1. Introduction
1. D. Dennis Hudson, The Body of God: An Emperor’s Palace for Krishna in Eighth Century Kanchipuram (OUP, 2008).
2. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India (New Delhi: OUP, 1975).
3. The idea that the Naga princess came from Sri Lanka may have something to do with the use of the lion in the royal insignia by some Pallava kings. This is perhaps taken to signify a link with the Sinhalese. However, the use of the lion as a royal symbol is so common across the world that it may not signify anything specific. In any case, several Pallava kings preferred other symbols such as the bull.
4. T.S. Subramanian, ‘Remnants of a Relationship’, The Hindu (20 August 2010).
5. Robert D. Kaplan, Monsoon: The Indian Ocean and the Future of American Power (Random House, 2011).
6. Tim Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), The Travels of Ibn Battutah (Picador, 2002).
7. Shaman Hwui Li, The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang, translated by Samuel Bean (1911, reprinted by Asian Education Services, 1998).
8. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
9. Eric Hobsbawm, On History (Abacus, 1997).
10. There is some doubt about whether or not Mark Twain actually said this, but the quote sums up my point nicely.
11. T. Ramachandran, ‘Indian Death Toll Highest in UN Peacekeeping Operations’, The Hindu (30 October 2014). http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/blogs/blog-datadelve/article6547767.ece.
12. Alexander Stark, ‘The Matrilineal System of Minangkabau and Its Persistence through History’, South Asia: A Multidisciplinary Journal (2013).
13. D.G.E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia (Macmillan, 1981).
14. Nicholas Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of South-east Asia, Vol. 1, Part 1 (CUP, 1999).
2. Genetics and Ice
1. Subir Bhaumik, ‘Tsunami Folklore Saved Islanders’, BBC News (20 January 2005). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4181855.stm.
2. John C. Briggs, ‘The Biogeographic and Tectonic History of India’, Journal of Biogeography (2003).
3. Helen Shen, ‘Unusual Indian Ocean Earthquakes Hint at Tectonic Breakup’, Nature (Sepember 2012). http://www.nature.com/news/unusual-indian-ocean-earthquakes-hint-at-tectonic-breakup-1.11487.
4. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) data. http://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel/sl_hist_intro.html.
5. Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (Harvill Secker, 2014).
6. Yu-Sheng Chen (et al.), ‘mtDNA Variation in the South African Kung and Khwe—and Their Genetic Relationships with Other African Populations’, American Journal of Human Genetics (2000). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1288201/.
7. Nicole Maca-Meyer (et al.), ‘Major Genomic Mitochondrial Lineages to Delineate Early Human Expansions’, BMC Genetics (2001).
8. Rakesh Tamang (et al.), ‘Complex Genetic Origin of Indian Populations and Its Implications’, Journal of Biosciences (2012).
9. Jeffrey Rose, ‘New Light on Human Prehistory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf Oasis’, Current Anthropology (Chicago University, 2010).
10. Stephen Oppenheimer, ‘Out-of-Africa, the Peopling of Continents and Islands: Tracing Uniparental Gene Trees across the Map’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (2012).
11. Clive Finlayson (et al.), ‘Gorham’s Cave, Gibraltar—the Persistence of a Neanderthal Population’, Quarterly International (2008).
12. ‘Neanderthal DNA Hides in Genes Dictating Our Hair, Skin’, Associated Press (29 January 2014); Sriram Sankararaman (et al.), ‘The Genomic Landscape of Neanderthal Ancestry in Present-Day Humans’, Nature (January 2014).
13. Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (Harvill Secker, 2014).
14. Guardian, http://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/08/cave-art-indonesia-sulawesi
15. Telegraph, http://epaper.telegraphindia.com/details/112778-173917265.html
16. Findings of the Human Genome Organization’s Pan-Asian SNP Consortium: http://www.hugo-international.org/blog/?p=123.
17. Rakesh Tamang, Lalji Singh and Kumarasamy Thangaraj, ‘Complex Genetic Origin of Indian Populations and Its Implications’, published online by Indian Academy of Sciences (November 2012).
18. Nature, http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v23/n1/full/ejhg201450a.html
19. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
20. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
21. Ainit Snir (et al.), ‘The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming’, Israel Science Foundation (July 2015). http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0131422.
22. Max Engel (et al.), ‘The Early Holocene Humid Period in North-West Saudi Arabia—Sediments, Microfossils and Paleo-hydrological Modelling’, Quarterly International (July 2012). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618211002424.
23. Report of Dr S. Badrinarayan, National Institute of Ocean Technology. http://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/cambay.
24. Shi Yan (et al.), ‘Y Chromosomes of 40% Chinese Descend from Three Neolithic Super-Grandfathers’, Quantitative Biology (2013).
25. Peter Underhill (et al.), ‘The Phylogenetic and Geographic Structure of Y-chromosome R1a’, European Journal of Human Genetics (2014). http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ejhg201450a.html.
26. Nature, http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v23/n1/full/ejhg201450a.html
27. Peter Underhill (et al.), ‘Separating the post-Glacial Coancestry of Europeans and Asian Y Chromosomes within R1a’, European Journal of Human Genetics (2010).
28. Viola Grugni (et al.), ‘Ancient Migratory Events in the Middle East: New Clues from the Y-Chromosome Variation of Modern Iranians’, University of Cambridge (2012), Creative Commons.
29. Marc Haber (et al.), ‘Afghanistan’s Ethnic Groups Share a Y-Chromosomal Heritage Structured by Historical Events’, PLoS ONE 7 (3) (March, 2012). http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0034288.
30. Gerard Lucotte, ‘The Major Y-Chromosome Haplotype XI—Haplogroup R1a in Eurasia’, Hereditary Genetics (2015). http://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/the-major-ychromosome-haplotype-xi--haplogroup-r1a-in-eurasia-2161-1041-1000150.pdf.
31. ‘Europeans Got Fair Skin Only 7000 Years Ago: Study’, IANS, Times of India (27 January 2014).
3. The Merchants of Meluhha
1. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson, 2009).
2. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson, 2009).
3. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson, 2009).
4. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson, 2009).
5. Nick Brooks, ‘Cultural Responses to Aridity in the Middle Holocene and Increased Social Complexity’, Quarterly International (2006). http://www.academia.edu/463993/Cultural_responses_to_aridity_in_the_Middle_Holocene_and_increased_social_complexity.
6. Readers interested in the debate over the Saraswati should read Michel Danino’s The Lost River: On the Trail of the Sarasvati (Penguin, 2010).
7. Rohan Dua, ‘Haryana’s Bhirrana Oldest Harappan Site, Rakhigarhi Asia’s Largest: ASI’, Times of India (15 April 2015). http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Haryanas-Bhirrana-oldest-Harappan-site-Rakhigarhi-Asias-largest-ASI/articleshow/46926693.cms.
8. Anindya Sarkar (et al.), ‘Oxygen Isotope in Archaeological Bioapatites from India: Implications to Climate Change and Decline of Bronze Age Harappan Civilization’, Scientific Reports, Nature (2016). http://www.nature.com/articles/srep26555.
9. Mary R. Edward, Maritime Heritage of Gujarat, Kathiawad and Kutch, Maritime History Society (2013).
10. Penn Museum, http://www.penn.museum/research/research-near-east-section/804-the-jiroft-civilization-a-new-culture-of-the-bronze-age-on-the-iranian-plateau.html
11. Massimo Vidale and Dennys Frenez, ‘Indus Components in the Iconography of a White Marble Cylinder Seal from Konar Sandal South (Kerman, Iran)’, South Asian Studies (Routledge, 2015).
12. Edward Alpers, The Indian Ocean in World History (OUP, 2014).
13. Rajiv Rajan and Anand Prakash, ‘Internationalisation of Currency: The Case of the Indian Rupee and Chinese Renminbi’, RBI Staff Studies (2010).
14. Massimo Vidale, ‘Growing in a Foreign World: For a History of the “Meluha Villages” in Mesopotamia in the 3rd Millennium BC’, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Symposium on Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project, A. Panaino and A. Piras (eds) (October 2001).
15. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson, 2009).
16. Ralph Griffith, The Hymns of the Rig Veda (Motilal Banarasidass, 2004).
17. Yama Dixit (et al.), ‘Abrupt Weakening of the Summer Monsoon in Northwest India 4100 Years Ago’, Geology, (February 2014). http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/early/2014/02/24/G35236.1.full.pdf+html.
18. Adapted from http://faculty.washington.edu/lynnhank/The_Curse_of_Akkad.html
19. Anindya Sarkar (et al.), ‘Oxygen Isotope in Archaeological Bioapatites from India: Implications to Climate Change and Decline of Bronze Age Harappan Civilization’, Scientific Reports, Nature (2016). http://www.nature.com/articles/srep26555.
20. Priya Moorjani (et al.), ‘Genetic Evidence for Recent Population Mixture in India’, American Journal of Human Genetics (2013).
21. Priya Moorjani (et al.), ‘Genetic Evidence for Recent Population Mixture in India’, American Journal of Human Genetics (2013).
22. Analabha Basu (et al.), ‘Genomic Reconstruction of the History of Extant Populations of India Reveals Five Distinct Ancestral Components and a Complex Structure’, National Institute of Bio-medical Genomics (January 2016).
23. B.R. Ambedkar, Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development (Columbia University, 1916). http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/txt_ambedkar_castes.html.
24. Jhimli Mukherjee Pandey, ‘Varanasi Is As Old As Indus Valley Civilization, Finds IIT-KGP Study’, Times of India (25 February 2016).
25. Siddharth Tadepalli, ‘Rare Discovery Pushes Back Iron Age in India’, Times of India, 18 May 2015.
26. George Rapp, Archaeomineralogy (Springer, 2009).
27. Vibha Tripathi, History of Iron Technology in India (Rupa and Infinity Foundation, 2008).
28. Priya Moorjani (et al.), ‘Genetic Evidence for Recent Population Mixture in India’, American Journal of Human Genetics (2013).
29. Payam Nabarz, The Mysteries of Mithras: The Pagan Belief that Shaped the Christian World (Inner Traditions, 2005). Also see, http://www.historytoday.com/matt-salusbury/did-romans-invent-christmas.
30. Val Lauder, When Christmas was against the law, CNN (24 December 2014). http://edition.cnn.com/2014/12/24/opinion/lauder-when-christmas-was-against-law/.
31. Robert Hoyland, Arabia and the Arabs (Routledge, 2001).
32. Edward Alpers, The Indian Ocean in World History (OUP, 2014).
33. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of a Continent (Penguin, 1998).
34. Rebecca Morelle, ‘Ancient Migration: Genes Link Australia with India’, BBC World Service (January 2013). http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-21016700.
35. Pedro Soares (et al.), ‘Climate Change and Postglacial Human Dispersals in South east Asia’, Molecular Biology and Evolution (Oxford Journals, 2008). http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/25/6/1209.long.
36. India’s north-east would witness many later migrations, such as those of the Tibeto-Burmans. For the sake of simplicity, I have left them out of this book as their impact was more on the history of the Himalayan region than the Indian Ocean.
37. Yves Bonnefoy, Asian Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1993).
38. Patrick Nunn and Nick Reid, ‘Indigenous Australian Stories and Sea-Level Change’, Proceedings of the 18th Conference of the Foundation for Endangered Languages (2014).
39. Gyaneshwer Chaubey (et al.), ‘Population Genetic Structure in Indian Austroasiatic Speakers: The Role of Landscape and Sex-Specific Admixture’ (May 2012). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3355372/.
40. Note that Ulupi’s Naga tribe may not relate to tribes living in modern-day Nagaland as they probably came into this area at a much later date. However, the term ‘Naga’ or ‘serpent’ was used loosely from an early period to refer to people of South East Asian origin both by Indians and by the groups themselves.
4. Kharavela’s Revenge
1. The Origins of Iron-Working in India, Report of Rakesh Tewari, Director, UP State Archaeological Department (2003). http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/tewari/tewari.pdf.
2. Sanjeev Sanyal, Land of the Seven Rivers (Penguin, 2012).
3. Sushanta Patra and Benudhar Patra, Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa, OHRJ, Vol. 2. http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Journal/Journal2/pdf/ohrj-014.pdf.
4. Lanka Ranaweera (et al.), ‘Mitochondrial DNA History of Sri Lankan Ethnic People: Their Relations within the Island and with the Indian Subcontinental Population’, Journal of Human Genetics (2013). http://www.nature.com/jhg/journal/v59/n1/full/jhg2013112a.html.
5. ‘Simplified Version of Mahavamsa’, http://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/simplified-version/princess-of-vanga/
6. Robert Knox, An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, in the East Indies, published by Joseph Mawman (1817); reprinted by Asian Educational Services (2011).
7. Herodotus, The Histories (Wordsworth Classics, 1996).
8. A. Azzaroli, An Early History of Horsemanship (E.J. Brill Leiden,1985). This early Indian version of the stirrup seems to have consisted of leather straps where the rider could slip in his big toe. These are depicted in several sculptures. The true stirrup was invented several centuries later in Central Asia.
9. Agnes Savill, Alexander the Great and His Time (Barnes & Noble, 1993).
10. Konstantin Nossov, War Elephants (New Vanguard, 2008).
11. Charles Allen, Ashoka (Little Brown, 2012).
12. Nayanjot Lahiri, Ashoka in Ancient India (Permanent Black, 2015).
13. Prafulla Das, ‘Exploring an Ancient Kingdom’, Frontline (September 2005). http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2220/stories/20051007000106500.htm.
14. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
15. John Strong, The Legend of King Asoka: The Study and Translation of the Asokavadana (Princeton University Press, 2003).
16. For more see: ‘Ashoka, the Not So Great’, Sanjeev Sanyal, Swarajya magazine (22 November 2015). http://swarajyamag.com/culture/ashoka-the-not-so-great.
17. See more on this in, ‘Why India Needs to No Longer Be an Ashokan Republic, but a Chanakyan One’, Sanjeev Sanyal, Economic Times (26 January 2016). http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/et-commentary/why-india-needs-to-no-longer-be-an-ashokan-republic-but-a-chanakyan-one/.
18. Kautilya, The Arthashastra, L.N. Rangarajan (trans.) (Penguin, 1987).
19. Ashoka’s Edict XIII, Routledge online resources, http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415485432/5.asp.
20. Several authors like Nayanjot Lahiri have claimed that some of the Barabar and Nagarjuni caves were built by Ashoka for the Ajivikas and therefore suggest that he patronized them. However, note that the only king mentioned by name in the inscriptions is Dasharatha and there is no mention of Ashoka. The confusion is due to the fact that Dasharatha uses language very similar to his predecessor and, like Ashoka, calls himself ‘Beloved of the Gods’. The generic title may have also been used by Ashoka’s father, Bindusara, who is known to have Ajivika links (in which case the Barabar caves would be the only known structure from his rule). Even if one accepts that Ashoka built the Barabar cave shelters for Ajivikas, the fact is that they were never finished and one can see that the term ‘Ajivika’ in the inscription was later deliberately vandalized. Clearly, there was some religious tension in the air. The point is that the matter is not as settled as mainstream historians claim and is largely a matter of interpretation. See Lahiri’s Ashoka in Ancient India (Permanent Black, 2015).
21. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
22. The Hindu, http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/satvahana-site-to-be-reexcavated/article6842796.ece?ref=sliderNews
23. ‘Translation of Hathigumpha Inscription’, Epigraphica Indica, Vol. XX (1933). http://www.sdstate.edu/projectsouthasia/upload/HathigumphaInscription.pdf.
24. Note that Kharavela seems to have followed both Jain and Vedic rituals. He uses salutations derived from the Jain tradition but also mentions Vedic fire sacrifices including the Rajasuya. Interestingly there is no reference to Buddhism. The Odiya probably still resented it as an Ashokan imposition.
5. Kaundinya’s Wedding
1. Nicholas Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. 1 (CUP, 1999).
2. D.G.E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia (Macmillan, 1981).
3. Karuna Sagar Behera (ed.), Kalinga–Indonesia Cultural Relations (Orissan Institute of Maritime and South East Asian Studies, 2007).
4. Nicholas Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of South-east Asia, Vol. 1 (CUP, 1999).
5. As quoted in Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
6. A. Shrikumar, ‘A Dead City Beneath a Living Village’, The Hindu (19 August 2015).
7. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India (OUP, 1975). It should be pointed out that the formalizing of Sanskrit grammar was also done by an ‘outsider’, Panini, from what is now North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan, and eastern Afghanistan rather than someone from the Gangetic heartland.
8. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India (OUP, 1975).
9. K.M. de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka (Penguin, 2005).
10. Adapted from: Senake Bandaranayake, Sigiriya (Central Cultural Fund publication, 2005).
11. Wilfred Schoff (trans.), The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Longmans, Green & Co, 1912).
12. Raoul McLaughlin, The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean (Pen and Sword, 2014).
13. P.J. Cherian (et al.), ‘Interim Report of the Pattanam Excavations/Explorations 2013’ (Kerala Council of Historical Research, 2013).
14. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India (OUP, 1975).
15. Pius Malekandathil, Maritime India (Primus Books, 2015). It is possible that the story of St Thomas is due to a mix-up with Thomas of Cana about whom there is more reliable information.
16. Raoul McLaughlin, The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean (Pen and Sword, 2014).
17. Sanjeev Sanyal, Are We Entering a Post-Dollar World?, The Wide Angle Series (Deutsche Bank, 2011); Sanjeev Sanyal, The Age of Chinese Capital, The Wide Angle Series (Deutsche Bank, 2014).
18. Raoul McLaughlin, The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean (Pen and Sword, 2014).
19. Murray Cox (et al.), ‘A Small Cohort of Island South-east Asian Women Founded Madagascar’ (The Royal Society, 2012).
20. Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon (HarperCollins, 1996).
21. Philip Beale, ‘From Indonesia to Africa: Borobudur Ship Expedition’, Ziff Journal (2006). http://www.swahiliweb.net/ziff_journal_3_files/ziff2006-04.pdf.
22. Sen Li (et al.), ‘Genetic Variation Reveals Large-scale Population Expansion and Migration During the Expansion of Bantu-speaking People’ (The Royal Society, September 2014). http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/281/1793/20141448.
23. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
6. Arabian Knights
1. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
2. Samuel Beal (trans.), Travels of Fa Hian and Sung Yun (reprinted by Asian Education Services, 2003).
3. Times of India, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Dum-Dum-mound-may-rewrite-Kolkata-history/articleshow/45244284.cms
4. Ramshankar Tripathi, History of Ancient India (Motilal Banarasidass, 1992).
5. Sandeep Unnithan, ‘Feat Beneath the Ground’, India Today (May, 2005). http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/discovery-of-temples-at-mahabalipuram-gives-twist-to-seven-pagodas-folklore/1/193608.html
6. Ananth Krishnan, Behind China’s Hindu Temples, a Forgotten History (The Hindu, July 2013). http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/behind-chinas-hindu-temples-a-forgotten-history/article4932458.ece
7. Robert Hoyland, Arabia and the Arabs (Routledge, 2001).
8. Saheed Adejumobi, The History of Ethiopia (Greenwood Press, 2007).
9. Robert Hoyland, Arabia and the Arabs (Routledge, 2001).
10. Robert Hoyland, Arabia and the Arabs (Routledge, 2001).
11. Georg Popp and Juma Al-Maskari, Oman: Jewel of the Arabian Gulf (Odyssey Books, 2010).
12. As quoted in Oman in History, Ministry of Information, Sultanate of Oman (Immel Publishing, 1995).
13. Karen Armstrong, Islam: A Short History (Phoenix Press, 2000).
14. Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon (HarperCollins, 1996).
15. Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon (HarperCollins, 1996).
16. The mosque is also linked to a legend about the last Chera king. Although the legend is probably untrue, the early date for the mosque’s construction is plausible given the well-established maritime links between India and Arabia.
17. Sir Richard Burton, The Arabian Nights (The Modern Library NY, 2001).
18. Mahomed Kasim Ferishta, History of the Rise of Mahomedan Power in India, John Briggs (trans.) (Sang-e-Meel Publications, 2004).
19. Shahpurshah Hormasji Hodivala (trans.), The Qissa-i-Sanjan (Studies in Parsi History, Bombay, 1920). http://www.avesta.org/other/qsanjan.pdf.
20. Niraj Rai (et al.), ‘H1a1a-M82 Reveals the Likely Origin of the European Romani Population’, PLoS One (November 2012).
7. Merchants, Temples and Rice
1. D.G.E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia, (Macmillan, 1981).
2. Nicholas Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of South-east Asia, Vol. 1, Part 1 (CUP, 1999).
3. D.G.E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia (Macmillan, 1981).
4. VOA News, http://www.voanews.com/content/thailand-cambodia-clash-at-border-115266974/134501.html
5. D.G.E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia, (Macmillan, 1981).
6. Charles Higham, The Civilization of Angkor (Phoenix, 2003).
7. Charles Higham, The Civilization of Angkor (Phoenix, 2003).
8. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
9. Herman Kulke, K. Kesavapany and Vijay Sakhuja (eds), Nagapattinam to Suwarnadwipa (ISEAS, 2009).
10. Herman Kulke, K. Kesavapany and Vijay Sakhuja (eds), Nagapattinam to Suwarnadwipa (ISEAS, 2009).
11. B. Arunachalam, Chola Navigation Package (Maritime History Society, Mumbai, 2004).
12. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
13. Kanakalatha Mukund, Merchants of Tamilakam (Penguin, 2012).
14. K.M. de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka (Penguin, 2005).
15. As quoted in Edward Alpers, The Indian Ocean in World History (OUP, 2014).
16. Edward Alpers, The Indian Ocean in World History (OUP, 2014).
17. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
18. Maryna Steyn, ‘The Mapungubwe Gold Graves Revisited’, South African Archaeological Bulletin (2007). http://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/5791/Steyn_Mapungubwe(2007).pdf?sequence=1
19. R. Coupland, Kirk on the Zambezi (Clarendon Press, 1928).
20. Nitish Sengupta, Land of Two Rivers (Penguin, 2011).
21. Nitish Sengupta, Land of Two Rivers (Penguin, 2011).
22. Marco Polo, The Travels (Penguin, 1958).
23. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
24. Tim Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), The Travels of Ibn Battutah (Picador, 2003).
25. Tim Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), The Travels of Ibn Battutah (Picador, 2003).
8. Treasure and Spice
1. D.G.E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia (Macmillan, 1994); Nicholas Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of South-east Asia, Vol. 1 (CUP, 1999).
2. Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas (OUP, 1994).
3. Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas (OUP, 1994).
4. Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas (OUP, 1994).
5. Robert Hefner, Hindu Javanese (Princeton University Press, 1985).
6. D.G.E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia (Macmillan, 1981).
7. Prof. Sakaya’s formal Vietnamese name is Truong Van Mon but he prefers his Cham name Sakaya.
8. Brendan Buckley (et al.), ‘Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia’, (National Academy of Sciences, United States, 2009). http://www.pnas.org/content/107/15/6748.full.
9. Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon (HarperCollins, 1996).
10. Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon (HarperCollins, 1996).
11. Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon (HarperCollins, 1996).
12. As quoted in Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon (HarperCollins, 1996).
13. Charles Corn, The Scent of Eden (Kodansha International, 1998).
14. As quoted in Gillian Tindall, City of Gold: The Biography of Bombay (Penguin, 1992).
15. Jonathan Gil Harris, The First Firangis (Aleph, 2015).
16. William H. Rule, The Brand of Dominic: Or Inquisition at Rome (Carlton & Phillips, 1852).
17. http://verna.mahalasa.org/
18. William H. Rule, The Brand of Dominic: Or Inquisition at Rome (Carlton & Phillips, 1852).
19. Jonathan Gil Harris, The First Firangis (Aleph, 2015).
20. John Fritz and George Michell, Hampi (India Book House, 2003); Robert Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (Swan Sonnenschein & Co, 1900).
21. John Fritz and George Michell, Hampi (India Book House, 2003).
22. Extract adapted from John Fritz and George Michell, Hampi (India Book House, 2003).
23. Anish Shah (et al.), ‘Indian Siddis: African Descendants with Indian Admixture’, American Journal of Human Genetics (July, 2011). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929711002230
24. Robert Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (Swan Sonnenschein & Co, 1900). Note that there is another theory that the name Chennai is derived from the name of a local temple. The story related in the main text, however, is the more popular explanation.
25. Archana Garodia Gupta, The Admiral Queen, Swarajya (October, 2015).
26. I am told that a full history exists in Kannada but was unable to source a translation in English or Hindi.
9. Nutmegs and Cloves
1. Tirthankar Roy, The East India Company (Penguin, 2012).
2. John Keay, The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company (HarperCollins, 1991).
3. For a more detailed narration of these events read: Giles Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg (Sceptre, 1999).
4. Charles Corn, The Scent of Eden (Kodansha International, 1999).
5. John Keay, The Honourable Company (HarperCollins, 1991).
6. Tirthankar Roy, The East India Company (Penguin, 2012).
7. Colin Woodard, The Republic of Pirates (Pan Books, 2007).
8. Colin Woodard, The Republic of Pirates (Pan, 2007).
9. Ashin Das Gupta, India and the Indian Ocean World (OUP, 2004).
10. Georg Popp and Juma Al-Maskari, Oman: Jewel of the Arabian Gulf (Odyssey Books, 2010).
11. Nitish Sengupta, Land of Two Rivers (Penguin, 2011).
12. K.M. de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka (Penguin, 2005).
13. Ashin Das Gupta, India and the Indian Ocean World (OUP, 2004).
14. Jonathan Gil Harris, The First Firangis (Aleph, 2015).
15. John Keay, The Honourable Company (HarperCollins, 1991).
16. As quoted in Nitish Sengupta, Land of Two Rivers (Penguin, 2011).
17. As quoted in S. Balakrishna, Tipu Sultan: The Tyrant of Mysore (Rare Publications, 2013).
18. Francois Gautier, The Tyrant Diaries, Outlook (15 April 2015); Mir Hussein Ali Khan Kirmani, Neshani Hyduri (W.H. Allen & Co.).
19. Translated by J.A. Grant, Madras Gazette, 1799; as quoted in S. Balakrishna, The Tyrant of Mysore (Rare Publications, 2013).
10. Diamonds and Opium
1. Charles Corn, The Scent of Eden (Kodansha International, 1998).
2. Giorgio Riello and Tirthankar Roy, How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500–1850 (Brill, 2009).
3. Julia Lovell, The Opium War (Picador, 2011).
4. Nigel Barley, In the Footsteps of Stamford Raffles (Penguin, 1991).
5. Nigel Barley, In the Footsteps of Stamford Raffles (Penguin, 1991).
6. K.M. de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka (Penguin, 1981).
7. Julia Lovell, The Opium War (Picador, 2011).
8. Julia Lovell, The Opium War (Picador, 2011).
9. The Hindu, http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/the-forgotten-history-of-indian-troops-in-china/article2208018.ece
10. Tirthankar Roy, The East India Company (Penguin, 2012).
11. Lakshmi Subramanian, Three Merchants of Bombay (Penguin Allen Lane, 2012).
12. Amar Farooqui, Opium City (Three Essays Collective, 2006).
13. Lakshmi Subramanian, Three Merchants of Bombay (Penguin Allen Lane, 2012).
14. Gillian Tindall, City of Gold: The Biography of Bombay (Penguin, 1992).
15. Diane Mehta, ‘Kings Have Adorned Her’, Paris Review (7 November 2013). http://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2013/11/07/kings-have-adorned-her/.
16. Sachin Mampatta and Rajesh Bhayani, ‘How Abraham Lincoln Triggered India’s First Stock Market Crash’ Business Standard, 11 July 2015. http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/150-years-later-115071001354_1.html.
17. Georg Popp and Juma Al-Maskari, Oman: Jewel of the Arabian Gulf (Odyssey Books, 2010).
18. Oman in History (Ministry of Information, Sultanate of Oman, 1995).
19. Anne de Courcy, The Fishing Fleet: Husband Hunting in the Raj (Weidenfield & Nicholson, 2012).
20. Brij Lal (ed.), The Encyclopedia of the Indian Diaspora (Didier Millet and NUS, 2006).
21. Brij Lal (ed.), The Encyclopedia of the Indian Diaspora (Didier Millet and NUS, 2006).
22. As quoted in John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
23. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
24. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
25. Anthony Kenny (ed.), The History of the Rhodes Trust (OUP, 2001).
26. Bismarck was known to have been opposed to creating colonies in remote locations but pressure from the German public and the Kaiser probably tipped the balance. Ironically, the administrative and financial burden of managing these far-flung colonies was among the factors that would lead to him being pushed into retirement.
27. Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon (HarperCollins, 1996).
28. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
29. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
30. The Dutch seem to have already had a presence on the north of the island.
11. From Dusk to a New Dawn
1. Nitya Menon, ‘100 Years On: Remembering Emden’s Generous Captain’, The Hindu, 24 September 2014. http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chen-society/100-years-on-remembering-emdens-generous-captain/article6439360.ece.
2. ‘The Exploits of the Emden’, Advertiser (10 November 1928); ‘100th Anniversary of the HMAS Sydney Sinking SMS Emden in Battle of Coco Islands’, Australian War Memorial (October 2014). https://www.awm.gov.au/media/releases/100th-anniversary-hmas-sydney-i-sinking-german-raider-sms-emden-battle-cocos-island/.
3. Christian Bartolf, Gandhi and War: The Mahatma Gandhi—Bart de Ligt Correspondence, (Satyagraha Foundation for Non-violence Studies).
4. Shashi Tharoor, ‘Why the Indian Soldiers of WW1 Were Forgotten’, BBC Magazine (July, 2015).
5. Peter Hopkirk, On Secret Service East of Constantinople (John Murray, 1994).
6. Peter Hopkirk, On Secret Service East of Constantinople (John Murray, 1994).
7. Dennis Kincaid, Shivaji: The Grand Rebel (Rupa, 2015).
8. Peter Hopkirk, On Secret Service East of Constantinople (John Murray, 1994).
9. Sho Kuwajima, ‘Indian Mutiny in Singapore 1915: People Who Observed the Scene and People Who Heard the News’, New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies (2009). It remains unclear to what extent the Singapore mutiny was connected to the Ghadar conspiracy and to what extent it was an independent event caused by Muslim soldiers being unhappy at the possibility of being sent to fight co-religionists in the Middle East.
10. P.C. Mitra, ‘A Forgotten Revolutionary’, Sunday Amrita Bazar Patrika (11 September 1983).
11. Peter Hopkirk, On Secret Service East of Constantinople (John Murray, 1994).
12. Barindra Kumar Ghosh, The Tale of My Exile (Arya Office, 1922).
13. Timothy Hall, The Fall of Singapore (Mandarin Australia, 1990).
14. Srinath Raghavan, India’s War (Penguin, 2016).
15. Timothy Hall, The Fall of Singapore (Mandarin Australia, 1990).
16. It should be noted that many Indian soldiers refused to switch sides. They would face harsh treatment as prisoners of war or even execution. Many would end up in camps in New Guinea and there are reports that some were used as live targets for practice shooting. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Japanese-ate-Indian-PoWs-used-them-as-live-targets-in-WWII/articleshow/40017577.cms.
17. Netaji Subhas Bose: The Singapore Saga, (Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre, ISEAS, Singapore, 2012).
18. ‘Britain’s Greatest Battles: Imphal & Kohima’, National War Museum website, http://www.nam.ac.uk/exhibitions/online-exhibitions/britains-greatest-battles/imphal-kohima.
19. Madhusree Mukerjee, Churchill’s Secret War: The British Empire and the Ravaging of India during WWII (Basic Books, 2010).
20. Ajeet Jawed, ‘Unsung Heroes of 1946’, Mainstream Weekly (1 October 2008); Dhananjay Bhat, ‘RIN Mutiny Gave a Jolt to the British’, Tribune, 12 February 2006; G.D. Sharma, Untold Story 1946 Naval Mutiny: Last War of Independence (VIJ Books, 2015).
21. Only the Communists seem to have provided some limited support to the mutineers but they were not a major political force in the country.
22. Saikat Dutta, ‘Radioactive Rebels’, Outlook (20 April 2009).
23. D.G.E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia (Macmillan, 1981).
24. Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten Wars (Penguin, 2008).
25. ‘Biju Patnaik: Obituary’, The Economist (April, 1997).
26. D.G.E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia (Macmillan, 1981).
27. Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon (HarperCollins, 1996).
28. Ryszard Kapuscinski, The Emperor (Penguin, 1983).
29. Brij Lal (ed.), The Encyclopedia of the Indian Diaspora (Didier Millet, 2006).
30. Edward Alpers, The Indian Ocean in World History (OUP, 2014).
31. C.M. Turnbull, A History of Modern Singapore 1819–2005 (NUS Press, 2009).
32. C.M. Turnbull, A History of Modern Singapore 1819–2005 (NUS Press, 2009).
33. Sanjeev Sanyal, ‘Singapore: The Art of Building a Global City’ (IPS Working Paper, January 2007). http://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/ips/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2013/06/wp17.pdf.
34. Sanjeev Sanyal, The Indian Renaissance: India’s Rise After a Thousand Years of Decline (Penguin, 2008).
35. Biographical details taken from the Nelson Mandela Foundation website, https://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/biography.
36. A version of this section was published as: Sanjeev Sanyal, ‘Great Men Do Make History’, Business Standard (8 December 2013).
37. Lands and Peoples, Vol. 4 (The Grolier Society, 1956).