the limitations of conventional language which militates against an all-encompassing 'eternal language'.16 In attempting to make sense of his world at a time of revolution and intellectual moral confusion, Coleridge postulated a number of educational theories which still bear close examination.
The friendship between Coleridge and his contemporary, William Wordsworth (1770-1850), is well known. Coleridge once wrote to friend, 'Wordsworth is a Poet ... he will hereafter be admitted the first and greatest philosophical Poet - the only man who has effected compleat and constant synthesis of Thought and Feeling and accompanied them with Poetic Forms.17 After studying at Cambridge, Wordsworth paid two visits to France in the 1790s, becoming an enthusiastic supporter of the French Revolution in its early days. When Robespierre fell from power, he expressed his hopes in the Revolution that reform would be effected by education and reason. Coleridge visited Wordsworth in England in 1795 and, two years later, Wordsworth moved down to Somerset to be near Coleridge.
Wordsworth, like many others in the Romantic movement, never formulated a coherent theory of education. However, in his poems, particularly The Prelude, an autobiographical memoir, we can piece together his views. The writing and revision of the poem occupied Wordsworth for almost half a century, the first two parts appearing in 1799 and the final version in 1850, He had read Emile as a youth and was in sympathy with many of Rousseau's views, but differed on some practical points. Unlike Rousseau, Wordsworth had enjoyed his childhood, being surrounded by family and schoolmates. As has been well said, 'Wordsworth's childhood had much in it which conformed not with Rousseau's extra vagaries or pedantries, but with his best mind.18
It is interesting to note that the subtitle of The Prelude is 'Growth of a Poet's Mind', for as Wordsworth stated, ' The true standard of poetry is as high as the soul of a man has gone, or can go.' Wordsworth explored in this and later poems the growth of the human mind and its implications for the unfolding of human power. In infancy, Wordsworth believed, the mind is expressed and benefited by touch, which is, in some respects, the infant's first language, a genuinely human experience. As the child grows older, it is the experience of his senses and the interplay or sense activity and feeling that help him or her in accumulating experiences.
The well-known lines:
The Child is father of the Man:
And I wish my days to be
Bound each to each by natural piety
emphasise the importance Wordsworth places on childhood experience, for the adult cannot acquire full wisdom unless he has remained true to the first principles of his childhood. Knowledge can be acquired by storing up facts and reading books: true knowledge is not intellectual in nature but is absorbed organically from childhood onwards, and need not be a conscious process, as was summed up by Henry James: 'Small children have many more perceptions than they have terms to translate them; their vision is at any moment richer, their apprehension even constantly stronger than their prompt, their at all producible vocabulary.'
The second stage of a child's education was to place before him or her imaginative experiences. As the mind develops, the child should discover and analyse 'manifest distinctions' and 'the observation of affinities'. Wordsworth, like many of his contemporaries, was a supporter of analytical intelligence, though intellectual advance required an interplay with feeling, feeling with sensuality and sensibility with language.19 Wordsworth's mysticism, which marks him out as a Christian pantheist, was based on a love of Nature and is reflected in his views of education:
One impulse from a vernal wood
May teach you more of man.
Of moral evil and of good
Than all the sages can.
His mystic vision of Nature was a further reason for regarding education as the mere imparting of information. Wordsworth was writing at a time when most grammar schools offered a rigid curriculum and when conservative forces were advocating the spread of only basic literacy in order to have a stabilising effect on the mass of the population.20 Wordsworth opposed such an approach:
And - now convinced at heart
How little those formalities to which
With overweening trust alone we give
The name of Education, have to do
With real feeling and just sense.
True knowledge was to be developed and grown by the individual; the acquisition of knowledge was not an end in itself. One writer has claimed that Wordsworth's views led him to deny almost entirely man's right to authority over the child.21 Unlike Rousseau, Wordsworth did not deny the child the study of books, except that it should occur at an appropriate stage. Nor did he approve of Rousseau's notion of a solitary Emile and a tutor, but preferred the social life of schooldays. Wordsworth's main achievement was to draw attention to the bond between child (as man) and Nature, to show that human nature is part of Nature, and to demonstrate the relationship between the development of the mind and experience.
Conclusion
Romanticism had its roots firmly in the Enlightenment but as a movement it was much more diffuse. French, German and British Romanticism each had their own individual characteristics. In Germany, the movement, as we have seen, was a reaction to French relativism and was linked to nationalism. The overlap between the Enlightenment and Romanticism was most clearly seen in France in the person of Rousseau. In Britain the movement drew heavily on the German tradition (Coleridge) and the French (Wordsworth).
In the sphere of educational thought, what the movement had in common in all countries was a view of Nature as a mysterious and unknown force which could not be analysed, but which man should engage with his emotions. If the Enlightenment believed that man's reason would enable him to control his life, the Romantic would regard this view as an oversimplification of man and society. Man was directed more by his feelings and emotion than by reason, though the intellect should be engaged by them. Whilst the Enlightenment looked towards a better life for the future, Romanticism looked back to the past in examining man's destiny, with an emphasis on traditions, folklore and nostalgia.
The contributions of Romanticism to educational theory and practice has been valuable. They include an emphasis on the use of play in childhood; the education of the emotions as well as the intellect; a new way of looking at aesthetic education and the arts; and the establishment of the first elements of modern child psychology. How far these aspects were accepted or ignored in the age of industrialisation which followed will be dealt with in Chapter 10.
References
1. I. Berlin, The Roots of Romanticism (H. Hardy (ed.)), (Chatto & Windus, 1999), p. 1.
2. N.V. Riasanovsky, The Emergence of Romanticism (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1992), p. 69.
3. Berlin, op. cit., pp. 16-18.
4. G.I. Gutek, A History of Western Educational Experience (Waveland Press Inc., Prospect Height, IL, 1972), p. 186.
5. J. Adams, The Evolution of Educational Theory (Macmillan, 1928), p. 274.
6. F. Beiser, 'Johann Gottfried Herder', in Concise Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, (Routledge, 2000), p. 348.
7. F. Eby, The Development of Modern Education (Prentice-Hall, 2nd edn, 1952), p. 418.
8. R.D. Miller, Schiller and the IdeaI of Freedom (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1970), pp. 112-14.
9. Berlin, op. cit., p. 93.
10. J.R. Williams, The Life of Goethe. A Critical Biography (Blackwell, Oxford, 1998). p. 49.
11. R. Friedenthal, Goethe: His Life and Times (Weidenfeld, 1993), p. 358.
12. S. Reiss, Goethe's Novels (Macmillan, 1969), p. 123.
13. W.A.C. Stewart, and W.P. McCann, The Educational Innovators, 1750-1880, vol. 3 (Macmillan, 1967), p. 31.
14. D. Jasper, 'Samuel Taylor Coleridge', in J. Raimond and J.R. Watson (eds), A Handbook of English Romanticism (Macmillan, 1992), p. 69.
15. W. Walsh, The Use of Imagination: Educational Thought and the Literary Mind (Chatto & Windus, 1959), p. 17.
16. A.W. Keech, 'Romanticism and Language', in S. Curran (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to British Romanticism (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993), p. 114.
17. T. McFarland, Coleridge and the Pantheistic Tradition (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1960), pp. 115-16.
18. H. Wodehouse, A Survey of the History of Education (Edward Arnold, 1929), p. 114.
19. Walsh, op. cit., p. 49.
20. I. Britain, 'Education', in I. McCalman (ed.), An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age. British Culture 1776-1832 (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999), p. 162.
21. E. Legouis, (trans. J.W. Matthews), The Early Life of William Wordsworth, 1770-1795 (Dent, 1897), pp. 60-1.
Further Reading
Harris, R.W., Romanticism and the Social Order 1780-1830 (Blandford Press, 1969).
Hill, J.C. (ed.), The Romantic Imagination (Macmillan, 1977).
Menhennet, A., The Romantic Movement 1785-1830 (Croom Helm, 1981).
Prichett, S. (ed.), The Romantics (Methuen, 1981).
Rust, L.R., The Contours of European Romanticism (Macmillan, 1979).