Notes

INTRODUCTION

  1. F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. S. Reynolds, 2 vols. (London, 1972–3), vol. 2, p. 1244; P. Horden and N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: a Study of Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000), p. 36.

  2. E. Paris, La genèse intellectuelle de l’œuvre de Fernand Braudel: ‘La Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen à l’époque de Philippe II’ (1923–1947) (Athens, 1999), pp. 64, 316.

  3. J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 7, 21–4; Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, pp. 138–9.

  4. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 12–13.

  5. Ibid., p. 14, fig. 2.

  6. Ibid., p. 19.

  7. Ibid., pp. 12–24; C. Delano Smith, Western Mediterranean Europe: a Historical Geography of Italy, Spain and Southern France since the Neolithic (London, 1979).

  8. See F. Tabak, The Waning of the Mediterranean 1550–1870: a Geohistorical Approach (Baltimore, MD, 2008), and Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 1, pp. 267–75; C. Vita-Finzi, The Mediterranean Valleys: Geological Change in Historical Times (Cambridge, 1969).

  9. A. Grove and O. Rackham, The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: an Ecological History (New Haven, CT, 2001); O. Rackham, ‘The physical setting’, in D. Abulafia (ed.), The Mediterranean in History (London and New York, 2003), pp. 32–61.

10. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 75–86.

11. S. Orvietani Busch, Medieval Mediterranean Ports: the Catalan and Tuscan Coasts, 1100–1235 (Leiden, 2001).

PART ONE
THE FIRST MEDITERRANEAN, 22000 BC–1000 BC

1. Isolation and Insulation, 22000 BC–3000 BC

  1. D. Trump, The Prehistory of the Mediterranean (Harmondsworth, 1980), pp. 12–13.

  2. E. Panagopoulou and T. Strasser in Hesperia, vol. 79 (2010).

  3. C. Finlayson, The Humans Who Went Extinct: Why Neanderthals Died out and We Survived (Oxford, 2009), pp. 143–55.

  4. L. Bernabò Brea, Sicily before the Greeks (London, 1957), pp. 23–36; R. Leighton, Sicily before History: an Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age (London, 1999).

  5. Trump, Prehistory of the Mediterranean, p. 19.

  6. Ibid., p. 20.

  7. S. Wachsmann, ‘Paddled and oared ships before the Iron Age’, in J. Morrison (ed.), The Age of the Galley (London, 1995), p. 10; C. Perlès, The Early Neolithic in Greece: the First Farming Communities in Europe (Cambridge, 2001), p. 36; R. Torrence, Production and Exchange of Stone Tools: Prehistoric Obsidian in the Aegean (Cambridge, 1986), p. 96; C. Broodbank, An Island Archaeology of the Early Cyclades (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 114–15.

  8. W. F. Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine (Harmondsworth, 1949), pp. 38, 62; Trump, Prehistory of the Mediterranean, pp. 24–6.

  9. C. F. Macdonald, Knossos (London, 2005), p. 3.

10. Torrence, Production and Exchange, pp. 96, 140–63.

11. C. Renfrew, in Malta before History: the World’s Oldest Freestanding Stone Architecture, ed. D. Cilia (Sliema, 2004), p. 10.

12. A. Pace, ‘The building of Megalithic Malta’, in Cilia, Malta before History, pp. 19–40.

13. J. Evans, Malta (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1959), pp. 90–91.

14. A. Pace, ‘The sites’, and A. Bonanno, ‘Rituals of life and rituals of death’, in Cilia, Malta before History, pp. 72–4, 82–3, 272–9.

15. Evans, Malta, p. 158.

16. D. Trump, ‘Prehistoric pottery’, in Cilia, Malta before History, pp. 243–7.

17. Bernabò Brea, Sicily, pp. 38–57; Leighton, Sicily before History, pp. 51–85.

18. Leighton, Sicily before History, p. 65.

19. Trump, Prehistory of the Mediterranean, p. 80.

20. Wachsmann, ‘Paddled and oared ships’, p. 10; C. Broodbank and T. Strasser, ‘Migrant farmers and the Neolithic colonization of Crete’, Antiquity, vol. 65 (1991), pp. 233–45; Broodbank, Island Archaeology, pp. 96–105.

21. Trump, Prehistory of the Mediterranean, pp. 55–6.

2. Copper and Bronze, 3000 BC–1500 BC

  1. R. L. N. Barber, The Cyclades in the Bronze Age (London, 1987), pp. 26–33.

  2. C. Broodbank, An Island Archaeology of the Early Cyclades (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 301–6; Barber, Cyclades, pp. 136–7.

  3. C. Renfrew, The Cycladic Spirit (London, 1991), p. 18; J. L. Fitton, Cycladic Art (London, 1989).

  4. F. Matz, Crete and Early Greece (London, 1962), p. 62.

  5. Broodbank, Island Archaeology, pp. 99–102; Renfrew, Cycladic Spirit, p. 62.

  6. C. Moorehead, The Lost Treasures of Troy (London, 1994), pp. 84–6; J. Latacz, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery (Oxford, 2004).

  7. C. Blegen, ‘Troy’, Cambridge Ancient History, vols. 1 and 2, rev. edn, pre-print fascicle (Cambridge, 1961), p. 4.

  8. D. Easton, ‘Introduction’, in C. Blegen, Troy (2nd edn, London, 2005), p. xxii.

  9. Blegen, Troy, pp. 25–41; T. Bryce, The Trojans and Their Neighbours (London, 2006), pp. 39–40.

10. Blegen, Troy, p. 40; Bryce, Trojans, p. 40; Matz, Crete and Early Greece, p. 37; L. Bernabò Brea, Poliochni, città preistorica nell’isola di Lemnos, 2 vols. (Rome, 1964–71); S. Tiné, Poliochni, the Earliest Town in Europe (Athens, 2001).

11. Latacz, Troy and Homer, p. 41.

12. Blegen, Troy, pp. 47–8, 55.

13. Ibid.

14. Moorehead, Lost Treasures, pp. 128–30.

15. Bryce, Trojans, pp. 51–6; Blegen, Troy, pp. 56–61, 77–84, noting Easton’s comments, ibid., p. xvii.

16. Thucydides 1:4.

17. Matz, Crete and Early Greece, pp. 57–8, 69.

18. A. Morpurgo Davies, ‘The linguistic evidence: is there any?’ in The End of the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean, ed. G. Cadogan (Leiden, 1986), pp. 93–123.

19. R. Castleden, Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete (London, 1990), pp. 4–7; C. F. Macdonald, Knossos (London, 2005), pp. 25–30.

20. Matz, Crete and Early Greece, p. 57; Castleden, Minoans, p. 29; Macdonald, Knossos, pp. 43–7.

21. Macdonald, Knossos, pp. 50–52; Castleden, Minoans, p. 69, fig. 18 (plan of Gournia), p. 112.

22. Reported in Archaeology (Archeological Institute of America), vol. 63 (2010), pp. 44–7.

23. Macdonald, Knossos, pp. 58–9, 87–8; Castleden, Minoans, pp. 169–72.

24. C. Gere, Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism (Chicago, IL, 2009), and the discussion in part 5, chap. 2 below.

25. Macdonald, Knossos, pp. 134, 173; Castleden, Minoans, p. 12.

26. Morpurgo Davies, ‘The linguistic evidence’; L. R. Palmer, Mycenaeans and Minoans: Aegean Prehistory in the Light of the Linear B Tablets (2nd edn, London, 1965).

27. L. Casson, ‘Bronze Age ships: the evidence of the Thera wall-paintings’, International Journal of Archaeology, vol. 4 (1975), pp. 3–10; Barber, Cyclades, pp. 159–78, 193, 196–9.

28. Barber, Cyclades, pp. 209–18.

29. Macdonald, Knossos, pp. 171–2, 192.

3. Merchants and Heroes, 1500 BC–1250 BC

  1. W. D. Taylour, The Mycenaeans (London, 1964), p. 76.

  2. Homer, Iliad, 2:494–760.

  3. J. Chadwick, The Decipherment of Linear B (Cambridge, 1958).

  4. F. Matz, Crete and Early Greece (London, 1962), p. 134, plate 32; Taylour, Mycenaeans, plates 3–4.

  5. Taylour, Mycenaeans, pp. 139–48.

  6. Ibid., p. 100.

  7. T. Bryce, The Trojans and Their Neighbours (London, 2006), pp. 100–102; J. Latacz, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery (Oxford, 2004), p. 123; cf. O. R. Gurney, The Hittites (London, 1952), pp. 46–58; A. Yasur-Landau, The Philistines and Aegean Migration and the End of the Late Bronze Age (Cambridge, 2010), p. 180.

  8. G. F. Bass, ‘Cape Gelidonya: a Bronze Age shipwreck’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 57, part 8 (1967); G. F. Bass, ‘A Bronze Age shipwreck at Ulu Burun (Kas): 1984 campaign’, American Journal of Archeology, 90 (1986), pp. 269–96.

  9. R. Leighton, Sicily before History: an Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age (London, 1999), pp. 141, 144, 147–8; cf. L. Bernabò Brea, Sicily before the Greeks (London, 1957), pp. 103–8.

10. Taylour, Mycenaeans, pp. 152–3.

11. W. D. Taylour, Mycenean Pottery in Italy and Adjacent Areas (Cambridge, 1958); R. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean 3000–700 BC (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1981).

12. Bernabò Brea, Sicily, pp. 138–9; cf. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 71–4.

13. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 87, 95.

14. Taylour, Mycenean Pottery; Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 85–6.

15. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean, pp. 67, 87–9.

16. F. Stubbings, Mycenaean Pottery from the Levant (Cambridge, 1951).

17. W. Culican, The First Merchant Venturers: the Ancient Levant in History and Commerce (London, 1966), pp. 46–9.

18. Ibid., pp. 41–2, 49–50; W. F. Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine (Harmondsworth, 1949), pp. 101–4.

19. Taylour, Mycenaeans, pp. 131, 159.

20. D. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt (London, 2004–5), pp. 39–42.

21. A. Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs: an Introduction (Oxford, 1961), pp. 151–8.

22. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, pp. 158–73.

23. Ibid., pp. 12–13.

24. Ibid., pp. 65–70.

25. Bryce, Trojans, p. 89.

26. H. Goedicke, The Report of Wenamun (Baltimore, MD, 1975).

27. Ibid., pp. 175–83.

28. Ibid., p. 51.

29. Ibid., p. 58.

30. Ibid., pp. 76, 84, 87.

31. Ibid., p. 94.

32. Ibid., p. 126.

33. Gardiner, Egypt, pp. 252–7; Gurney, Hittites, p. 110; N. Sandars, The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean 1250–1150BC (London, 1978), pp. 29–32; R. Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200BC (Princeton, NJ, 1993), pp. 130–34.

4. Sea Peoples and Land Peoples, 1250 BC–1100 BC

  1. C. Blegen, Troy (2nd edn, London, 2005), pp. 92–4; T. Bryce, The Trojans and Their Neighbours (London, 2006), pp. 58–61.

  2. J. Latacz, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution to an Old Mystery (London, 2004), pp. 20–37; cf. Bryce, Trojans, pp. 62–4.

  3. Bryce, Trojans, p. 117.

  4. Latacz, Troy and Homer, pp. 49–51, 69.

  5. Ibid., pp. 46–7, fig. 10 (map of trade routes).

  6. Bryce, Trojans, pp. 104, 111.

  7. O. R. Gurney, The Hittites (London, 1952), pp. 49–50; Bryce, Trojans, pp. 110–11.

  8. Gurney, Hittites, pp. 51–2; Bryce, Trojans, p. 100.

  9. Latacz, Troy and Homer, pp. 92–100.

10. Blegen, Troy, pp. 124–8.

11. For an argument favouring subsidence as a major cause of damage, see M. Wood, In Search of the Trojan War (2nd edn, London, 1996), pp. 203–11.

12. V. R. d’A. Desborough and N. G. L. Hammond, ‘The end of Mycenaean civilisation and the Dark Age’, Cambridge Ancient History, vols. 1 and 2, revised edn, pre-print fascicle (Cambridge, 1964), p. 4; N. Sandars, The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean 1250–1150BC (London, 1978), p. 180.

13. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 142–4; R. Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200BC (Princeton, NJ, 1993), pp. 13–15.

14. L. Woolley, A Forgotten Kingdom (Harmondsworth, 1953), pp. 163–4, 170–73.

15. Blegen, Troy, p. 142.

16. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 133; also A. Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs: an Introduction (Oxford, 1961), pp. 284, 288; A. R. Burn, Minoans, Philistines, and Greeks BC 1400–900 (2nd edn, London, 1968).

17. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 106–7.

18. Ibid., pp. 50–51; Gardiner, Egypt, p. 198; B. Isserlin, The Israelites (London, 1998), p. 55.

19. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 105; Gardiner, Egypt, pp. 265–6.

20. Drews, End of the Bronze Age, p. 20; A. Yasur-Landau, The Philistines and Aegean Migration and the End of the Late Bronze Age (Cambridge, 2010), p. 180.

21. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 114; Gardiner, Egypt, p. 266; Isserlin, Israelites, p. 56, and plate 34 opposite p. 81.

22. Drews, End of the Bronze Age, p. 21.

23. T. and M. Dothan, People of the Sea: the Search for the Philistines (New York, 1992), p. 95; cf. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 134–5.

24. Sandars, Sea Peoples, p. 119; Gardiner, Egypt, pp. 276–7.

25. Sandars, Sea Peoples.

26. Ibid., pp. 124, 134–5, 165, 178, plate 119; p. 189, plate 124; F. Matz, Crete and Early Greece (London, 1962), supplementary plate 22; W. D. Taylour, The Mycenaeans (London, 1964), plate 7.

27. Gurney, Hittites, p. 54.

28. Joshua 18:1 and 19:40–48; Judges 5; Dothan, People of the Sea, pp. 215–18; Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 163–4.

29. Dothan, People of the Sea, p. 215.

30. Sandars, Sea Peoples, pp. 111–12, 200; Yasur-Landau, Philistines and Aegean Migration, pp. 180, 182; cf. Gardiner, Egypt, p. 264.

31. C. Whitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradition (Cambridge, MA, 1958), pp. 51–2.

32. Desborough and Hammond, ‘End of Mycenaean Civilisation’, p. 5; also V. R. d’A. Desborough, The Last Mycenaeans and Their Successors (Oxford, 1964).

33. Desborough and Hammond, ‘End of Mycenaean Civilisation’, p. 12.

34. L. Bernabò Brea, Sicily before the Greeks (London, 1967), p. 136.

35. R. Leighton, Sicily before History: an Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age (London, 1999), p. 149; also R. Holloway, Italy and the Aegean 3000–700 BC (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1981), p. 95.

36. Dothan, People of the Sea, pp. 211–13.

37. W. Culican, The First Merchant Venturers: the Ancient Levant in History and Commerce (London, 1966), pp. 66–70.

38. Dothan, People of the Sea, plates 5 and 6, and pp. 37–9, 53.

39. Yasur-Landau, Philistines and Aegean Migration, pp. 334–45.

40. I Samuel 17:5–7.

41. Yasur-Landau, Philistines and Aegean Migration, pp. 305–6.

42. Dothan, People of the Sea, pp. 8, 239–54.

43. Amos 9:7.

44. Exodus 15:1–18; Isserlin, Israelites, p. 206.

45. Isserlin, Israelites, p. 57.

46. Drews, End of the Bronze Age, p. 3.

PART TWO
THE SECOND MEDITERRANEAN, 1000 BC–AD 600

1. The Purple Traders, 1000 BC–700 BC

  1. L. Bernabò Brea, Sicily before the Greeks (London, 1957), pp. 136–43.

  2. M. E. Aubet, The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies, and Trade (2nd edn, Cambridge, 2001), p. 128; S. Moscati, ‘Who were the Phoenicians?’, in S. Moscati (ed.), The Phoenicians (New York, 1999), pp. 17–19.

  3. G. Markoe, The Phoenicians (2nd edn, London, 2005), p. xviii.

  4. D. B. Harden, The Phoenicians (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1971), p. 20.

  5. S. Filippo Bondì, ‘The origins in the East’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 23–9.

  6. Aubet, Phoenicians in the West, pp. 23–5.

  7. Leviticus 18:22.

  8. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 38–45, 121.

  9. B. Isserlin, The Israelites (London, 1998), pp. 149–59, for Israelite agriculture.

10. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 48–9, and fig. 19.

11. I Kings 9:11–14; S. Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians (London, 1968), p. 33.

12. Markoe, Phoenicians, p. xx, but missing the importance of grain.

13. Ibid., p. 37 (King Ithobaal, early ninth century); Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, p. 35.

14. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 25; cf. Tyre: Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 73.

15. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 34–5; Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 73.

16. Ezekiel 27.

17. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 15–28.

18. M. L. Uberti, ‘Ivory and bone carving’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 456–71.

19. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 49 and plate 48.

20. Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, p. 36; Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 91, fig. 27, a later bas-relief from Nimrud showing two monkeys.

21. I Kings 9:26–8; I Kings 10:22, 10:49; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 31–4; Isserlin, Israelites, pp. 188–9.

22. Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 122.

23. Genesis 44:2.

24. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 80–84.

25. Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, pp. 137–45.

26. V. Karageorghis, ‘Cyprus’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 185–9.

27. Ibid., p. 191; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 41–2.

28. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 49 and plate 51; Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, pp. 40–41.

29. Cf. Ezekiel’s account of Tyre: Ezekiel 27; Isserlin, Israelites, p. 163.

30. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 166–72, 182–91; P. Bartoloni, ‘Ships and navigation’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 84–5.

31. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 116–17; R. D. Ballard and M. McConnell, Adventures in Ocean Exploration (Washington, DC, 2001).

32. Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 117; cf. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 174.

33. Bartoloni, ‘Ships and navigation’, pp. 86–7; Markoe, Phoenicians, p. 116.

34. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 173–4.

35. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 118–19.

36. Ibid., p. xxi.

37. Bartoloni, ‘Ships and navigation’, pp. 87–9; Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 174–8.

38. S. Ribichini, ‘Beliefs and religious life’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, p. 137.

39. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 215–16; R. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed: the Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization (London, 2010), pp. 58–9.

40. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 221–6, and figs. 49 and 51.

41. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 81.

42. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 232.

43. Harden, Phoenicians, pp. 35–6, figs. 6–7; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 81–3; popular account: G. Servadio, Motya: Unearthing a Lost Civilization (London, 2000).

44. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 238.

45. Ibid., pp. 311, 325; also Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 49–54.

46. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 279.

47. Ibid., pp. 279–81, 288–9.

48. Jonah 1; Isaiah 23:1; cf. 23:6, 23:14.

49. G. Garbini, ‘The question of the alphabet’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 101–119; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 141–3; Moscati, World of the Phoenicians, pp. 120–26.

50. Harden, Phoenicians, p. 108 and fig. 34; also plates 15 and 38; Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 143–7.

51. Markoe, Phoenicians, pp. 173–9; Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, pp. 245–56 (though the biblical references there are confused); Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 69–73.

52. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West, p. 249; Harden, Phoenicians, plate 35; Ribichini, ‘Beliefs and religious life’, in Moscati, Phoenicians, pp. 139–41; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 70.

2. The Heirs of Odysseus, 800 BC–550 BC

  1. I. Malkin, The Returns of Odysseus: Colonisation and Ethnicity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 1998), p. 17.

  2. Ibid., p. 22; also D. Briquel, Les Pélasges en Italie: recherches sur l’histoire de la légende (Rome, 1984); R. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes: Greeks and Their Myths in the Epic Age of Homer (London, 2008).

  3. Odyssey 1:20, 5:291, 5:366, in the translation of Roger Dawe.

  4. Malkin, Returns of Odysseus, pp. 4, 8.

  5. Notably in the works of the French Homer scholars Victor Bérard and his son Jean Bérard: J. Bérard, La colonisation grecque de l’Italie méridionale et de la Sicile dans l’antiquité (Paris, 1957), pp. viii, 304–9.

  6. Malkin, Returns of Odysseus, p. 186.

  7. Ibid., p. 41; M. Scherer, The Legends of Troy in Art and Literature (New York, 1963).

  8. Malkin, Returns of Odysseus, pp. 68–72.

  9. Ibid., pp. 68–9, 94–8; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 181–2.

10. Odyssey 14:289; 15:416, trans. Dawe.

11. M. Finley, The World of Odysseus (2nd edn, London, 1964).

12. Odyssey 1:180–85, trans. Dawe.

13. Ibid., 9:105–115.

14. Ibid., 9:275.

15. Ibid. 9:125–9 .

16. Ibid. 1:280.

17. D. Ridgway, The First Western Greeks (Cambridge, 1992) (revised edn of L’alba della Magna Grecia, Milan, 1984). Subsequent literature on the western Greeks: G. Pugliese Carratelli (ed.), The Western Greeks (London, 1996); V. M. Manfredi and L. Braccesi, I Greci d’Occidente (Milan, 1996); D. Puliga and S. Panichi, Un’altra Grecia: le colonie d’Occidente tra mito, arte e memoria(Turin, 2005); also Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes.

18. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, p. 160.

19. Cited by Ridgway, First Western Greeks, p. 99.

20. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 52–69.

21. Ibid., p. 159.

22. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, p. 17; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 55–9.

23. L. Woolley, A Forgotten Kingdom (Harmondsworth, 1953), pp. 172–88.

24. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, pp. 22–4.

25. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 138–49.

26. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, pp. 55–6, figs. 8–9; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 157–8.

27. Odyssey 3:54, trans. Dawe.

28. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, pp. 57–9, 115.

29. Ibid., pp. 111–13, and fig. 29, p. 112.

30. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, pp. 169–70.

31. Iliad 2:570 – cf. Thucydides 1:13.5; J. B. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth: a History of the City to 338BC (Oxford, 1984), p. 1; M. L. Z. Munn, ‘Corinthian trade with the West in the classical period’ (Ph.D. thesis, Bryn Mawr College, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI, 1983–4), p. 1.

32. Pindar, Olympian Ode 13; C. M. Bowra (trans.), The Odes of Pindar (Harmondsworth, 1969), p. 170.

33. Thucydides 1:13.

34. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 84–5, 89.

35. Ridgway, First Western Greeks, p. 89.

36. Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazousai, ll. 647–8.

37. L. J. Siegel, ‘Corinthian trade in the ninth through sixth centuries BC’, 2 vols. (Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI, 1978), vol. 1, pp. 64–84, 242–57.

38. Thucydides 1:13; Siegel, Corinthian Trade, p. 173.

39. Herodotos 1:18.20 and 5:92; A. Andrewes, The Greek Tyrants (London, 1956), pp. 50–51; Siegel, Corinthian Trade, pp. 176–8; also M. M. Austin, Greece and Egypt in the Archaic Age (supplements to Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, no. 2, Cambridge, 1970), especially p. 37.

40. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 105–6, 109–10.

41. Munn, Corinthian Trade, pp. 6–7; Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 101–5, 119.

42. Woolley, Forgotten Kingdom pp. 183–7.

43. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 99, 120.

44. Munn, Corinthian Trade, pp. 263–7, 323–5.

45. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, p. 136.

46. K. Greene, ‘Technological innovation and economic progress in the ancient world: M. I. Finley reconsidered’, Economic History Review, vol. 53 (2000), pp. 29–59, especially 29–34.

47. Munn, Corinthian Trade, pp. 78, 84, 95–6, 111; cf. M. Finley, The Ancient Economy (London, 1973).

48. Andrewes, Greek Tyrants, pp. 45–9.

49. Herodotos 5:92; Aristotle, Politics, 1313a35–37; Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, p. 197; also Andrewes, Greek Tyrants, pp. 50–53.

50. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth, pp. 199–204.

51. C. Riva, The Urbanisation of Etruria: Funerary Practices and Social Change, 700–600 BC (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 70–71; A. Carandini, Re Tarquinio e il divino bastardo (Milan, 2010).

52. A. J. Graham, Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece (Manchester, 1964), p. 220.

53. Diodoros the Sicilian 15:13.1; Munn, Corinthian Trade, p. 35.

54. Graham, Colony and Mother City, pp. 218–23.

3. The Triumph of the Tyrrhenians, 800 BC–400 BC

  1. J. Boardman, Pre-classical: from Crete to Archaic Greece (Harmondsworth, 1967), p. 169.

  2. D. Briquel, Origine lydienne des Étrusques: histoire de la doctrine dans l’antiquité (Rome, 1991).

  3. Herodotos 1:94.

  4. Tacitus, Annals 4:55; R. Drews, ‘Herodotos I. 94, the drought ca. 1200 BC, and the origin of the Etruscans’, Historia, vol. 41 (1992), p. 17.

  5. D. Briquel, Tyrrhènes, peuple des tours: Denys d’Halicarnasse et l’autochtonie des Étrusques (Rome, 1993).

  6. Dionysios of Halikarnassos 1:30.

  7. M. Pallottino, The Etruscans (2nd edn, London, 1975), pp. 78–81; but the point about Tarhun is mine.

  8. Beginning with Ciba Foundation Symposium on Medical Biology and Etruscan Origins, ed. G. E. W. Wolstenholme and C. M. O’Connor (London, 1958).

  9. G. Barbujani et al., ‘The Etruscans: a population-genetic study’, American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 74 (2004), pp. 694–704; A. Piazza, A. Torroni et al., ‘Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the Near Eastern origin of Etruscans’, American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 80 (2007), pp. 759–68.

10. C. Dougherty, ‘The Aristonothos krater: competing stories of conflict and collaboration’, in C. Dougherty and L. Kurke (eds.), The Cultures within Ancient Greek Culture: Contact, Conflict, Collaboration (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 35–56.

11. C. Riva, The Urbanisation of Etruria: Funerary Practices and Social Change, 700–600 BC (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 142–6; R. Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes: Greeks and Their Myths in the Epic Age of Homer (London, 2008), pp. 142–6.

12. Homeric Hymn no. 8, to Dionysos; see also M. Iuffrida Gentile, La pirateria tirrenica: momenti e fortuna, Supplementi a Kókalos, no. 6 (Rome and Palermo, 1983), pp. 33–47.

13. M. Cristofani, Gli Etruschi del mare (Milan, 1983), pp. 57–8 and plate 37 – cf. plate 68 (late 4th c.); G. Pettena, Gli Etruschi e il mare (Turin, 2002); Iuffrida Gentile, Pirateria tirrenica, p. 37.

14. M. Torelli, ‘The battle for the sea-routes, 1000–300 BC’, in D. Abulafia (ed.), The Mediterranean in History (London and New York, 2003), pp. 101–3.

15. Herodotos 1:57; also 4:145, 5:26; Thucydides 4:14.

16. M. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens archaïques (Rome, 1985), pp. 648–9; cf. Iuffrida Gentile, Pirateria tirrenica, p. 47.

17. Dionysios of Halikarnassos 1:30; they called themselves Rasna.

18. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 629; Lemnian aviz = Etruscan avils, ‘years’.

19. Ibid., generally, and pp. 628, 637, 650; Il commercio etrusco arcaico (Quaderni del Centro di Studio per l’Archeologia etrusco-italica, vol. 9, Rome, 1985); G. M. della Fina (ed.), Gli Etruschi e il Mediterraneo: commercio e politica (Annali della Fondazione per il Museo Claudio Faina, vol. 13, Orvieto and Rome, 2006); cf. Cristofani,Etruschi del Mare, pp. 56–60.

20. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 615.

21. Riva, Urbanisation of Etruria, p. 67; H. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins (London, 1968), pp. 78–84.

22. Pallottino, Etruscans, pp. 91–4.

23. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, p. 99 and plates 54, 90–93.

24. R. Leighton, Tarquinia: an Etruscan City (London, 2004), pp. 56–7; Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, pp. 66–73.

25. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, plates 139–41.

26. Ibid., p. 72, fig. 31c, and p. 119.

27. Dougherty, ‘Aristonothos krater’, pp. 36–7; Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, pp. 116, 230, and plates 76–7.

28. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 28–9 and plate 15.

29. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, p. 122, and plate 138.

30. Ibid., p. 123.

31. G. Camporeale et al., The Etruscans outside Etruria (Los Angeles, CA, 2004), p. 29.

32. S. Bruni, Pisa Etrusca: anatomia di una città scomparsa (Milan, 1998), pp. 86–113.

33. Camporeale et al., Etruscans outside Etruria, p. 37; also Riva, Urbanisation of Etruria, p. 51 (Bronze Age contact).

34. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 254–390.

35. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 30.

36. Hencken, Tarquinia and Etruscan Origins, pp. 137–41.

37. E.g. Pallottino, Etruscans, plate 11.

38. D. Diringer, ‘La tavoletta di Marsiliana d’Albegna’, Studi in onore di Luisa Banti (Rome, 1965), pp. 139–42; Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes, p. 159.

39. A. Mullen, ‘Gallia Trilinguis: the multiple voices of south-eastern Gaul’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 2008), p. 90; H. Rodríguez Somolinos, ‘The commercial transaction of the Pech Maho lead: a new interpretation’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 111 (1996), pp. 74–6; Camporeale et al., Etruscans outside Etruria, p. 89.

40. E. Acquaro, ‘Phoenicians and Etruscans’, in S. Moscati (ed.), The Phoenicians (New York, 1999), p. 613; Pallottino, Etruscans, p. 221.

41. Pallottino, Etruscans, p. 112 and plate 11 (original in Museo Nazionale Etrusco, Tarquinia); Herodotos 4:152.

42. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 523–5.

43. Announced in Corriere della Sera, 5 August 2010; La Stampa, 6 August 2010.

44. J. D. Beazley, Etruscan Vase-Painting (Oxford, 1947), p. 1.

45. Ibid., p. 3.

46. So named by J. D. Beazley, Attic Red-figure Vase-Painters (2nd edn, Oxford, 1964).

47. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 30 and plate 13.

48. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 393–475; Torelli, ‘Battle for the sea-routes’, p. 117.

49. Herodotos 1:165–7.

50. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 83 and plates 54, 58; cf. O. W. von Vacano, The Etruscans in the Ancient World (London, 1960), p. 121.

51. L. Donati, ‘The Etruscans and Corsica’, in Camporeale et al., Etruscans outside Etruria, pp. 274–9.

52. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 70, 84.

53. A. G. Woodhead, The Greeks in the West (London, 1962), p. 78.

54. Pindar, Pythian Odes, 1:72–4, trans. M. Bowra.

55. C. and G. Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (London, 1968), p. 81.

56. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 514–22.

57. Diodoros the Sicilian 11:88.4–5; Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 114–15.

58. Thucydides 6:88.6.

59. Thucydides 7:57.11.

60. Leighton, Tarquinia, p. 133 and fig. 56, p. 140; Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 521, 686; Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 115.

61. Cf. T. J. Dunbabin, The Western Greeks: the History of Sicily and South Italy from the Foundation of the Greek Colonies to 480BC (Oxford, 1968), p. 207.

62. Cited by J. Heurgon, Daily Life of the Etruscans (London, 1964), p. 33.

63. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 95.

64. C. Riva, ‘The archaeology of Picenum’, in G. Bradley, E. Isayev and C. Riva (eds.), Ancient Italy: Regions without Boundaries (Exeter, 2007), pp. 96–100 (for Matelica).

65. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 93.

66. Ibid., p. 101 and plate 66, p. 103, pp. 128–9; Heurgon, Daily Life, p. 140; cf. J. Boardman, The Greeks Overseas: their Early Colonies and Trade (2nd edn, London, 1980), pp. 228–9; Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, pp. 103, 129.

67. Cristofani, Etruschi del Mare, p. 128.

4. Towards the Garden of the Hesperides, 1000 BC–400 BC

  1. M. Guido, Sardinia (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1963), pp. 59–60; cf. M. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens archaïques (Rome, 1985), pp. 87–91.

  2. M. Pallottino, La Sardegna nuragica (2nd edn, with an introduction by G. Lilliu, Nuoro, 2000), pp. 109–14.

  3. Ibid., pp. 91–102.

  4. Ibid., p. 162; Guido, Sardinia, pp. 106–7, 142.

  5. Guido, Sardinia, p. 156.

  6. Ibid., pp. 112–18; Pallottino, Sardegna nuragica, pp. 141–7.

  7. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 113–15, and fig, 19, p. 114, also pp. 164–7, figs. 29–30, and pp. 185–6.

  8. Guido, Sardinia, pp. 172–7; Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 145 (Vulci).

  9. Guido, Sardinia, plates 56–7; Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, pp. 115–19, 123–40; Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem, Guide to the Collection (3rd edn, Jerusalem, 2002), p. 84.

10. V. M. Manfredi and L. Braccesi, I Greci d’Occidente (Milan, 1966), pp. 184–9; D. Puliga and S. Panichi, Un’altra Grecia: le colonie d’Occidente tra mito, arte a memoria (Turin, 2005), pp. 203–14.

11. Gras, Trafics tyrrhéniens, p. 402.

12. Herodotos 1.163–7; A. J. Graham, Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece (Manchester, 1964), pp. 111–12; M. Sakellariou, ‘The metropolises of the western Greeks’, in G. Pugliese Carratelli (ed.), The Western Greeks (London, 1996), pp. 187–8; Manfredi and Braccesi, Greci d’Occidente, pp. 179–81, 184–5; Puliga and Panichi, Un’altra Grecia, pp. 203–4.

13. G. Pugliese Carratelli, ‘An outline of the political history of the Greeks in the West’, in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 154–5.

14. M. Bats, ‘The Greeks in Gaul and Corsica’, in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 578–80, and plate, p. 579; V. Kruta, ‘The Greek and Celtic worlds: a meeting of two cultures’, in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 585–90; Puliga and Panichi, Un’altra Grecia, pp. 206–7.

15. J. Boardman, The Greeks Overseas: their Early Colonies and Trade (2nd edn, London, 1980), pp. 216–17; Manfredi and Braccesi, Greci d’Occidente, p. 187.

16. Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, 43:4; Boardman, Greeks Overseas, p. 218; Manfredi and Braccesi, Greci d’Occidente, p. 186.

17. L. Foxhall, Olive Cultivation in Ancient Greece: Seeking the Ancient Economy (Oxford, 2007), and other studies by the same author.

18. Boardman, Greeks Overseas, p. 219.

19. Ibid., p. 224.

20. Kruta and Bats in Pugliese Carratelli, Western Greeks, pp. 580–83; Boardman, Greeks Overseas, p. 224.

21. P. Dixon, The Iberians of Spain and Their Relations with the Aegean World (Oxford, 1940), p. 38.

22. Ibid., pp. 35–6.

23. A. Arribas, The Iberians (London, 1963), pp. 56–7.

24. B. Cunliffe, The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek (London, 2001).

25. Avienus, Ora Maritima, ed. J. P. Murphy (Chicago, IL, 1977); L. Antonelli, Il Periplo nascosto: lettura stratigrafica e commento storico-archeologico dell’Ora Maritima di Avieno (Padua, 1998) (with edition); F. J. González Ponce, Avieno y el Periplo (Ecija, 1995).

26. Avienus ll. 267–74.

27. Ibid. ll. 80–332, especially ll. 85, 113–16, 254, 308, 290–98.

28. Ibid. ll. 309–12, 375–80, 438–48, 459–60.

29. Cunliffe, Extraordinary Voyage, pp. 42–8; Dixon, Iberians of Spain, pp. 39–40.

30. Avienus ll. 481–2, 485–9, 496–7, 519–22.

31. Dixon, Iberians of Spain; Arribas, Iberians; A. Ruiz and M. Molinos, The Archaeology of the Iberians (Cambridge, 1998).

32. Avienus l. 133.

33. Arribas, Iberians, pp. 89, 93, 95, figs. 24, 27, 28, and pp. 102–4, 120, bearing in mind Foxhall, Olive Cultivation.

34. Arribas, Iberians, pp. 146–9.

35. Ibid., plates 35–8, 52–4.

36. Ibid., p. 160; also plates 22–3; Dixon, Iberians of Spain, pp. 106–7, 113–15 and frontispiece.

37. Dixon, Iberians of Spain, p. 107.

38. Ibid., p. 82 and plate 12b.

39. Arribas, Iberians, p. 131 and plate 21; also Dixon, Iberians of Spain, p. 11.

40. Dixon, Iberians of Spain, pp. 85–8, plates 10, 11a and b.

41. Ibid., pp. 54–60; Arribas, Iberians, pp. 73–87.

5. Thalassocracies, 550 BC–400 BC

  1. N. G. L. Hammond, A History of Greece to 322BC (Oxford, 1959), p. 226.

  2. Thucydides 1:5.

  3. Aeschylus, The Persians (Persae), trans. Gilbert Murray (London, 1939), ll. 230–34, p. 30.

  4. A. R. Burn, The Pelican History of Greece (Harmondsworth, 1966), pp. 146, 159; Hammond, History of Greece, pp. 176, 202; J. Morrison and J. Oates, The Athenian Trireme: the History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship (Cambridge, 1986).

  5. Thucydides 1:21; Herodotos 3:122; C. Constantakopolou, The Dance of the Islands: Insularity, Networks, the Athenian Empire and the Aegean World (Oxford, 2007), p. 94.

  6. Herodotos 5:31.

  7. Burn, Pelican History, p. 158.

  8. P. Cartledge, The Spartans: an Epic History (London, 2002), pp. 101–17.

  9. Burn, Pelican History, p. 174 – cf. Hammond, History of Greece, p. 202.

10. On numbers: W. Rodgers, Greek and Roman Naval Warfare (Annapolis, MD, 1937), pp. 80–95.

11. Ibid., p. 86.

12. Aeschylus, Persians, ll. 399–405, p. 39.

13. J. Hale, Lords of the Sea: the Triumph and Tragedy of Ancient Athens (London, 2010).

14. Thucydides 1:14.

15. Ibid. 1:13 and 3:104; Constantakopolou, Dance of the Islands, pp. 47–8.

16. Thucydides. 3.104 (trans. Rex Warner); cf. Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, ll. 144–55.

17. Constantakopolou, Dance of the Islands, p. 70.

18. Displayed on the modern doors of the library that commemorates his name in the History Faculty, Cambridge University.

19. A. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy: the Athenian Grain Supply in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BC (Oxford, 2007), pp. 28–31.

20. Aristophanes, Horai, fragment 581, cited in Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 75.

21. Cf. P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis (Cambridge, 1988), and M. Finley, The Ancient Economy (London, 1973).

22. Isokrates 4:107–9, cited in Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 77.

23. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 100.

24. Thucydides 8:96; cf. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 126.

25. Herodotos 7:147.

26. R. Meiggs, The Athenian Empire (Oxford, 1972), pp. 121–3, 530; Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 318.

27. Moreno, Feeding the Democracy, p. 319; cf. P. Horden and N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: a Study of Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000), p. 121.

28. P. J. Rhodes, The Athenian Empire (Greece and Rome, New Surveys in the Classics, no. 17) (Oxford, 1985).

29. Thucydides 1 (trans. Rex Warner).

30. Ibid. 1:2; J. Wilson, Athens and Corcyra: Strategy and Tactics in the Peloponnesian War (Bristol, 1987); D. Kagan, The Peloponnesian War: Athens and Sparta in Savage Conflict 431–404BC (London, 2003), p. 25.

31. Thucydides 1:2 (adapted from version by Rex Warner).

32. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 27.

33. Thucydides 1:3.

34. Ibid.

35. Thucydides 1:4; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 34–6, and map 8, p. 35.

36. Thucydides 1:67.2; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 41, n.1.

37. Thucydides 1:6.

38. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 100–101; Constantakopolou, Dance of the Islands, pp. 239–42.

39. Thucydides 3:13.

40. Ibid. 4:1.

41. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 142–7.

42. Thucydides 4:2.

43. Ibid. 3:86.4.

44. Ibid. 6:6.1; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, pp. 118–20.

45. Cf. Thucydides 6:6.1.

46. Ibid. 6:46.3.

47. W. M. Ellis, Alcibiades (London, 1989), p. 54.

48. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 280.

49. Rodgers, Greek and Roman Naval Warfare, pp. 159–67.

50. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, p. 321.

51. Ibid., pp. 402–14.

52. Ibid., pp. 331–2.

53. Xenophon, Hellenika, 2:1; Cartledge, Spartans, pp. 192–202.

54. Xenophon, Hellenika, 3:2, 3:5, 4:2, 4:3, 4:4, 4:5, 4:7, 4:8, 4:9, etc.

6. The Lighthouse of the Mediterranean, 350 BC–100 BC

  1. R. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great (3rd edn, Harmondsworth, 1986), pp. 181–91.

  2. Serious account: P. M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1972), vol. 1, p. 3; popular account: J. Pollard and H. Reid, The Rise and Fall of Alexandria, Birthplace of the Modern Mind (New York, 2006), pp. 6–7.

  3. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, p. 198.

  4. Pollard and Reid, Rise and Fall of Alexandria, pp. 2–3.

  5. Strabo, Geography, 17:8; J.-Y. Empereur, Alexandria: Past, Present and Future (London, 2002), p. 23.

  6. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, pp. 461–72.

  7. S.-A. Ashton, ‘Ptolemaic Alexandria and the Egyptian tradition’, in A. Hirst and M. Silk (eds.), Alexandria Real and Imagined (2nd edn, Cairo, 2006), pp. 15–40.

  8. J. Carleton Paget, ‘Jews and Christians in ancient Alexandria from the Ptolemies to Caracalla’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, pp. 146–9.

  9. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 255; Empereur, Alexandria, pp. 24–5.

10. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 252; also pp. 116–17.

11. Ibid., p. 259.

12. Strabo, Geography, 17:7; cf. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 132, 143.

13. M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1941), vol. 1, p. 29.

14. L. Casson, The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times (2nd edn, Princeton, NJ, 1991), pp. 131–3.

15. Ibid., p. 130.

16. Ibid., p. 135, and pl. 32.

17. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 367, 387; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 137–9.

18. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 395–6.

19. Casson, Ancient Mariners, p. 160; cf. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 226–9.

20. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 150.

21. Ibid., pp. 176, 178–81.

22. Empereur, Alexandria, p. 35.

23. Bosphoran grain: G. J. Oliver, War, Food, and Politics in Early Hellenistic Athens (Oxford, 2007), pp. 22–30.

24. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 359–60, 363.

25. Diodoros the Sicilian 1:34.

26. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 315; H. Maehler, ‘Alexandria, the Mouseion, and cultural identity’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, pp. 1–14.

27. Irenaeus, cited in M. El-Abbadi, ‘The Alexandria Library in history’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, p. 167.

28. El-Abbadi, ‘The Alexandria Library in history’, p. 172; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 329.

29. Empereur, Alexandria, pp. 38–9.

30. Maehler, ‘Alexandria, the Mouseion, and cultural identity’, pp. 9–10.

31. Comments by E. V. Rieu in his translation of Apollonius of Rhodes, The Voyage of Argo (Harmondsworth, 1959), pp. 25–7; cf. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 627.

32. Pollard and Reid, Rise and Fall of Alexandria, p. 79.

33. Empereur, Alexandria, p. 43.

34. El-Abbadi, ‘The Alexandria Library in history’, p. 174.

35. N. Collins, The Library in Alexandria and the Bible in Greek (Leiden, 2000), p. 45: Philo, Josephus (Jewish authors); Justin, Tertullian (Christian authors – also Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria, attributing the work to the reign of Ptolemy I).

36. Carleton Paget, ‘Jews and Christians’, pp. 149–51.

37. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 331, 338–76, 387–9.

38. Pollard and Reid, Rise and Fall of Alexandria, pp. 133–7.

39. N. K. Rauh, Merchants, Sailors and Pirates in the Roman World (Stroud, 2003), pp. 65–7.

40. P. de Souza, Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 80–84.

41. Casson, Ancient Mariners, pp. 138–40.

42. Rauh, Merchants, p. 66.

43. Diodoros the Sicilian 22:81.4, cited by Rauh, Merchants, p. 66.

44. Rauh, Merchants, p. 68.

45. Casson, Ancient Mariners, p. 163.

46. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 230–32; for its early development, see G. Reger, Regionalism and Change in the Economy of Independent Delos, 314–167 BC (Berkeley, CA, 1994); later developments in: N. Rauh, The Sacred Bonds of Commerce: Religion, Economy, and Trade Society at Hellenistic-Roman Delos, 166–87BC (Amsterdam, 1993).

47. Rauh, Merchants, pp. 53–65, 73–4; Casson, Ancient Mariners, p. 165.

7. ‘Carthage Must Be Destroyed’, 400 BC–146 BC

  1. B. H. Warmington, Carthage (London, 1960), pp. 74–5, 77; R. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed: the Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization (London, 2010), pp. 121–3.

  2. Xenophon, Hellenika, 1:1.

  3. A. Andrewes, The Greek Tyrants (London, 1956), p. 137; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 123–4.

  4. Warmington, Carthage, p. 80.

  5. M. Finley, Ancient Sicily (London, 1968), p. 71; Andrewes, Greek Tyrants, p. 129; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 126 (for a Carthaginian inscription commemorating the fall of Akragas).

  6. Warmington, Carthage, pp. 83, 87; Finley, Ancient Sicily, pp. 71–2, 91–3.

  7. Warmington, Carthage, p. 91; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 127–8.

  8. Warmington, Carthage, pp. 93–5; Finley, Ancient Sicily, pp. 76, 78, 80, 82.

  9. Warmington, Carthage, p. 94.

10. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, ‘Timoleon’; Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 96.

11. Warmington, Carthage, pp. 102–3; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 136–7.

12. R. J. A. Talbert, Timoleon and the Revival of Greek Sicily, 344–317BC (Cambridge, 1974), pp. 151–2; Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 99.

13. Plutarch, ‘Timoleon’; Talbert, Timoleon, pp. 156–7, 161–5; Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 99.

14. Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 104; Warmington, Carthage, p. 107.

15. Warmington, Carthage, p. 113.

16. Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 105.

17. J. Serrati, ‘The coming of the Romans: Sicily from the fourth to the first centuries BC’, in Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus: New Approaches in Archaeology and History, ed. C. Smith and J. Serrati (Edinburgh, 2000), pp. 109–10.

18. Livy 2:34.4; B. D. Hoyos, Unplanned Wars: the Origins of the First and Second Punic Wars (Berlin, 1998), p. 28; G. Rickman, The Corn Supply of Ancient Rome (Oxford, 1980), p. 31.

19. R. Cowan, Roman Conquests: Italy (London, 2009), pp. 8–11, 21–5.

20. R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia (2nd edn, Oxford, 1973), p. 24.

21. Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 32.

22. K. Lomas, Rome and the Western Greeks 350BC–AD 200 (London, 1993), p. 50.

23. Livy 9:30.4.

24. Disagreeing with Lomas, Rome and the Western Greeks, p. 51.

25. Lomas, Rome and the Western Greeks, p. 56.

26. Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, pp. 19–20.

27. J. F. Lazenby, The First Punic War: a Military History (London, 1996), p. 34; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 162–5.

28. Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 107–11, 160–61.

29. E.g. A. Goldsworthy, The Fall of Carthage (London, 2000), pp. 16, 65, 322.

30. Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, pp. 1–4; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 19–20.

31. Polybios 1:63; Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, p. 1; on devastation: Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 363–4.

32. J. Serrati, ‘Garrisons and grain: Sicily between the Punic Wars’, in Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus, ed. Smith and Serrati, pp. 116–19.

33. Lazenby, First Punic War, pp. 35–9; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 66–8; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 171–3.

34. Polybios 10:3; Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 37; Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, pp. 33–66.

35. Polybios 20:14; Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 48; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 174.

36. Diodoros 23:2.1.

37. Lazenby, First Punic War, pp. 51, 55.

38. Polybios 20:1–2; Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, p. 113; Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 60; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, p. 81.

39. Cf. though Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 175.

40. Polybios 20:9; Lazenby, First Punic War, pp. 62–3.

41. Polybios 20:9–12.

42. Ibid. 22:2.

43. Lazenby, First Punic War, pp. 64, 66 and 69, fig. 5.1; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 181–3.

44. J. H. Thiel, Studies on the History of Roman Sea-power in Republican Times (Amsterdam, 1946), p. 19; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 109–15; also Lazenby, First Punic War, pp. 83, 86–7.

45. Cf. Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 94.

46. J. Morrison, Greek and Roman Oared Warships, 339–30BC (Oxford, 1996), pp. 46–50.

47. Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, p. 115.

48. Polybios 37:3; Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 111; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 181.

49. Polybios 62:8–63.3; Lazenby, First Punic War, p. 158.

50. Warmington, Carthage, pp. 167–8; Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, pp. 131–43.

51. M. Guido, Sardinia (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1963), p. 209.

52. B. D. Hoyos, Hannibal’s Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247–183 BC (London, 2003), pp. 50–52, 72, 74–6; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, pp. 214–22.

53. Hoyos, Hannibal’s Dynasty, p. 53.

54. Ibid., pp. 55, 63–7, 79–80; Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed, p. 224, citing Polybios 10:10.

55. Hoyos, Unplanned Wars, pp. 150–95, especially p. 177 and p. 208.

56. Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 253–60.

57. Serrati, ‘Garrisons and grain’, pp. 115–33.

58. Finley, Ancient Sicily, pp. 117–18; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, p. 261.

59. Thiel, Studies on the History of Roman Sea-power, pp. 79–86; Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 263, 266.

60. Finley, Ancient Sicily, p. 119.

61. Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, p. 308.

62. Thiel, Studies on the History of Roman Sea-power, pp. 255–372.

63. Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, p. 331.

64. Warmington, Carthage, pp. 201–2.

65. Goldsworthy, Fall of Carthage, pp. 338–9.

66. Rauh, Merchants, pp. 38–53.

67. Virgil, Aeneid, 4:667–71, in Dryden’s translation.

8. ‘Our Sea’, 146 BC–AD 150

  1. N. K. Rauh, Merchants, Sailors and Pirates in the Roman World (Stroud, 2003), pp. 136–41.

  2. Lucan, Pharsalia, 7:400–407, trans. Robert Graves.

  3. R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (Oxford, 1939), pp. 78, 83–8.

  4. P. de Souza, Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 92–6.

  5. L. Casson, The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times (2nd edn, Princeton, NJ, 1991), p. 191; de Souza, Piracy, pp. 140–41, 162, 164.

  6. Cited in de Souza, Piracy, pp. 50–51.

  7. Livy 34:32.17–20; Polybios 13:6.1–2; both cited in de Souza, Piracy, pp. 84–5.

  8. de Souza, Piracy, pp. 185–95.

  9. Rauh, Merchants, pp. 177, 184; but maybe these tyrannoi (and not Etruscans) were the Tyrrhenoi active near Rhodes – an easy etymological confusion.

10. Strabo, Geography, 14.3.2; Rauh, Merchants, pp. 171–2.

11. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, ‘Pompey’, 24.1–3, trans. John Dryden.

12. de Souza, Piracy, pp. 165–6.

13. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, ‘Pompey’, 25:1, trans. John Dryden.

14. Syme, Roman Revolution, p. 28.

15. Cicero, Pro Lege Manilia, 34; G. Rickman, The Corn Supply of Ancient Rome (Oxford, 1980), pp. 51–2.

16. de Souza, Piracy, pp. 169–70.

17. Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 51; Syme, Roman Revolution, p. 29.

18. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, ‘Pompey’, 28:3; de Souza, Piracy, pp. 170–71, 175–6.

19. Syme, Roman Revolution, p. 30.

20. Hoc voluerunt: Suetonius, Twelve Caesars, ‘Divus Julius’, 30:4.

21. Syme, Roman Revolution, p. 260.

22. F. Adcock in Cambridge Ancient History, 12 vols. (Cambridge, 1923–39), vol. 9, The Roman Republic, 133–44BC, p. 724; Syme, Roman Revolution, pp. 53–60.

23. Syme, Roman Revolution, pp. 260, 270.

24. Ibid., pp. 294–7; C. G. Starr, The Roman Imperial Navy 31BC–AD 324 (Ithaca, NY, 1941), pp. 7–8; J. Morrison, Greek and Roman Oared Warships, 339–30 BC (Oxford, 1996), pp. 157–75.

25. Virgil, Aeneid, 8:678–80, 685–8, in Dryden’s rather loose version.

26. Syme, Roman Revolution, pp. 298–300; Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 61, 70.

27. Res Gestae Divi Augusti, ed. P. A. Brunt and J. M. Moore (Oxford, 1967), 15:2.

28. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 176–7, 187, 197, 205–8.

29. Ibid., p. 12.

30. Rauh, Merchants, pp. 93–4.

31. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, ‘Cato the Elder’, 21.6; Rauh, Merchants, p. 104.

32. Rauh, Merchants, p. 105.

33. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 16, 121.

34. Ibid., pp. 6–7; also P. Erdkamp, The Grain Market in the Roman Empire: a Social and Political Study (Cambridge, 2005); P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis (Cambridge, 1988).

35. Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 16.

36. Museu de la Ciutat de Barcelona, Roman section.

37. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 15, 128.

38. Acts of the Apostles, 27 and 28.

39. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 17, 65.

40. Josephus, Jewish War, 2:383–5; Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 68, 232.

41. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 61, 123.

42. Ibid., pp. 108–12; S. Raven, Rome in Africa (2nd edn, Harlow, 1984), pp. 84–105. Other sources included Sicily: Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 104–6; Sardinia: ibid., pp. 106–7; Spain: ibid., pp. 107–8.

43. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 67, 69.

44. Raven, Rome in Africa, p. 94.

45. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 18:35; Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 111.

46. Raven, Rome in Africa, pp. 86, 93.

47. Ibid., p. 95.

48. Ibid., pp. 95, 100–102.

49. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 69–70 and Appendix 4, pp. 231–5.

50. Ibid., p. 115 (AD 99).

51. Ibid., pp. 76–7, and Appendix 11, pp. 256–67.

52. Seneca, Letters, 77:1–3, cited in D. Jones, The Bankers of Puteoli: Finance, Trade and Industry in the Roman World (Stroud, 2006), p. 26.

53. Jones, Bankers of Puteoli, p. 28.

54. Ibid., pp. 23–4; and Strabo, Geography, 5:4.6.

55. Jones, Bankers of Puteoli, p. 33.

56. Cited in R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia (Oxford, 1960), p. 60.

57. Jones, Bankers of Puteoli, p. 34.

58. Petronius, Satyricon, 76; Jones, Bankers of Puteoli, p. 43.

59. Jones, Bankers of Puteoli, p. 11.

60. Ibid., pp. 102–17.

61. Ibid., Appendix 9, p. 255.

62. Rickman, Corn Supply, pp. 21–4, 134–43; G. Rickman, Roman Granaries and Store Buildings (Cambridge, 1971).

63. Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 23; Rickman, Roman Granaries, pp. 97–104.

64. Meiggs, Roman Ostia, pp. 16–17, 41–5, 57–9, 74, 77.

65. M. Reddé, Mare Nostrum: les infrastructures, le dispositif et l’histoire de la marine militaire sous l’empire romain (Rome, 1986).

66. Tacitus, Histories, 3:8; Starr, Roman Imperial Navy, pp. 181, 183, 185, 189; Rickman, Corn Supply, p. 67.

67. Starr, Roman Imperial Navy, p. 188.

68. Ibid., p. 67.

69. Cited ibid., p. 78.

70. Aelius Aristides, cited ibid., p. 87.

71. Oxyrhyncus papyrus cited ibid., p. 79.

72. Ibid., pp. 84–5.

73. Reddé, Mare Nostrum, p. 402.

74. Raven, Rome in Africa, pp. 75–6; Reddé, Mare Nostrum, pp. 244–8.

75. Reddé, Mare Nostrum, pp. 139, 607, and more generally pp. 11–141.

76. Tacitus, Annals, 4:5; Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, ‘Augustus’, 49; Reddé, Mare Nostrum, p. 472.

77. Reddé, Mare Nostrum, pp. 186–97; Starr, Roman Imperial Navy, pp. 13–21.

78. Reddé, Mare Nostrum, pp. 177–86; Starr, Roman Imperial Navy, pp. 21–4.

9. Old and New Faiths, AD 1–450

  1. B. de Breffny, The Synagogue (London, 1978), pp. 30–32, 37.

  2. R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia (Oxford, 1960), pp. 355–66, 368–76.

  3. R. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean World from the Second Century AD to the Conversion of Constantine (London, 1986), pp. 428, 438, 453.

  4. M. Goodman, Rome and Jerusalem: the Clash of Ancient Civilisations (London, 2007), pp. 26–8, 421, 440–43.

  5. Ibid., pp. 469–70: coins inscribed FISCI IVDAICI CALVMNIA SVBLATA.

  6. Ibid., pp. 480, 484–91.

  7. S. Sand, The Invention of the Jewish People (London, 2009), pp. 130–46, seriously underestimates the scale of this diaspora.

  8. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, pp. 450, 482.

  9. Ibid., p. 487.

10. Sand, Invention, pp. 171–2.

11. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, p. 492.

12. A. S. Abulafia, Christian-Jewish Relations, 1000–1300: Jews in the Service of Christians (Harlow, 2011), pp. 4–8, 15–16.

13. R. Patai, The Children of Noah: Jewish Seafaring in Ancient Times (Princeton, NJ, 1998), pp. 137–42.

14. Ibid., pp. 70–71, 85–100.

15. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, pp. 609–62.

16. G. Bowersock, Julian the Apostate (London, 1978), pp. 89–90, 120–22; P. Athanassiadi, Julian the Apostate: an Intellectual Biography (London, 1992), pp. 163–5.

17. Bowersock, Julian, pp. 79–93; R. Smith, Julian’s Gods: Religion and Philosophy in the Thought and Action of Julian the Apostate (London, 1995).

18. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, p. 31.

19. G. Downey, Gaza in the Early Sixth Century (Norman, OK, 1963), pp. 33–59 – much of this book is the most dreadful waffle.

20. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, p. 270.

21. Downey, Gaza, pp. 17–26, 20–21, 25–9.

22. For his career, see Mark the Deacon, Life of Porphyry Bishop of Gaza, ed. G. F. Hill (Oxford, 1913); Marc le Diacre, Vie de Porphyre, évêque de Gaza, ed. H. Grégoire and M.-A. Kugener (Paris, 1930).

23. Sand, Invention, pp. 166–78, though overstated.

24. Severus of Minorca, Letter on the Conversion of the Jews, ed. S. Bradbury (Oxford, 1996), editor’s introduction, pp. 54–5; J. Amengual i Batle, Judíos, Católicos y herejes: el microcosmos balear y tarraconense de Seuerus de Menorca, Consentius y Orosius (413–421) (Granada, 2008), pp. 69–201.

25. C. Ginzburg, ‘The conversion of Minorcan Jews (417–418): an experiment in history of historiography’, in S. Waugh and P. Diehl (eds.), Christendom and its Discontents: Exclusion, Persecution, and Rebellion, 1000–1500 (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 207–19.

26. Severus of Minorca, Letter, pp. 80–85.

27. Bradbury, ibid., pp. 34–6.

28. Severus of Minorca, Letter, pp. 84–5.

29. Ibid., pp. 82–3.

30. Bishop John II of Jerusalem, ibid., p. 18; also Bradbury’s comments, pp. 16–25.

31. Ginzburg, ‘Conversion’, pp. 213–15; Bradbury in Severus of Minorca, Letter, pp. 19, 53.

32. Severus of Minorca, Letter, pp. 124–5.

33. Ibid., pp. 94–101.

34. Ibid., pp. 116–19.

35. Ibid., pp. 92–3; but cf. Bradbury’s comment, p. 32.

36. Bradbury, ibid., pp. 41–2.

10. Dis-integration, 400–600

  1. B. Ward-Perkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilisation (Oxford, 2005), p. 32.

  2. Ibid., pp. 1–10; P. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: a New History (London, 2005), p. xii.

  3. C. Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome: a History of Europe from 400 to 1000 (London, 2009).

  4. Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire, p. 130.

  5. G. Rickman, The Corn Supply of Ancient Rome (Oxford, 1980), pp. 69, 118.

  6. B. H. Warmington, The North African Provinces from Diocletian to the Vandal Conquest (Cambridge, 1954), pp. 64–5, 113.

  7. Ward-Perkins, Fall of Rome, pp. 103, 131.

  8. Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 277–80.

  9. Warmington, North African Provinces, p. 112; S. Raven, Rome in Africa (2nd ed, Harlow, 1984), p. 207.

10. H. Castritius, Die Vandalen: Etappen einer Spurensuche (Stuttgart, 2007), pp. 15–33; A. Merrills and R. Miles, The Vandals (Oxford, 2010).

11. Raven, Rome in Africa, p. 171.

12. C. Courtois, Les Vandales et l’Afrique (Paris, 1955), p. 157.

13. Ibid., p. 160; cf. H. J. Diesner, Das Vandelenreich: Aufstieg und Untergang (Leipzig, 1966), p. 51 for lower estimates.

14. Courtois, Vandales, pp. 159–63; Castritius, Vandalen, pp. 76–8.

15. Courtois, Vandales, pp. 110, 170; Wickham, Inheritance of Rome, p. 77.

16. A. Schwarcz, ‘The settlement of the Vandals in North Africa’, in A. Merrills (ed.), Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa (Aldershot, 2004), pp. 49–57.

17. Courtois, Vandales, p. 173; A. Merrills, ‘Vandals, Romans and Berbers: understanding late antique North Africa’, in Merrills (ed.), Vandals, Romans and Berbers, pp. 4–5.

18. Merrills, ‘Vandals, Romans and Berbers’, pp. 10–11.

19. R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983), pp. 27–8; also Wickham, Inheritance of Rome, p. 78: ‘the Carthage-Rome tax spine ended’.

20. J. George, ‘Vandal poets in their context’, in Merrills (ed.), Vandals, Romans and Berbers, pp. 133–4; D. Bright, The Miniature Epic in Vandal North Africa (Norman, OK, 1987).

21. Merrills, ‘Vandals, Romans and Berbers’, p. 13.

22. Diesner, Vandalenreich, p. 125.

23. Courtois, Vandales, p. 208.

24. Ibid., p. 186.

25. Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire, p. 373.

26. Castritius, Vandalen, pp. 105–6.

27. Courtois, Vandales, pp. 186–93, 212.

28. Some authors reject the bubonic explanation; see W. Rosen, Justinian’s Flea: Plague, Empire and the Birth of Europe (London, 2007).

29. A. Laiou and C. Morrisson, The Byzantine Economy (Cambridge, 2007), p. 38; C. Morrisson and J.-P. Sodini, ‘The sixth-century economy’, in A. Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium from the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, 3 vols. (Washington, DC, 2002), vol. 1, p. 193.

30. C. Vita-Finzi, The Mediterranean Valleys: Geological Change in Historical Times (Cambridge, 1969); Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, pp. 57–9.

31. C. Delano Smith, Western Mediterranean Europe: a Historical Geography of Italy, Spain and Southern France since the Neolithic (London, 1979), pp. 328–92.

32. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 209; P. Arthur, Naples: from Roman Town to City-state (Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome, vol. 12, London, 2002), pp. 15, 35; H. Ahrweiler, Byzance et la mer (Paris, 1966), p. 411; J. Pryor and E. Jeffreys, The Age of the : the Byzantine Navy ca 500–1204 (Leiden, 2006).

33. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 173.

34. Arthur, Naples, p. 12.

35. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, pp. 173–4; G. D. R. Sanders, ‘Corinth’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, pp. 647–8.

36. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 28.

37. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, pp. 174, 190–91; C. Foss, Ephesus after Antiquity: a Late Antique, Byzantine and Turkish City (Cambridge, 1979); M. Kazanaki-Lappa, ‘Medieval Athens’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, pp. 639–41; Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 60.

38. W. Ashburner, The Rhodian Sea-law (Oxford, 1909).

39. C. Foss and J. Ayer Scott, ‘Sardis’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 615; K. Rheidt, ‘The urban economy of Pergamon’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 624.

40. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 38; J. W. Hayes, Late Roman Pottery (Supplementary Monograph of the British School at Rome, London, 1972) and Supplement to Late Roman Pottery (London, 1980); C. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800 (Oxford, 2005), pp. 720–28.

41. Arthur, Naples, p. 141; Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 191.

42. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 72.

43. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 211.

44. F. van Doorninck, Jr, ‘Byzantine shipwrecks’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 899; A. J. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces (British Archaeological Reports, International series, vol. 580, Oxford, 1992), no. 782, p. 301.

45. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks, no. 1001, pp. 372–3.

46. Van Doorninck, ‘Byzantine shipwrecks’, p. 899.

47. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks, no. 1239, pp. 454–5.

48. Van Doorninck, ‘Byzantine shipwrecks’, p. 899.

49. Parker, Ancient shipwrecks, no. 518, p. 217.

PART THREE
THE THIRD MEDITERRANEAN, 600–1350

1. Mediterranean Troughs, 600–900

  1. H. Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne (London, 1939) – cf. R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983); R. Latouche, The Birth of the Western Economy: Economic Aspects of the Dark Ages (London, 1961).

  2. M. McCormick, The Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce AD 300–900 (Cambridge, 2001), pp. 778–98.

  3. A. Laiou and C. Morrisson, The Byzantine Economy (Cambridge, 2007), p. 63.

  4. T. Khalidi, The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature (Cambridge, MA, 2001).

  5. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, pp. 68–9; D. Pringle, The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest (British Archaeological Reports, International series, vol. 99, Oxford, 1981); on Byzantine ships: J. Pryor and E. Jeffreys, The Age of the : The Byzantine Navy ca 500–1204 (Leiden, 2006).

  6. X. de Planhol, Minorités en Islam: géographie politique et sociale (Paris, 1997), pp. 95–107.

  7. S. Sand, The Invention of the Jewish People (London, 2009), pp. 202–7.

  8. Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne; A. Lewis, Naval Power and Trade in the Mediterranean A.D. 500–1100 (Princeton, NJ, 1951); McCormick, Origins, p. 118; P. Horden and N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: a Study of Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000), pp. 153–72 (p. 154 for ‘the merest trickle’); also C. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800 (Oxford, 2005), pp. 821–3.

  9. McCormick, Origins, p. 65; Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p. 164.

10. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p. 163.

11. Ibid., pp. 164–5; S. Loseby, ‘Marseille: a late Roman success story?’ Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 82 (1992), pp. 165–85.

12. E. Ashtor, ‘Aperçus sur les Radhanites’, Revue suisse d’histoire, vol. 27 (1977), pp. 245–75; Y. Rotman, Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World (Cambridge, MA, 2009), pp. 66–8, 74.

13. Cf. J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), p. 138.

14. M. Lombard, The Golden Age of Islam (Amsterdam, 1987), p. 212: Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, pp. 66–7.

15. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), p. 417.

16. McCormick, Origins, pp. 668, 675; Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, p. 73.

17. P. Sénac, Provence et piraterie sarrasine (Paris, 1982), p. 52.

18. Pryor, Geography, Technology, pp. 102–3.

19. J. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power: a Reassessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity (London, 1991), p. 113.

20. Ibid., pp. 114–15.

21. G. Musca, L’emirato di Bari, 847–871 (Bari, 1964); Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, p. 116.

22. Sénac, Provence et piraterie, pp. 35–48; J. Lacam, Les Sarrasins dans le haut moyen âge français (Paris, 1965).

23. Pryor and Jeffreys, Age of the , pp. 446–7.

24. J. Pryor, ‘Byzantium and the sea: Byzantine fleets and the history of the empire in the age of the Macedonian emperors, c.900–1025 CE’, in J. Hattendorf and R. Unger (eds.), War at Sea in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Woodbridge, 2003), pp. 83–104; Pryor and Jeffreys, Age of the , p. 354; Pryor, Geography, Technology, pp. 108–9.

25. Pryor and Jeffreys, Age of the , pp. 333–78.

26. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, p. 110.

27. McCormick, Origins, pp. 69–73, 559–60.

28. M. G. Bartoli, Il Dalmatico, ed. A. Duro (Rome, 2000).

29. F. C. Lane, Venice: a Maritime Republic (Baltimore, MD, 1973), pp. 3–4.

30. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, pp. 690, 732–3; McCormick, Origins, pp. 529–30.

31. Lane, Venice, pp. 4–5.

32. Sources in Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, pp. 195, nn. 88–94.

33. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, p. 690.

34. Lane, Venice, p. 4.

35. Cf. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, pp. 73, 75.

36. McCormick, Origins, pp. 361–9, 523–31.

37. P. Geary, Furta Sacra: Thefts of Relics in the Central Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ, 1978).

38. D. Howard, Venice and the East: the Impact of the Islamic World on Venetian Architecture 1100–1500 (New Haven, CT, 2000), pp. 65–7.

39. McCormick, Origins, pp. 433–8.

40. Cf. Lewis, Naval Power and Trade in the Mediterranean, pp. 45–6.

41. McCormick, Origins, pp. 436, 440, 816–51.

2. Crossing the Boundaries between Christendom and Islam, 900–1050

  1. S. Reif, A Jewish Archive from Old Cairo: the History of Cambridge University’s Genizah Collection (Richmond, Surrey, 2000), p. 2 and fig. 1, p. 3.

  2. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: the Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1, Economic Foundations (Berkeley, CA, 1967), p. 7; cf. the puzzling title of Reif’s Jewish Archive.

  3. S. Shaked, A Tentative Bibliography of Geniza Documents (Paris and The Hague, 1964).

  4. Reif, Jewish Archive, pp. 72–95.

  5. On Byzantium: J. Holo, Byzantine Jewry in the Mediterranean Economy (Cambridge, 2009).

  6. R. Patai, The Children of Noah: Jewish Seafaring in Ancient Times (Princeton, NJ, 1998), pp. 93–6; Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 280–81.

  7. Shaked, Tentative Bibliography, no. 337.

  8. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), pp. 421–3.

  9. Mercantile contacts: Holo, Byzantine Jewry, pp. 201–2.

10. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 429.

11. Shaked, Tentative Bibliography, nos. 22, 243 (wheat), 248, 254, 279, 281, 339, etc., etc.

12. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 229–48, 257–8.

13. S. Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy in the Cairo Geniza documents’, Archivio storico per la Sicilia orientale, vol. 67 (1971), p. 14.

14. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa’, p. 431; Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 102.

15. O. R. Constable, Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: the Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula 900–1500 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 91–2.

16. Ibid., p. 92.

17. Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, pp. 10, 14, 16.

18. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 111; Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, p. 31.

19. Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, pp. 20–23.

20. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 311–12, 314, 317, 325–6; Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, pp. 28–30.

21. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 315–16.

22. Ibid., pp. 319–22.

23. Reif, Jewish Archive, p. 167.

24. P. Arthur, Naples: from Roman Town to City-state (Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome, vol. 12, London, 2002), pp. 149–51.

25. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the medieval Mediterranean economy’, in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993), essay i, pp. 8–9; B. Kreutz, ‘The ecology of maritime success: the puzzling case of Amalfi’, Mediterranean Historical Review, vol. 3 (1988), pp. 103–13.

26. Kreutz, ‘Ecology’, p. 107.

27. M. del Treppo and A. Leone, Amalfi medioevale (Naples, 1977), the views being those of del Treppo.

28. G. Imperato, Amalfi e il suo commercio (Salerno, 1980), pp. 38, 44.

29. C. Wickham, Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society 400–1000 (London, 1981), p. 150; on Gaeta: P. Skinner, Family Power in Southern Italy: the Duchy of Gaeta and its Neighbours, 850–1139 (Cambridge, 1995), especially pp. 27–42 and p. 288.

30. Imperato, Amalfi, p. 71.

31. H. Willard, Abbot Desiderius of Montecassino and the Ties between Montecassino and Amalfi in the Eleventh Century (Miscellanea Cassinese, vol. 37, Montecassino, 1973).

32. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia’, p. 12.

33. Anna Komnene, Alexiad, 6:1.1.

34. J. Riley-Smith, The Knights of St John in Jerusalem and Cyprus, 1050–1310 (London, 1967), pp. 36–7.

35. C. Cahen, ‘Un texte peu connu relative au commerce orientale d’Amalfi au Xe siècle’, Archivio storico per le province napoletane, vol. 34 (1953–4), pp. 61–7.

36. A. Citarella, Il commercio di Amalfi nell’alto medioevo (Salerno, 1977).

3. The Great Sea-change, 1000–1100

  1. S. A. Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese, 958–1528 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), p. 14.

  2. Ibid., pp. 10–11 (with a rather more positive view of its harbour).

  3. Ibid., pp. 22–3.

  4. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the medieval Mediterranean economy’, in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993), essay i, p. 24.

  5. Ibid., pp. 25–6.

  6. J. Day, La Sardegna sotto la dominazione pisano-genovese (Turin, 1986; = J. Day, ‘La Sardegna e i suoi dominatori dal secolo XI al secolo XIV’, in J. Day, B. Anatra and L. Scaraffia, La Sardegna medioevale e moderna, Storia d’Italia UTET, ed. G. Galasso, Turin, 1984), pp. 3–186; F. Artizzu, L’Opera di S. Maria di Pisa e la Sardegna(Padua, 1974).

  7. Epstein, Genoa, pp. 33–6.

  8. Cf. A. Greif, Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade (Cambridge, 2006), p. 229; also L. R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (Berkeley, CA, 1949).

  9. Epstein, Genoa, pp. 19–22, 41; Greif, Institutions, p. 230.

10. G. Rösch, Venedig und das Reich: Handels- und Verkehrspolitische Beziehungen in der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Tübingen, 1982).

11. S. A. Epstein, Wills and Wealth in Medieval Genoa, 1150–1250 (Cambridge, MA, 1984).

12. D. Abulafia, The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 11–22.

13. Q. van Dosselaere, Commercial Agreements and Social Dynamics in Medieval Genoa (Cambridge, 2009).

14. D. Abulafia, ‘Gli italiani fuori d’Italia’, in Storia dell’economia italiana, ed. R. Romano (Turin, 1990), vol. 1, p. 268; repr. in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993); D. Nicol, Byzantium and Venice: a Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 33, 41.

15. Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 52.

16. H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘The Mahdia campaign of 1087’, English Historical Review, vol. 92 (1977), pp. 1–29, repr. in H. E. J. Cowdrey, Popes, Monks and Crusaders (London, 1984), essay xii.

17. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: the Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1, Economic Foundations (Berkeley, CA, 1967), pp. 196–200, 204–5.

18. Cowdrey, ‘Mahdia campaign’, p. 8.

19. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), pp. 464–5.

20. Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 40.

21. Cowdrey, ‘Mahdia campaign’, pp. 18, 22.

22. D. Abulafia, ‘The Pisan bacini and the medieval Mediterranean economy: a historian’s viewpoint’, Papers in Italian Archaeology, IV: the Cambridge Conference, part iv, Classical and Medieval Archaeology, ed. C. Malone and S. Stoddart (British Archaeological Reports, International Series, vol. 246, Oxford, 1985), pp. 290, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400(London, 1987), essay xiii.

23. Cowdrey, ‘Mahdia campaign’, p. 28, verse 68; also p. 21.

24. G. Berti, P. Torre et al., Arte islamica in Italia: i bacini delle chiese pisane (catalogue of an exhibition at the Museo Nazionale d’Arte Orientale, Rome; Pisa, 1983).

25. Abulafia, ‘Pisan bacini’, p. 289.

26. Ibid., pp. 290–91; J. Pryor and S. Bellabarba, ‘The medieval Muslim ships of the Pisan bacini’, Mariner’s Mirror, vol. 76 (1990), pp. 99–113; G. Berti, J. Pastor Quijada and G. Rosselló Bordoy, Naves andalusíes en cerámicas mallorquinas (Palma de Mallorca, 1993).

27. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 306.

28. Pastor Quijada in Naves andalusíes en cerámicas mallorquinas, pp. 24–5.

29. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 305–6.

30. D. Abulafia, ‘The Crown and the economy under Roger II and his successors’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 37 (1981), p. 12; repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean.

31. Anna Komnene, Alexiad, 3:12.

32. Ibid., 4:1–5:1.

33. R.-J. Lilie, Handel und Politik zwischen dem byzantinischen Reich und den italienischen Kommunen Venedig, Pisa und Genua in der Epoche der Komnenen und der Angeloi (1081–1204), (Amsterdam, 1984), pp. 9–16; Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 54–5; Abulafia, ‘Italiani fuori d’Italia’, pp. 268–9.

34. J. Holo, Byzantine Jewry in the Mediterranean Economy (Cambridge, 2009), pp. 183–6.

35. Abulafia, ‘Italiani fuori d’Italia’, p. 270.

36. D. Howard, Venice and the East: the Impact of the Islamic World on Venetian Architecture 1100–1500 (New Haven, CT, 2000), pp. 65–109.

4. ‘The Profit That God Shall Give’, 1100–1200

  1. For earlier plans, see H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Gregory VII’s crusading plans’, in Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem Presented to Joshua Prawer, ed. R. C. Smail, H. E. Mayer and B. Z. Kedar (Jerusalem, 1982), pp. 27–40, repr. in H. E. J. Cowdrey, Popes, Monks and Crusaders (London, 1984), essay x.

  2. J. Prawer, Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem, 2 vols. (Paris, 1969), vol. 1, pp. 177–238.

  3. S. A. Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese, 958–1528 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), pp. 28–9.

  4. Ibid., p. 29.

  5. L. Woolley, A Forgotten Kingdom (Harmondsworth, 1953), pp. 190–91, plate 23.

  6. M.-L. Favreau-Lilie, Die Italiener im Heiligen Land vom ersten Kreuzzug bis zum Tode Heinrichs von Champagne (1098–1197), (Amsterdam, 1989), pp. 43–8.

  7. Epstein, Genoa, p. 30.

  8. Prawer, Histoire, vol. 1, pp. 254, 257.

  9. Favreau-Lilie, Italiener im Heiligen Land, pp. 94–5.

10. R. Barber, The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief (London, 2004), p. 168.

11. Favreau-Lilie, Italiener im Heiligen Land, pp. 88–9, 106.

12. Epstein, Genoa, p. 32.

13. D. Abulafia, ‘Trade and crusade 1050–1250’, in Cultural Convergences in the Crusader Period, ed. M. Goodich, S. Menache and S. Schein (New York, 1995), pp. 10–11; repr. in D. Abulafia, Mediterranean Encounters: Economic, Religious, Political, 1100–1550 (Aldershot, 2000); J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571(Cambridge, 1988), pp. 122, 124.

14. Favreau-Lilie, Italiener im Heiligen Land, pp. 51–61; Prawer, Histoire, vol. 1, p. 258.

15. Abulafia, ‘Trade and crusade’, pp. 10–11.

16. Prawer, Histoire, vol. 1, pp. 258–9.

17. R. C. Smail, The Crusaders in Syria and the Holy Land (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1973), p. 17; R. C. Smail, Crusading Warfare (1097–1193), (Cambridge, 1956), pp. 94–6.

18. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, p. 115.

19. J. Prawer, Crusader Institutions (Oxford, 1980), pp. 221–6; J. Richard, Le royaume latin de Jérusalem (Paris, 1953), p. 218.

20. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 115–16.

21. R.-J. Lilie, Handel und Politik zwischen dem byzantinischen Reich und den italienischen Kommunen Venedig, Pisa und Genua in der Epoche der Komnenen und der Angeloi (1081–1204), (Amsterdam, 1984), pp. 17–22.

22. J. Holo, Byzantine Jewry in the Mediterranean Economy (Cambridge, 2009), pp. 183–6.

23. Abulafia, ‘Italiani fuori d’Italia’, pp. 207–10.

24. A. Citarella, Il commercio di Amalfi nell’alto medioevo (Salerno, 1977).

25. D. Abulafia, The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 59–61.

26. G. Imperato, Amalfi e il suo commercio (Salerno, 1980), pp. 179–235.

27. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the medieval Mediterranean economy’, in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993), essay i, pp. 10–14.

28. M. del Treppo and A. Leone, Amalfi medioevale (Naples, 1977).

29. J. Caskey, Art and Patronage in the Medieval Mediterranean: Merchant Culture in the Region of Amalfi (Cambridge, 2004).

30. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: the Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1, Economic Foundations (Berkeley, CA, 1967), pp. 18–19.

31. D. Corcos, ‘The nature of the Almohad rulers’ treatment of the Jews’, Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, vol. 2 (2010), pp. 259–85.

32. Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, ed. M. N. Adler (London, 1907), p. 5; Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 238.

33. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987) pp. 437–43; cf. the misconceptions in Holo, Byzantine Jewry, p. 203.

34. H. Rabie, The Financial System of Egypt,AH 564–741/AD 1169–1341 (London and Oxford, 1972), pp. 91–2.

35. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, p. 436.

36. C. Cahen, Makhzūmiyyāt: études sur l’histoire économique et financière de l’Égypte médiévale (Leiden, 1977).

37. C. Cahen, Orient et occident au temps des croisades (Paris, 1983), pp. 132–3, 176.

38. K.-H. Allmendinger, Die Beziehungen zwischen der Kommune Pisa und Ägypten im hohen Mittelalter: eine rechts- und wirtschaftshistorische Untersuchung (Wiesbaden, 1967), pp. 45–54; Cahen, Orient et occident, p. 125.

39. Cahen, Orient et occident, p. 131.

40. L. de Mas Latrie, Traités de paix et de commerce et documents divers concernant les relations des Chrétiens avec les arabes de l’Afrique septentrionale au Moyen Âge (Paris, 1966).

41. D. Abulafia, ‘Christian merchants in the Almohad cities’, Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, vol. 2 (2010), pp. 251–7; Corcos, ‘The nature of the Almohad rulers’ treatment of the Jews’, pp. 259–85.

42. O. R. Constable, Housing the Stranger in the Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade, and Travel in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 2003), p. 278.

43. Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 50–51.

44. D. O. Hughes, ‘Urban growth and family structure in medieval Genoa’, Past and Present, no. 66 (1975), pp. 3–28.

45. R. Heynen, Zur Entstehung des Kapitalismus in Venedig (Stuttgart, 1905); J. and F. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen: the Commercial Revolution, 1000–1500 (London, 1972), pp. 51–8.

46. D. Jacoby, ‘Byzantine trade with Egypt from the mid-tenth century to the Fourth Crusade’, Thesaurismata, vol. 30 (2000), pp. 25–77, repr. in D. Jacoby, Commercial Exchange across the Mediterranean: Byzantium, the Crusader Levant, Egypt and Italy (Aldershot, 2005), essay i.

47. D. Abulafia, ‘Ancona, Byzantium and the Adriatic, 1155–1173’, Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. 52 (1984), p. 208, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay ix.

48. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, pp. 57–8.

49. Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 237–54, showing he was not a Jew; cf. E. H. Byrne, ‘Easterners in Genoa’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 38 (1918), pp. 176–87; and V. Slessarev, ‘Die sogennanten Orientalen im mittelalterlichen Genua. Einwänderer aus Südfrankreich in der ligurischen Metropole’, Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, vol. 51 (1964), pp. 22–65.

50. Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 102–3, 240.

51. Ibid., p. 244.

52. Ibn Jubayr, The Travels of ibn Jubayr, trans. R. Broadhurst (London, 1952), pp. 358–9; Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 247–51 – in the Genoese documents he appears as ‘Caitus Bulcassem’.

5. Ways across the Sea, 1160–1185

  1. Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, ed. M. N. Adler (London, 1907); also The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, ed. M. Signer (Malibu, CA, 1983); references here are to the original Adler edition.

  2. J. Prawer, The History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Oxford, 1988), especially pp. 191–206.

  3. Benjamin of Tudela, Itinerary, p.

  4. Ibid., p. 2.

  5. Ibid., p. 3; cf. H. E. Mayer, Marseilles Levantehandel und ein akkonensisches Fälscheratelier des XIII. Jahrhunderts (Tübingen, 1972), pp. 62–5.

  6. Cf. M. Soifer, ‘ “You say that the Messiah has come …”: the Ceuta Disputation (1179) and its place in the Christian anti-Jewish polemics of the high Middle Ages’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 31 (2005), pp. 287–307.

  7. Benjamin of Tudela, Itinerary, p. 3.

  8. Ibid., p. 9.

  9. Ibid., pp. 14–15.

10. Ibid., pp. 17–18.

11. Ibid., p. 76, n. 1: twenty-eight groups in one MS, forty in another.

12. Ibid., pp. 75–6.

13. Ibn Jubayr, The Travels of ibn Jubayr, trans. R. Broadhurst (London, 1952).

14. Broadhurst, ibid., p. 15.

15. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, p. 26.

16. Ibid., p. 27.

17. Ibid., p. 28.

18. Roger of Howden, cited in J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), p. 37.

19. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 16–19, and p. 17, figs. 3a–b.

20. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, p. 29.

21. Ibid., pp. 346–7; also J. Riley-Smith, ‘Government in Latin Syria and the commercial privileges of foreign merchants’, in Relations between East and West in the Middle Ages, ed. D. Baker (Edinburgh, 1973), p. 112.

22. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, pp. 31–2.

23. Ibid., pp. 32–5.

24. Ibid., p. 316.

25. R. C. Smail, The Crusaders in Syria and the Holy Land (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1973), p. 75.

26. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, pp. 317–18.

27. Ibid., pp. 318, 320.

28. Usamah ibn Munqidh, Memoirs of an Arab-Syrian Gentleman or an Arab Knight in the Crusades, ed. and trans. P. Hitti (2nd edn, Beirut, 1964), p. 161.

29. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, pp. 320–22.

30. Ibid., pp. 325–8.

31. Koran, 27:44.

32. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, p. 328.

33. Ibid., p. 329.

34. Ibid., pp. 330–31.

35. Ibid., p. 332.

36. Ibid., p. 333.

37. Ibid., p. 334; Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, p. 36.

38. Ibn Jubayr, Travels, pp. 336–8.

39. Ibid., p. 339.

40. Ibid., pp. 353, 356.

41. Ibid., pp. 360–65.

42. H. Krueger, Navi e proprietà navale a Genova: seconda metà del secolo XII (= Atti della Società ligure di storia patria, vol. 25, fasc. 1, Genoa, 1985).

43. Ibid., pp. 148–9, 160–61.

44. J. Pryor and E. Jeffreys, The Age of the : the Byzantine Navy ca 500–1204 (Leiden, 2006), pp. 423–44.

45. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, p. 64; Krueger, Navi, p. 26.

46. Krueger, Navi, pp. 24–7.

47. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 29–32; R. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy, 600–1600 (London, 1980), pp. 123–7.

48. D. Abulafia, ‘Marseilles, Acre and the Mediterranean, 1200–1291’, in Coinage in the Latin East: the Fourth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History, ed. P. Edbury and D. M. Metcalf (British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, 1980), pp. 20–21, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay x.

49. Unger, Ship in the Medieval Economy, p. 126.

6. The Fall and Rise of Empires, 1130–1260

  1. Ibn Jubayr, The Travels of ibn Jubayr, trans. R. Broadhurst (London, 1952), p. 338; D. Abulafia, The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 116–19.

  2. D. Abulafia, ‘The Crown and the economy under Roger II and his successors’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 37 (1981), p. 12; repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay i.

  3. H. Wieruszowski, ‘Roger of Sicily, Rex-Tyrannus, in twelfth-century political thought’, Speculum, vol. 38 (1963), pp. 46–78, repr. in H. Wieruszowski, Politics and Culture in Medieval Spain and Italy (Rome, 1971).

  4. Niketas Choniates, cited in Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 81.

  5. D. Nicol, Byzantium and Venice: a Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations (Cambridge, 1988), p. 87.

  6. D. Abulafia, ‘The Norman Kingdom of Africa and the Norman expeditions to Majorca and the Muslim Mediterranean’, Anglo-Norman Studies, vol. 7 (1985), pp. 26–41, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay xii.

  7. Ibn al-Athir, in ibid., p. 34.

  8. Abulafia, ‘Norman Kingdom of Africa’, pp. 36–8.

  9. C. Dalli, Malta: the Medieval Millennium (Malta, 2006), pp. 66–79.

10. C. Stanton, ‘Norman naval power in the Mediterranean in the eleventh and twelfth centuries’ (Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge University, 2008).

11. L.-R. Ménager, Amiratus-’ : l’Émirat et les origines de l’Amirauté (Paris, 1960); L. Mott, Sea Power in the Medieval Mediterranean: the Catalan-Aragonese Fleet in the War of the Sicilian Vespers (Gainesville, FL, 2003), pp. 59–60.

12. Abulafia, ‘Norman Kingdom of Africa’, pp. 41–3.

13. Caffaro, in Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 97.

14. Cf. G. Day, Genoa’s Response to Byzantium, 1155–1204: Commercial Expansion and Factionalism in a Medieval City (Urbana, IL, 1988).

15. Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 90–98.

16. M. Mazzaoui, The Italian Cotton Industry in the Later Middle Ages, 1100–1600 (Cambridge, 1981).

17. Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 218; Dalli, Malta, p. 84.

18. See Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 255–6, 283–4; D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the medieval Mediterranean economy’, in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993), essay i, pp. 1–32; colonial economy: H. Bresc, Un monde méditerranéen: économie et société en Sicile, 1300–1450, 2 vols. (Rome and Palermo, 1986); another view in S. R. Epstein, An Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (Cambridge, 1992).

19. D. Abulafia, ‘Dalmatian Ragusa and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily’, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 54 (1976), pp. 412–28, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay x.

20. C. M. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West 1180–1204 (Cambridge, MA, 1968), pp. 41–2, 195–6.

21. Ibid., p. 161.

22. Eustathios of Thessalonika, The Capture of Thessaloniki, ed. and trans. J. R. Melville-Jones (Canberra, 1988).

23. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, p. 175.

24. G. Schlumberger, Les campagnes du roi Amaury I^er de Jérusalem en Égypte au XII^e siècle (Paris, 1906).

25. E. Sivan, L’Islam et la Croisade: idéologie et propagande dans les réactions musulmanes aux Croisades (Paris, 1968).

26. D. Abulafia, ‘Marseilles, Acre and the Mediterranean 1200–1291’, in Coinage in the Latin East: the Fourth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History, ed. P. Edbury and D. M. Metcalf (British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, 1980), p. 20, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay xv.

27. J. Prawer, Crusader Institutions (Oxford, 1980), pp. 230–37, 241.

28. R. C. Smail, The Crusaders in Syria and the Holy Land (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1973), pp. 74–5 (with map); M. Benvenisti, The Crusaders in the Holy Land (Jerusalem, 1970), pp. 97–102; Prawer, Crusader Institutions, pp. 229–41; P. Pierotti, Pisa e Accon: l’insediamento pisano nella città crociata. Il porto. Il fondaco (Pisa, 1987).

29. J. Riley-Smith, ‘Government in Latin Syria and the commercial privileges of foreign merchants’, in Relations between East and West in the Middle Ages, ed. D. Baker (Edinburgh, 1973), pp. 109–32.

30. C. Cahen, Orient et occident au temps des croisades (Paris, 1983), p. 139.

31. D. Abulafia, ‘Crocuses and crusaders: San Gimignano, Pisa and the kingdom of Jerusalem’, in Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem Presented to Joshua Prawer, ed. R. C. Smail, H. E. Mayer and B. Z. Kedar (Jerusalem, 1982), pp. 227–43, repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, essay xiv.

32. D. Abulafia, ‘Maometto e Carlo Magno: le due aree monetarie dell’oro e dell’argento’, Economia Naturale, Economia Monetaria, ed. R. Romano and U. Tucci, Storia d’Italia, Annali, vol. 6 (Turin, 1983), pp. 223–70.

33. Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 172–3, 190–92.

34. D. Abulafia, ‘Henry count of Malta and his Mediterranean activities: 1203–1230’, in Medieval Malta: Studies on Malta before the Knights, ed. A. Luttrell (London, 1975), p. 111, repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, essay iii.

35. Ibid., pp. 112–13.

36. Cited in ibid., pp. 113–14, nn. 43, 46.

37. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, p. 16.

38. Abulafia, ‘Henry count of Malta’, p. 106.

39. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, p. 209.

40. Ibid., pp. 210–11; Abulafia, ‘Henry count of Malta’, p. 108.

41. J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (London, 2004); J. Godfrey, 1204: the Unholy Crusade (Oxford, 1980); D. Queller and T. Madden, The Fourth Crusade: the Conquest of Constantinople (2^nd edn, Philadelphia, PA, 1997).

42. D. Howard, Venice and the East: the Impact of the Islamic World on Venetian Architecture 1100–1500 (New Haven, CT, 2000), pp. 103, 108.

43. J. Longnon, L’Empire latin de Constantinople et la principauté de Morée (Paris, 1949); D. Nicol, The Despotate of Epiros (Oxford, 1957); M. Angold, A Byzantine Government in Exile: Government and Society under the Laskarids of Nicaea (1204–1261) (Oxford, 1975).

44. Abulafia, ‘Henry count of Malta’, pp. 115–19.

45. S. McKee, Uncommon Dominion: Venetian Crete and the Myth of Ethnic Purity (Philadelphia, PA, 2000).

46. Howard, Venice and the East, p. 93.

47. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, p. 213.

48. Leonardo Fibonacci: il tempo, le opere, l’eredità scientifica, ed. M. Morelli and M. Tangheroni (Pisa, 1994).

49. C. Thouzellier, Hérésie et hérétiques: vaudois, cathares, patarins, albigeois (Paris, 1969).

7. Merchants, Mercenaries and Missionaries, 1220–1300

  1. D. Herlihy, Pisa in the Early Renaissance (New Haven, CT, 1958), pp. 131–3.

  2. D. Abulafia, The Western Mediterranean Kingdoms 1200–1500: the Struggle for Dominion (London, 1997), pp. 35–7.

  3. Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, ed. M. N. Adler (London, 1907), p. 2.

  4. S. Bensch, Barcelona and its Rulers, 1096–1291 (Cambridge, 1995).

  5. J.-E. Ruiz-Domènec, Ricard Guillem: un sogno per Barcellona, with an appendix of documents edited by R. Conde y Delgado de Molina (Naples, 1999); but cf. Bensch, Barcelona, pp. 85–121, 154–5.

  6. S. Orvietani Busch, Medieval Mediterranean Ports: the Catalan and Tuscan Coasts, 1100–1235 (Leiden, 2001).

  7. Abulafia, Western Mediterranean Kingdoms, p. 52.

  8. Bernat Desclot, Llibre del rey En Pere, in Les quatre grans cròniques, ed. F. Soldevila (Barcelona, 1971), chap. 14; D. Abulafia, A Mediterranean Emporium: the Catalan Kingdom of Majorca (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 7–8.

  9. James I, Llibre dels Feyts, in Les quatre grans cròniques, ed. F. Soldevila (Barcelona, 1971), chap. 47, cited here with modifications from the translation of J. Forster, Chronicle of James I of Aragon, 2 vols. (London, 1883); Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, p. 7.

10. James I, Llibre dels Feyts, chaps. 54, 56.

11. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 78–9, 65–8.

12. Ibid., pp. 56–64.

13. See A. Watson, Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: the Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700–1100 (Cambridge, 1983).

14. R. Burns and P. Chevedden, Negotiating Cultures: Bilingual Surrender Treaties on the Crusader-Muslim Frontier under James the Conqueror (Leiden, 1999).

15. L. Berner, ‘On the western shores: the Jews of Barcelona during the reign of Jaume I, “el Conqueridor”, 1213–1276’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1986).

16. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 78–9, 204–8; A. Hernando et al., Cartogràfia mallorquina (Barcelona, 1995).

17. R. Vose, Dominicans, Muslims and Jews in the Medieval Crown of Aragon (Cambridge, 2009).

18. R. Chazan, Barcelona and Beyond: the Disputation of 1263 and its Aftermath (Berkeley, CA, 1992).

19. Best edition: O. Limor, Die Disputationen zu Ceuta (1179) und Mallorca (1286): zwei antijüdische Schriften aus dem mittelalterlichen Genua (Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Munich, 1994), pp. 169–300.

20. H. Hames, Like Angels on Jacob’s Ladder: Abraham Abulafia, the Franciscans, and Joachimism (Albany, NY, 2007).

21. Ibid., pp. 33–4.

22. H. Hames, The Art of Conversion: Christianity and Kabbalah in the Thirteenth Century (Leiden, 2000); D. Urvoy, Penser l’Islam: les présupposés islamiques de l’“art” de Lull (Paris, 1980).

23. D. Abulafia, ‘The apostolic imperative: religious conversion in Llull’s Blaquerna’, in Religion, Text and Society in Medieval Spain and Northern Europe: Essays in Honour of J. N. Hillgarth, ed. L. Shopkow et al. (Toronto, 2002), pp. 105–21.

24. Ramon Llull, ‘Book of the Gentile and the three wise men’, in A. Bonner, Doctor Illuminatus: a Ramon Llull Reader (Princeton, NJ, 1993), p. 168.

25. ‘Vita coetanea’, in Bonner, Doctor Illuminatus, pp. 24–5, 28–30.

26. Bonner, Doctor Illuminatus, p. 43.

27. C.-E. Dufourcq, L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib au XIIIe et XIVe siècles (Paris, 1966), pp. 514–20.

28. D. Abulafia, ‘Catalan merchants and the western Mediterranean, 1236–1300: studies in the notarial acts of Barcelona and Sicily’, Viator: Medieval and Renaissance Studies, vol. 16 (1985), pp. 232–5, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay viii.

29. Ibid., pp. 235, 237.

30. Ibid., pp. 220–21.

31. A. Hibbert, ‘Catalan consulates in the thirteenth century’, Cambridge Historical Journal, vol. 9 (1949), pp. 352–8; Dufourcq, L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib, pp. 133–56.

32. J. Hillgarth, The Problem of a Catalan Mediterranean Empire 1229–1327 (English Historical Review, supplement no. 8, London, 1975), p. 41; A. Atiya, Egypt and Aragon (Leipzig, 1938), pp. 57–60.

33. Hillgarth, Problem, p. 41; J. Trenchs Odena, ‘De alexandrinis (el comercio prohibido con los musulmanes y el papado de Aviñón durante la primera mitad del siglo XIV)’, Anuario de estudios medievales, vol. 10 (1980), pp. 237–320.

34. Abulafia, ‘Catalan merchants’, p. 222.

35. Ibid., pp. 230–31.

36. J. Brodman, Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: the Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier (Philadelphia, PA, 1986); J. Rodriguez, Captives and Their Saviors in the Medieval Crown of Aragon (Washington, DC, 2007).

37. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 130–39.

38. Ibid., pp. 188–215; A. Ortega Villoslada, El reino de Mallorca y el mundo atlántico: evolución político-mercantil (1230–1349) (Madrid, 2008); also Dufourcq, L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib, pp. 208–37.

39. Abulafia, ‘Catalan merchants’, pp. 237–8.

40. N. Housley, The Later Crusades: from Lyons to Alcázar 1274–1580 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 7–17.

41. D. Abulafia, Frederick II: a Medieval Emperor (London, 1988), pp. 164–201.

42. Ibid., pp. 346–7.

43. G. Lesage, Marseille angevine (Paris, 1950).

44. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 240–45.

45. P. Xhufi, Dilemat e Arbërit: studime mbi Shqipërinë mesjetare (Tirana, 2006), pp. 89–172.

46. J. Pryor, ‘The galleys of Charles I of Anjou, king of Sicily, ca. 1269–1284’, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History, vol. 14 (1993), pp. 35–103.

47. L. Mott, Sea Power in the Medieval Mediterranean: the Catalan-Aragonese Fleet in the War of the Sicilian Vespers (Gainesville, FL, 2003), p. 15.

48. Abulafia, Western Mediterranean Kingdoms, pp. 66–76; S. Runciman, The Sicilian Vespers: a History of the Mediterranean World in the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, 1958).

49. H. Bresc, ‘1282: classes sociales et révolution nationale’, XI Congresso di storia della Corona d’Aragona (Palermo, 1983–4), vol. 2, pp. 241–58, repr. in H. Bresc, Politique et société en Sicile, XIIe-XVe siècles (Aldershot, 1990).

50. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy and the Florentine economy, 1265–1370’, Economic History Review, ser. 2, 33 (1981), pp. 377–88, repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, essay vi.

51. Abulafia, Western Mediterranean Kingdoms, pp. 107–71.

52. J. Pryor, ‘The naval battles of Roger de Lauria’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 9 (1983), pp. 179–216.

53. Mott, Sea Power, pp. 29–30.

54. Ibid., pp. 31–2.

55. From the chronicle of Bernat Desclot: see ibid., pp. 39–40.

56. Mott, Sea Power, pp. 33–4.

57. Abulafia, Mediterranean Emporium, pp. 10–12.

8. Serrata – Closing, 1291–1350

  1. S. Schein, Fideles Cruces: the Papacy, the West and the Recovery of the Holy Land, 1274–1314 (Oxford, 1991).

  2. A. Laiou, Constantinople and the Latins: the Foreign Policy of Andronicus II 1282–1328 (Cambridge, MA, 1972), pp. 68–76, 147–57.

  3. F. C. Lane, Venice: a Maritime Republic (Baltimore, MD, 1973), p. 84.

  4. D. Abulafia, ‘Sul commercio del grano siciliano nel tardo Duecento’, XI^o Congresso della Corona d’Aragona, 4 vols. (Palermo, 1983–4), vol. 2, pp. 5–22, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay vii.

  5. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy and the Florentine economy, 1265–1370’, Economic History Review, ser. 2, 33 (1981), pp. 377–88, repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, essay vi.

  6. G. Jehel, Aigues-mortes, un port pour un roi: les Capétiens et la Méditerranée (Roanne, 1985); K. Reyerson, Business, Banking and Finance in Medieval Montpellier (Toronto, 1985).

  7. P. Edbury, The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades 1191–1374 (Cambridge, 1991); very helpful studies in B. Arbel, Cyprus, the Franks and Venice, 13th–16th Centuries (Aldershot, 2000).

  8. D. Abulafia, ‘The Levant trade of the minor cities in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries: strengths and weaknesses’, in The Medieval Levant. Studies in Memory of Eliyahu Ashtor (1914–1984), ed. B. Z. Kedar and A. Udovitch, Asian and African Studies, vol. 22 (1988), pp. 183–202.

  9. P. Edbury, ‘The crusading policy of King Peter I of Cyprus, 1359–1369’, in P. Holt (ed.), The Eastern Mediterranean Lands in the Period of the Crusades (Warminster, 1977), pp. 90–105; Edbury, Kingdom of Cyprus, pp. 147–79.

10. R. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy, 600–1600 (London, 1980), pp. 176–9; J. Robson, ‘The Catalan fleet and Moorish sea-power (1337–1344)’, English Historical Review, vol. 74 (1959), p. 391.

11. Lane, Venice, p. 46.

12. D. Abulafia, ‘Venice and the kingdom of Naples in the last years of Robert the Wise, 1332–1343’, Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. 48 (1980), pp. 196–9.

13. S. Chojnacki, ‘In search of the Venetian patriciate: families and faction in the fourteenth century’, in Renaissance Venice, ed. J. R. Hale (London, 1973), pp. 47–90.

14. Another project involved an exchange with Albania: D. Abulafia, ‘The Aragonese Kingdom of Albania: an Angevin project of 1311–16’, Mediterranean Historical Review, vol. 10 (1995), pp. 1–13

15. M. Tangheroni, Aspetti del commercio dei cereali nei paesi della Corona d’Aragona, 1: La Sardegna (Pisa and Cagliari, 1981); C. Manca, Aspetti dell’espansione economica catalano-aragonese nel Mediterraneo occidentale: il commercio internazionale del sale (Milan, 1966); M. Tangheroni, Città dell’argento: Iglesias dalle origini alla fine del Medioevo (Naples, 1985).

16. F. C. Casula, La Sardegna aragonese, 2 vols. (Sassari, 1990–91); B. Pitzorno, Vita di Eleanora d’Arborea, principessa medioevale di Sardegna (Milan, 2010).

17. D. Abulafia, A Mediterranean Emporium: the Catalan Kingdom of Majorca (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 15–17, 54.

18. Ibid., pp. 14, 248.

19. L. Mott, Sea Power in the Medieval Mediterranean: the Catalan-Aragonese Fleet in the War of the Sicilian Vespers (Gainesville, FL, 2003), p. 216, table 2, and p. 217; J. Pryor, ‘The galleys of Charles I of Anjou, king of Sicily, ca. 1269–1284’, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History, vol. 14 (1993), p. 86.

20. Mott, Sea Power, pp. 211–24.

21. Tangheroni, Aspetti del commercio, pp. 72–8.

22. Robson, ‘Catalan fleet’, p. 386.

23. G. Hills, Rock of Contention: a History of Gibraltar (London, 1974), pp. 60–72; M. Harvey, Gibraltar: a History (2nd edn, Staplehurst, Kent, 2000), pp. 37–40.

24. Robson, ‘Catalan fleet’, pp. 389–91, 394, 398.

25. Harvey, Gibraltar, pp. 44–5.

26. J. Riley-Smith, The Knights of St John in Jerusalem and Cyprus, 1050–1310 (London, 1967), p. 225; Edbury, Kingdom of Cyprus, p. 123.

27. K. Setton, The Catalan Domination of Athens, 1311–1388 (2nd edn, London, 1975).

28. E. Zachariadou, Trade and Crusade: Venetian Crete and the Emirates of Menteshe and Aydın (1300–1415) (Venice, 1983), pp. 13–14.

29. Ibid., pp. 27–37.

30. N. Housley, The Later Crusades: from Lyons to Alcázar 1274–1580 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 59–60; Zachariadou, Trade and Crusade, pp. 49–51.

31. W. C. Jordan, The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1966); cf. D. Abulafia, ‘Un’economia in crisi? L’Europa alla vigilia della Peste Nera’, Archivio storico del Sannio, vol. 3 (1998), pp. 5–24.

32. O. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346–1353: the Complete History (Woodbridge, 2004), p. 281.

33. B. Kedar, Merchants in Crisis: Genoese and Venetian Men of Affairs and the Fourteenth-century Depression (New Haven, CT, 1976).

34. M. Dols, The Black Death in the Middle East (Princeton, NJ, 1977); Benedictow, Black Death, pp. 60–64, 69; for the view that it was not bubonic and pneumonic plague, see B. Gummer, The Scourging Angel: the Black Death in the British Isles (London, 2009).

35. S. Borsch, The Black Death in Egypt and England: a Comparative Study (Cairo, 2005), pp. 1–2.

36. Benedictow, Black Death, pp. 70–71, 93–4.

37. Ibid., pp. 77–82, 89–90, 278–81.

38. Ibid., pp. 82–3.

39. Ibid., pp. 65–6.

40. Ibid., pp. 380–84.

41. D. Abulafia, ‘Carestia, peste, economia’, Le epidemie nei secoli XIV–XVII (Nuova Scuola Medica Salernitana, Salerno, 2006).

42. S. R. Epstein, An Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (Cambridge, 1992).

PART FOUR
THE FOURTH MEDITERRANEAN, 1350–1830

1. Would-be Roman Emperors, 1350–1480

  1. D. Abulafia, A Mediterranean Emporium: the Catalan Kingdom of Majorca (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 217–21; F. Melis, Aspetti della vita economica medievale (studi nell’Archivio Datini di Prato) (Siena and Florence, 1962); I. Origo, The Merchant of Prato (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1963).

  2. Origo, Merchant of Prato, p. 128.

  3. I. Houssaye Michienzi, ‘Réseaux et stratégies marchandes: le commerce de la compagnie Datini avec le Maghrib (fin XIVe–début XVe siècle)’, (doctoral dissertation, European University Institute, Florence, 2010).

  4. Origo, Merchant of Prato, pp. 97–8.

  5. R. de Roover, The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank 1397–1494 (Cambridge, MA, 1963).

  6. B. Kedar, Merchants in Crisis: Genoese and Venetian Men of Affairs and the Fourteenth-century Depression (New Haven, CT, 1976), arguing that a supposed economic depression was matched by psychological depression among merchants.

  7. O. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346–1353: the Complete History (Woodbridge, 2004), pp. 118–33.

  8. F. C. Lane, Venice: a Maritime Republic (Baltimore, MD, 1973), pp. 176–9; S. A. Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese, 958–1528 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), pp. 220–21.

  9. Lane, Venice, p. 186; Epstein, Genoa, pp. 219–20.

10. S. McKee, Uncommon Dominion: Venetian Crete and the Myth of Ethnic Purity (Philadelphia, PA, 2000), pp. 145–61.

11. Lane, Venice, pp. 189–201; Epstein, Genoa, pp. 237–42.

12. Lane, Venice, p. 196.

13. Cf. Kedar, Merchants in Crisis.

14. Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia, ‘Inferno’, 21:7–15; Lane, Venice, p. 163.

15. Lane, Venice, pp. 122–3, 163–4; F. C. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders of the Renaissance (Baltimore, MD, 1934).

16. Lane, Venice, p. 120.

17. H. Prescott, Jerusalem Journey: Pilgrimage to the Holy Land in the Fifteenth Century (London, 1954); H. Prescott, Once to Sinai: the Further Pilgrimage of Friar Felix Fabri (London, 1957).

18. Petrarch’s Guide to the Holy Land: Itinerary to the Sepulcher of Our Lord Jesus Christ, ed. T. Cachey (Notre Dame, IN, 2002).

19. Cyriac of Ancona, Later Travels, ed. E. Bondar (Cambridge, MA, 2003); M. Belozerskaya, To Wake the Dead: a Renaissance Merchant and the Birth of Archaeology (New York, 2009); B. Ashmole, ‘Cyriac of Ancona’, in Art and Politics in Renaissance Italy, ed. G. Holmes (Oxford, 1993), pp. 41–57.

20. N. Z. Davis, Trickster Travels: a Sixteenth-century Muslim between Worlds (New York, 2006).

21. P. Corrao, Governare un regno: potere, società e istituzioni in Sicilia fra Trecento e Quattrocento (Naples, 1991).

22. J. Carbonell and F. Manconi (eds.), I Catalani in Sardegna (Milan, 1994); G. Goddard King, Pittura sarda del Quattro-Cinquecento (2nd edn, Nuoro, 2000).

23. A. Ryder, Alfonso the Magnanimous, King of Aragon, Naples, and Sicily, 1396–1458 (Oxford, 1990).

24. P. Stacey, Roman Monarchy and the Renaissance Prince (Cambridge, 2007).

25. J. Favier, Le roi René (Paris, 2009); M. Kekewich, The Good King: René of Anjou and Fifteenth-century Europe (Basingstoke, 2008).

26. W. Küchler, Die Finanzen der Krone Aragon während des 15. Jahrhunderts (Alfons V. und Johann II.) (Münster, 1983); L. Sánchez Aragonés, Cortes, monarquía y ciudades en Aragón, durante el reinado de Alfonso el Magnánimo (Saragossa, 1994).

27. A. Gallo, Commentarius de Genuensium maritima classe in Barchinonenses expedita, anno MCCCCLXVI, ed. C. Fossati (Fonti per la storia dell’Italia medievale, Rerum italicarum scriptores, ser. 3, vol. 8, Rome, 2010); and C. Fossati, Genovesi e Catalani: guerra sul mare. Relazione di Antonio Gallo (1466) (Genoa, 2008).

28. D. Abulafia, ‘From Tunis to Piombino: piracy and trade in the Tyrrhenian Sea, 1397–1472’, in The Experience of Crusading, vol. 2: Defining the Crusader Kingdom, ed. P. Edbury and J. Phillips (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 275–97.

29. D. Abulafia, ‘The mouse and the elephant: relations between the kings of Naples and the lordship of Piombino in the fifteenth century’, in J. Law and B. Paton (eds.), Communes and Despots: Essays in Memory of Philip Jones (Aldershot, 2010), pp. 145–60; G. Forte, Di Castiglione di Pescaia presidio aragonese dal 1447 al 1460 (Grosseto, 1935; also published in Bollettino della società storica maremmana, 1934–5).

30. M. Navarro Sorní, Calixto II Borja y Alfonso el Magnánimo frente a la cruzada (Valencia, 2003); cf. A. Ryder, ‘The eastern policy of Alfonso the Magnanimous’, Atti dell’Accademia Pontaniana, vol. 27 (1979), pp. 7–27.

31. D. Abulafia, ‘Scanderbeg: a hero and his reputation’, introduction to H. Hodgkinson, Scanderbeg (London, 1999), pp. ix–xv; O. J. Schmitt, Skënderbeu (Tirana, 2008; German edn: Skanderbeg: der neue Alexander auf dem Balkan, Regensburg, 2009); F. Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror and his Time, ed. W. Hickman (Princeton, NJ, 1979), pp. 390–96.

32. D. Duran i Duelt, Kastellórizo, una isla griega bajo dominio de Alfonso el Magnánimo (1450–1458), colección documental (Barcelona, 2003); C. Marinescu, La politique orientale d’Alfonse V d’Aragon, roi de Naples (1416–1458) (Institut d’Estudis Catalans, Memòries de la Secció Històrico-Arqueològica, vol. 46, Barcelona, 1994), pp. 203–34.

33. D. Abulafia, ‘Genoese, Turks and Catalans in the age of Mehmet II and Tirant lo Blanc’, in Quel mar che la terra inghirlanda. Studi sul Mediterraneo medievale in ricordo di Marco Tangheroni, 2 vols. (Pisa, 2007), vol. 1, pp. 49–58; English translations: C. R. La Fontaine, Tirant lo Blanc: the Complete Translation (New York, 1993), a full literal translation, and D. Rosenthal, trans. Tirant lo Blanc (London, 1984), an abridged version.

34. E. Aylward, Martorell’s Tirant lo Blanch: a Program for Military and Social Reform in Fifteenth-century Christendom (Chapel Hill, NC, 1985).

35. Tirant lo Blanc, chapter 99.

36. Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks by Doukas: an Annotated Translation of Historia Turco-Byzantina, ed. H. Magoulias (Detroit, 1976), chap. 38:5, p. 212.

37. H. İnalcık, The Ottoman Empire: the Classical Age 1300–1600 (London, 1973).

38. Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror, pp. 359–66.

39. P. Butorac, Kotor za samovlade (1355–1420) (Perast, 1999), pp. 75–115.

40. L. Malltezi, Qytetet e bregdetit shqiptar gjatë sundemit Venedikas (aspekte te jetës së tyre) (Tirana, 1988), pp. 229–41 (French summary); O. J. Schmitt, Das venezianische Albanien (1392–1479) (Munich, 2001).

41. L. Butler, The Siege of Rhodes 1480 (Order of St John Historical Pamphlets, no. 10, London, 1970), pp. 1–24; E. Brockman, The Two Sieges of Rhodes 1480–1522 (London, 1969); Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror, pp. 396–9.

42. Butler, Siege of Rhodes, pp. 11, 22.

43. H. Houben (ed.), La conquista turca di Otranto (1480) tra storia e mito, 2 vols. (Galatina, 2008); Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror, pp. 390–91, 395.

44. Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror, pp. 390–96.

45. C. Kidwell, ‘Venice, the French invasion and the Apulian ports’, in The French Descent into Renaissance Italy 1494–1495: Antecedents and Effects, ed. D. Abulafia (Aldershot, 1995), pp. 295–308.

46. Ibid., p. 300.

47. N. Bisaha, Creating East and West: Renaissance Humanism and the Ottoman Turks (Philadelphia, PA, 2004); R. Mack, Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300–1600 (Berkeley, CA, 2002).

48. C. Campbell, A. Chong, D. Howard and M. Rogers, Bellini and the East (National Gallery, London, 2006).

49. D. Abulafia, ‘Dalmatian Ragusa and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily’, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 54 (1976), pp. 412–28, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay x.

50. R. Harris, Dubrovnik: a History (London, 2003), pp. 58–63.

51. F. Carter, ‘Balkan exports through Dubrovnik 1358–1500: a geographical analysis’, Journal of Croatian Studies, vols. 9–10 (1968–9), pp. 133–59, repr. in F. Carter’s strange Dubrovnik (Ragusa): a Classic City-state (London, 1972), pp. 214–92, much of the rest of which is an unattributed reprint of L. Villari, The Republic of Ragusa(London, 1904).

52. B. Krekić, Dubrovnik (Raguse) et le Levant au Moyen Âge (Paris, 1961).

53. B. Krekić, ‘Four Florentine commercial companies in Dubrovnik (Ragusa) in the first half of the fourteenth century’, in The Medieval City, ed. D. Herlihy, H. Miskimin and A. Udovitch (New Haven, CT, 1977), pp. 25–41; D. Abulafia, ‘Grain traffic out of the Apulian ports on behalf of Lorenzo de’ Medici, 1486–7’, Karissime Gotifride: Historical Essays Presented to Professor Godfrey Wettinger on his Seventieth Birthday, ed. P. Xuereb (Malta, 1999), pp. 25–36, repr. in D. Abulafia, Mediterranean Encounters: Economic, Religious, Political, 1100–1550 (Aldershot, 2000), essay ix; M. Spremić, Dubrovnik i Aragonci (1442–1495) (Belgrade, 1971), p. 210.

54. Filip de Diversis, Opis slavnogo grada Dubrovnika, ed. Z. Janeković-Römer (Zagreb, 2004), p. 156; B. Krekić, Dubrovnik in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries: a City between East and West (Norman, OK, 1972), p. 35.

55. Spremić, Dubrovnik i Aragonci, pp. 207–11 (Italian summary).

56. B. Cotrugli, Il libro dell’arte di mercatura, ed. U. Tucci (Venice, 1990); B. Kotruljević, Knjiga o umijeću trgovanja (Zagreb, 2005); also, on winds, waves and navigation: B. Kotruljević, De Navigatione – O plovidbi, ed. D. Salopek (Zagreb, 2005).

57. Harris, Dubrovnik, pp. 88–90.

58. Ibid., pp. 93, 95; N. Biegman, The Turco-Ragusan Relationship according to the firmāns of Murād III (1575–1595) extant in the State Archives of Dubrovnik (The Hague and Paris, 1967).

2. Transformations in the West, 1391–1500

  1. N. Housley, The Later Crusades: from Lyons to Alcázar 1274–1580 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 196–7.

  2. J. Heers, Gênes au XVe siècle: civilisation méditerranéenne, grand capitalisme, et capitalisme populaire (Paris, 1971).

  3. E. Ashtor, ‘Levantine sugar industry in the late Middle Ages: a case of technological decline’, The Islamic Middle East, 700–1900, ed. A. L. Udovitch (Princeton, NJ, 1981), pp. 91–132.

  4. These include the Wallace Collection (London), the Hispanic Society of America (New York) and the Israel Museum (Jerusalem).

  5. D. Abulafia, ‘Sugar in Spain’, European Review, vol. 16 (2008), pp 191–210; M. Ouerfelli, Le sucre: production, commercialisation et usages dans la Méditerranée médiévale (Leiden, 2007).

  6. A. Fábregas Garcia, Producción y comercio de azúcar en el Mediterráneo medieval: el ejemplo del reino de Granada (Granada, 2000); J. Heers, ‘Le royaume de Grenade et la politique marchande de Gênes en Occident (XVe siècle)’, Le Moyen Âge, vol. 63 (1957), p. 109, repr. in J. Heers, Société et économie à Gênes (XIVe-XVe siècles)(London, 1979), essay vii; F. Melis, ‘Málaga nel sistema economico del XIV e XV secolo’, Economia e Storia, vol. 3 (1956), pp. 19–59, 139–63, repr. in F. Melis, Mercaderes italianos en España (investigaciones sobre su correspondencia y su contabilidad) (Seville, 1976), pp. 3–65; R. Salicrú i Lluch, ‘The Catalano-Aragonese commercial presence in the sultanate of Granada during the reign of Alfonso the Magnanimous’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 27 (2001), pp. 289–312.

  7. P. Russell, Prince Henry ‘the Navigator’: a Life (New Haven, CT, 2000), pp. 29–58.

  8. Ibid., pp. 182–93.

  9. B. Rogerson, The Last Crusaders: the Hundred-year Battle for the Centre of the World (London, 2009), especially pp. 399–422.

10. Luis Vaz de Camões, The Lusiads, trans. L. White (Oxford, 1997), canto 4:49, p. 86.

11. F. Themudo Barata, Navegação, comércio e relações políticas: os portugueses no Mediterrâneo Ocidental (1385–1466) (Lisbon, 1998); J. Heers, ‘L’expansion maritime portugaise à la fin du Moyen-Âge: la Méditerranée’, Actas do III Colóquio internacional de estudios luso-brasileiros, vol. 2 (Lisbon, 1960), pp. 138–47, repr. in Heers,Société et économie, essay iii.

12. R. Salicrú i Lluch, El tràfic de mercaderies a Barcelona segons els comptes de la Lleuda de Mediona (febrer de 1434) (Anuario de estudios medievales, annex no. 30, Barcelona, 1995).

13. D. Abulafia, ‘The Crown and the economy under Ferrante I of Naples (1458–94)’, in T. Dean and C. Wickham (eds.), City and Countryside in Late Medieval and Renaissance Italy: Essays Presented to Philip Jones (London, 1990), pp. 135, 140, repr. in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993).

14. A. Ruddock, Italian Merchants and Shipping in Southampton 1270–1600 (Southampton, 1951), pp. 173–7.

15. K. Reyerson, Jacques Coeur: Entrepreneur and King’s Bursar (New York, 2005), pp. 3, 90–91; J. Heers, Jacques Cœur 1400–1456 (Paris, 1997), taking a different view from M. Mollat, Jacques Cœur ou l’esprit de l’entreprise au XVe siècle (Paris, 1988) and C. Poulain, Jacques Cœur ou les rêves concrétisés (Paris, 1982).

16. Cited by Reyerson, Jacques Coeur, p. 87.

17. Ibid., pp. 90, 92, 162; Mollat, Jacques Cœur, pp. 168–80.

18. D. Lamelas, The Sale of Gibraltar in 1474 to the New Christians of Cordova, ed. S. Benady (Gibraltar and Grendon, Northants, 1992); M. Harvey, Gibraltar: a History (2nd edn, Staplehurst, Kent, 2000), pp. 48–53.

19. P. Wolff, ‘The 1391 pogrom in Spain: social crisis or not?’, Past & Present, no. 50 (1971), pp. 4–18.

20. C. Carrère, Barcelone: centre économique à l’époque des difficultés, 1380–1462, 2 vols. (Paris and The Hague, 1967); C. Batlle, Barcelona a mediados del siglo XV: historia de una crisis urbana (Barcelona, 1976).

21. J. M. Quadrado, Forenses y Ciudadanos (Biblioteca Balear, vol. 1, Palma de Mallorca, 1986, repr. of 2nd edn, Palma, 1895); plague: M. Barceló Crespi, Ciutat de Mallorca en el Trànsit a la Modernitat (Palma de Mallorca, 1988).

22. R. Piña Homs, El Consolat de Mar: Mallorca 1326–1800 (Palma de Mallorca, 1985); R. Smith, The Spanish Guild Merchant: a History of the Consulado, 1250–1700 (Durham, NC, 1972), pp. 3–33.

23. Classic negative views in: J. Elliott, Imperial Spain 1469–1714 (London, 1963), pp. 24, 30–31; P. Vilar, ‘Le declin catalan au bas Moyen Âge’, Estudios de Historia Moderna, vol. 6 (1956–9), pp. 1–68; J. Vicens Vives, An Economic History of Spain (Princeton, NJ, 1969), with relevant sections republished in R. Highfield (ed.), Spain in the Fifteenth Century 1369–1516 (London, 1972), pp. 31–57, 248–75.

24. A. P. Usher, The Early History of Deposit Banking in Mediterranean Europe (Cambridge, MA, 1943).

25. D. Coulon, Barcelone et le grand commerce d’Orient au Moyen Âge: un siècle de relations avec l’Égypte et la Syrie-Palestine, ca. 1330–ca. 1430 (Madrid and Barcelona, 2004).

26. M. del Treppo, I Mercanti Catalani e l’Espansione della Corona d’Aragona nel Secolo XV (Naples, 1972), figure facing p. 16; D. Pifarré Torres, El comerç internacional de Barcelona i el mar del Nord (Bruges) al final del segle XIV (Barcelona and Montserrat, 2002).

27. There were 154 voyages from Barcelona to Rhodes between 1390 and 1493: del Treppo, Mercanti Catalani, p. 59.

28. Del Treppo, Mercanti Catalani, pp. 211, 213, 231–44.

29. Abulafia, ‘The Crown and the economy under Ferrante’, pp. 142–3.

30. D. Abulafia, ‘L’economia mercantile nel Mediterraneo occidentale (1390ca.–1460ca.): commercio locale e a lunga distanza nell’età di Alfonso il Magnanimo’, Schola Salernitana. Dipartimento di Latinità e Medioevo, Università degli Studi di Salerno, Annali, vol. 2 (1997), pp. 28–30, repr. in D. Abulafia, Mediterranean Encounters: Economic, Religious, Political, 1100–1550 (Aldershot, 2000), essay viii; M. Zucchitello, El comerç maritime de Tossa a través del port barcelonì (1357–1553) (Quaderns d’estudis tossencs, Tossa de Mar, 1982).

31. H. Winter, Die katalanische Nao von 1450 nach dem Modell im Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik in Rotterdam (Burg bez. Magdeburg, 1956); Het Matarò-Model: een bijzondere Aanwist (Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik, Rotterdam, 1982).

32. Salicrú, Tràfic de mercaderies.

33. M. Peláez, Catalunya després de le Guerra Civil del segle XV (Barcelona, 1981), p. 140; cf. del Treppo, Mercanti catalani, pp. 586–7.

34. Peláez, Catalunya, pp. 145, 153–9.

35. P. Macaire, Majorque et le commerce international (1400–1450 environ) (Lille, 1986), pp. 81–91, 411; O. Vaquer Bennasar, El comerç marítim de Mallorca, 1448–1531 (Palma de Mallorca, 2001).

36. Elliott, Imperial Spain, p. 24; ‘gyroscope’ cited from E. Hamilton, Money, Prices and Wages in Valencia, Aragon and Navarre 1351–1500 (Cambridge, MA, 1936), pp. 55–9.

37. S. Jados (ed. and trans.), Consulate of the Sea and Related Documents (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1975), pp. 3–18; Smith, Spanish Guild Merchant, pp. 20–25.

38. Jados, Consulate of the Sea, p. 38; also pp. 35–8, 54–7, 204–8.

39. Ibid., pp. 56–7; O. R. Constable, ‘The problem of jettison in medieval Mediterranean maritime law’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 20 (1994), pp. 207–20.

40. Jados, Consulate of the Sea, pp. 65, 68–9.

41. Ibid., pp. 135–7; on ceramics: Valenza-Napoli: rotte mediterranee della ceramica/València-Nàpols; les rutes mediterrànies de la ceramica (Valencia, 1997).

42. Jados, Consulate of the Sea, p. 79.

43. M. Teresa Ferrer i Mallol, ‘Els italians a terres catalanes (segles XII–XV)’, Anuario de Estudios Medievales, vol. 19 (1980), pp. 393–467.

44. J. Guiral-Hadziiossif, Valence, port méditerranéen au XVe siècle (1410–1525) (Publications de la Sorbonne, Paris, 1986), pp. 281–6; D. Igual Luis, Valencia y Italia en el siglo XV: rutas, mercados y hombres de negocios en el espacio económico del Mediterráneo occidental (Bancaixa Fundació Caixa Castelló, Castellón, 1998).

45. P. Iradiel, ‘Valencia y la expansión económica de la Corona de Aragón’, in D. Abulafia and B. Garí (eds.), En las costas del Mediterráneo occidental: las ciudades de la Peninsula Ibérica y del reino de Mallorca y el comercio mediterráneo en la Edad Media (Barcelona, 1997), pp. 155–69; E. Cruselles, Los mercaderes de Valencia en la Edad Media, 1380–1450 (Lleidà, 2001); E. Cruselles, Los comerciantes valencianos del siglo XV y sus libros de cuentas (Castelló de la Plana, 2007).

46. See the studies by P. Mainoni, V. Mora, C. Verlinden collected in A. Furió (ed.), València, mercat medieval (Valencia, 1985), pp. 83–156, 159–73, 267–75.

47. E.g. Gentino Abulafia: G. Romestan, ‘Els mercaders llenguadocians en el regne de València durant la primera meitat del segle XIV’, in Furió, València, p. 217.

48. Salicrú, ‘Catalano-Aragonese commercial presence’, pp. 289–312.

49. E. Belenguer Cebrià, València en la crisi del segle XV (Barcelona, 1976).

50. S. R. Epstein, An Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (Cambridge, 1992); C. Zedda, Cagliari: un porto commerciale nel Mediterraneo del Quattrocento (Naples, 2001).

51. O. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346–1353: the Complete History (Woodbridge, 2004), p. 281.

52. Wolff, ‘1391 pogrom’, pp. 4–18.

53. H. Maccoby, Judaism on Trial: Jewish-Christian Disputations in the Middle Ages (Rutherford, NJ, 1982), pp. 168–215.

54. A. Y. d’Abrera, The Tribunal of Zaragoza and Crypto-Judaism, 1484–1515 (Turnhout, 2008).

55. R. Conde y Delgado de Molina, La Expulsión de los Judíos de la Corona de Aragón: documentos para su estudio (Saragossa, 1991), doc. §1, pp. 41–4.

56. Samuel Usque, Consolation for the Tribulations of Israel (Consolaçam as Tribulaçoens de Israel), ed. M. Cohen (Philadelphia, PA, 1964); Joseph Hacohen and the Anonymous Corrector, The Vale of Tears (Emek Habacha), ed. H. May (The Hague, 1971).

57. G. N. Zazzu, Sepharad addio – 1492: I profughi ebrei della Spagna al ‘ghetto’ di Genova (Genoa, 1991).

58. N. Zeldes, ‘Sefardi and Sicilian exiles in the Kingdom of Naples: settlement, community formation and crisis’, Hispania Judaica Bulletin, vol. 6 (5769/2008), pp. 237–66; D. Abulafia, ‘Aragonese kings of Naples and the Jews’, in B. Garvin and B. Cooperman (eds.), The Jews of Italy: Memory and Identity (Bethesda, MD, 2000), pp. 82–106.

59. D. Abulafia, ‘Insediamenti, diaspora e tradizione ebraica: gli Ebrei del Regno di Napoli da Ferdinando il Cattolico a Carlo V’, Convegno internazionale Carlo V, Napoli e il Mediterraneo = Archivio storico per le province napoletane, vol. 119 (2001), pp. 171–200.

60. Cited in M. Mazower, Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430–1950 (London, 2004), p. 48; Maranes signifies ‘Marranos’, a term more often used for conversos.

61. A. David, To Come to the Land: Immigration and Settlement in Sixteenth-century Eretz-Israel (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1999).

62. T. Glick, Irrigation and Society in Medieval Valencia (Cambridge, MA, 1970).

63. L. P. Harvey, Islamic Spain 1250 to 1500 (Chicago, 1990).

64. M. Meyerson, The Muslims of Valencia in the Age of Fernando and Isabel: between Coexistence and Crusade (Berkeley, CA, 1991); L. P. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614 (Chicago, IL, 2005).

65. J.-E. Ruiz-Domènec, El Gran Capitán: retrato de una época (Barcelona, 2002); C. J. Hernando Sánchez, El Reino de Nápoles en el imperio de Carlos V: la consolidación de la conquista (Madrid, 2001); D. Abulafia, ‘Ferdinand the Catholic and the kingdom of Naples’, in Italy and the European Powers: the Impact of War, 1503–1530, ed. Christine Shaw (Leiden, 2006), pp. 129–58; F. Baumgartner, Louis XII (Stroud, 1994).

66. J. M. Doussinague, La política internacional de Fernando el Católico (Madrid, 1944), pp. 91–106.

67. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, CT, 2008); M. A. Ladero Quesada, El primer oro de América: los comienzos de la Casa de la Contratación de las Yndias, 1503–1511 (Madrid, 2002).

68. A. Hess, The Forgotten Frontier: a History of the Sixteenth-century Ibero-African Frontier (Chicago, IL, 1978), pp. 37–42; Doussinague, Política internacional, pp. 194–209, 212–28, 346–52; R. Gutiérrez Cruz, Los presidios españoles del Norte de África en tiempo de los Reyes Católicos (Melilla, 1998).

69. R. Ríos Lloret, Germana de Foix, una mujer, una reina, una corte (Valencia, 2003).

70. B. Aram, Juana the Mad: Sovereignty and Dynasty in Renaissance Europe (Baltimore, MD, 2005).

71. T. Dandelet and J. Marino (eds.), Spain in Italy: Politics, Society, and Religion, 1500–1700 (Leiden, 2007); T. Dandelet, Spanish Rome, 1500–1700 (New Haven, CT, 2001).

3. Holy Leagues and Unholy Alliances, 1500–1550

  1. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, CT, 2008), pp. 33–44, 82–6.

  2. D. Blumenthal, Enemies and Familiars: Slavery and Mastery in Fifteenth-century Valencia (Ithaca, NY, 2009).

  3. B. Pullan (ed.), Crisis and Change in the Venetian Economy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (London, 1968).

  4. F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. S. Reynolds, 2 vols. (London, 1972–3), vol. 2, p. 880 dates the phenomenon too late.

  5. J. Heers, The Barbary Corsairs: Warfare in the Mediterranean, 1480–1580 (London, 2003); G. Fisher, Barbary Legend: Trade and Piracy in North Africa 1415–1830 (Oxford, 1957); also J. Wolf, The Barbary Coast: Algiers under the Turks, 1500 to 1830 (New York, 1979).

  6. P. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery (Albany, NY, 1994), pp. 123–41.

  7. Lively accounts in R. Crowley, Empires of the Sea: the Final Battle for the Mediterranean 1521–1580 (London, 2008), pp. 11–27; and B. Rogerson, The Last Crusaders: the Hundred-year Battle for the Centre of the World (London, 2009), pp. 261–5.

  8. A. Hess, The Forgotten Frontier: a History of the Sixteenth-century Ibero-African Frontier (Chicago, IL, 1978), pp. 21, 42, 75–6.

  9. Ö. Kumrular, El Duelo entre Carlos V y Solimán el Magnífico (1520–1535) (Istanbul, 2005), p. 126.

10. M. Özen, Pirî Reis and his Charts (2nd edn, Istanbul, 2006), pp. 4, 8–9.

11. Fisher, Barbary Legend, p. 42; Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 61; Özen, Pirî Reis, p. 4; Rogerson, Last Crusaders, p. 156.

12. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 63; Rogerson, Last Crusaders, pp. 160–63; Hess, Forgotten Frontier, pp. 63–4.

13. R. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 (Basingstoke, 2003); Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 34.

14. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, pp. 64–5.

15. Kumrular, El Duelo, p. 119; also Ö. Kumrular, Las Relaciones entre el Imperio Otomano y la Monarquía Católica entre los Años 1520–1535 y el Papel de los Estados Satellites (Istanbul, 2003).

16. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 68.

17. Ibid., pp. 70–71.

18. Kumrular, El Duelo, p. 119.

19. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 71.

20. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 63.

21. Wolf, Barbary Coast, p. 20 (1535).

22. P. Lingua, Andrea Doria: Principe e Pirata nell’Italia del ’500 (Genoa, 2006).

23. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 49; Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 69.

24. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 55; Rogerson, Last Crusaders, p. 288.

25. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 69.

26. Lingua, Andrea Doria, pp. 94–101.

27. Wolf, Barbary Coast, p. 20.

28. D. Abulafia, ‘La politica italiana della monarchia francese da Carlo VIII a Francesco I’, in El reino de Nápoles y la monarquía de España: entre agregación y conquista, ed. G. Galasso and C. Hernando Sánchez (Madrid, 2004).

29. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, pp. 73–4.

30. R. Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron: the Reign of Francis I (Cambridge, 1994), p. 296; J. Luis Castellano, ‘Estudio preliminar’, in J. Sánchez Montes, Franceses, Protestantes, Turcos: los Españoles ante la política internacional de Carlos V (2nd edn, Granada, 1995), pp. ix–xlvi.

31. Heers, Barbary Corsairs, p. 73.

32. Hess, Forgotten Frontier, p. 73; Sánchez Montes, Franceses, Protestantes, Turcos, p. 52.

33. Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, pp. 296, 299, 329.

34. Ibid., p. 489; Heers, Barbary Corsairs, pp. 83–90; Hess, Forgotten Frontier, p. 75.

35. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 89–121.

36. Ibid., pp. 131–41.

37. G. Hanlon, The Twilight of a Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats and European Conflicts, 1560–1800 (London, 1998), pp. 29–30; D. Goodman, Spanish Naval Power, 1589–1665: Reconstruction and Defeat (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 13, 132.

38. J. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the 16th Century (2nd edn, London, 2003), pp. 245–7.

39. N. Capponi, Victory of the West: the Story of the Battle of Lepanto (London, 2006), pp. 179–81; Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 209–34; H. Bicheno, Crescent and Cross: the Battle of Lepanto 1571 (London, 2003), p. 73 (plan of galley).

40. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 183–4.

41. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 78–9, 211–20; J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), p. 85.

42. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 125–6.

43. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 198–9.

44. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters, pp. 42–3 (renegades), 115–29 (bagni).

45. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 237–9.

4. Akdeniz – the Battle for the White Sea, 1550–1571

  1. F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. S. Reynolds, 2 vols. (London, 1972–3), vol. 2, pp. 919–20.

  2. J. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the 16th Century (2nd edn, London, 2003), p. 143.

  3. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, pp. 973–87.

  4. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 137–47.

  5. E. Bradford, The Great Siege: Malta 1565 (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1964), p. 14.

  6. A. Cassola, ‘The Great Siege of Malta (1565) and the Istanbul State Archives’, in A. Cassola, I. Bostan and T. Scheben, The 1565 Ottoman /Malta Campaign Register (Malta, 1998), p. 19.

  7. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, pp. 1014–17.

  8. R. Crowley, Empires of the Sea: the Final Battle for the Mediterranean 1521–1580 (London, 2008), p. 114.

  9. F. Balbi di Correggio, The Siege of Malta 1565, trans. E. Bradford (London, 1965), pp. 51–3.

10. Ibid., pp. 55, 61–4.

11. Ibid., p. 91.

12. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, p. 1018; Crowley, Empires of the Sea, pp. 155–6, 165–6.

13. Balbi, Siege of Malta, pp. 145–7, 149–50; Crowley, Empires of the Sea, pp. 176–7.

14. Balbi, Siege of Malta, p. 182.

15. Ibid., p. 187.

16. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, p. 1020.

17. D. Hurtado de Mendoza, The War in Granada, trans. M. Shuttleworth (London, 1982), p. 58.

18. R. Cavaliero, The Last of the Crusaders: the Knights of St John and Malta in the Eighteenth Century (2nd edn, London, 2009), p. 23.

19. J. Abela, ‘Port Activities in Sixteenth-century Malta’ (MA thesis, University of Malta), pp. 151–2, 155.

20. Ibid., pp. 161, 163.

21. G. Wettinger, Slavery in the Islands of Malta and Gozo (Malta, 2002).

22. Abela, ‘Port Activities’, pp. 104, 114, 122, 139–42.

23. P. Earle, ‘The commercial development of Ancona, 1479–1551’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., vol. 22 (1969), pp. 28–44.

24. E. Ashtor, ‘Il commercio levantino di Ancona nel basso medioevo’, Rivista storica italiana, vol. 88 (1976), pp. 213–53.

25. R. Harris, Dubrovnik: a History (London, 2003), p. 162.

26. F. Tabak, The Waning of the Mediterranean 1550–1870: a Geohistorical Approach (Baltimore, MD, 2008), p. 127.

27. Earle, ‘Commercial development of Ancona’, pp. 35–7; M. Aymard, Venise, Raguse et le commerce du blé pendant la second moitié du XVIe siècle (Paris, 1966).

28. Earle, ‘Commercial development of Ancona’, p. 40.

29. V. Kostić, Dubrovnik i Engleska 1300–1650 (Belgrade, 1975).

30. Harris, Dubrovnik, pp. 163–4; F. Carter, ‘The commerce of the Dubrovnik Republic, 1500–1700’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., vol. 24 (1971), p. 390.

31. V. Miović, The Jewish Ghetto in the Dubrovnik Republic (1546–1808) (Zagreb and Dubrovnik, 2005).

32. Harris, Dubrovnik, pp. 252–60, 271–84.

33. Carter, ‘Commerce of the Dubrovnik Republic’, pp. 369–94; repr. in his unsatisfactory Dubrovnik (Ragusa): a Classic City-state (London, 1972), pp. 349–404; Harris, Dubrovnik, p. 160.

34. Carter, ‘Commerce of the Dubrovnik Republic’, pp. 386–7.

35. Harris, Dubrovnik, p. 270.

36. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 1, pp. 284–90.

37. Ibid., p. 285.

38. Harris, Dubrovnik, p. 172.

39. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 1, pp. 286–7; A. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice 1580–1615 (London, 1967), pp. 3–15.

40. Tabak, Waning of the Mediterranean, pp. 173–85.

41. E. Hamilton, American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 (Cambridge, MA, 1934).

42. J. Amelang, Honored Citizens of Barcelona: Patrician Culture and Class Relations, 1490–1714 (Princeton, NJ, 1986), pp. 13–14; A. García Espuche, Un siglo decisivo: Barcelona y Cataluña 1550–1640 (Madrid, 1998), generally, and pp. 62–8 for French settlers.

43. A. Musi, I mercanti genovesi nel Regno di Napoli (Naples, 1996); G. Brancaccio, ‘Nazione genovese’: consoli e colonia nella Napoli moderna (Naples, 2001), pp. 43–74.

44. R. Carande, Carlos V y sus banqueros, 3 vols. (4th edn, Barcelona, 1990); R. Canosa, Banchieri genovesi e sovrani spagnoli tra Cinquecento e Seicento (Rome, 1998); Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 1, pp. 500–504.

45. C. Roth, Doña Gracia of the House of Nasi (Philadelphia, PA, 1948), pp. 21–49.

46. M. Lazar (ed.), The Ladino Bible of Ferrara (Culver City, CA, 1992); Roth, Doña Gracia, pp. 73–4.

47. Miović, Jewish Ghetto, p. 27.

48. Roth, Doña Gracia, pp. 138–46, 150–51.

49. Ibid., pp. 154–8.

50. D. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire 1492–1640 (Oxford and New York, 2007).

51. C. Roth, The House of Nasi: the Duke of Naxos (Philadelphia, PA, 1948), pp. 39–40.

52. Ibid., pp. 46–7.

53. Ibid., pp. 75–137.

54. J. ha-Cohen, The Vale of Tears, cited ibid., p. 137.

55. Roth, Duke of Naxos, p. 128.

56. Under the leadership of Haim Abulafia: J. Barnai, The Jews of Palestine in the Eighteenth Century under the Patronage of the Committee of Officials for Palestine (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1992), pp. 152–3.

57. Roth, Duke of Naxos, pp. 62–74.

58. Ibid., pp. 138–42; N. Capponi, Victory of the West: the Story of the Battle of Lepanto (London, 2006), p. 127.

59. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 119–23.

60. Ibid., pp. 121, 124–5.

61. Ibid., pp. 128–30.

62. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, p. 1105.

63. Capponi, Victory of the West, p. 137; A. Gazioğlu, The Turks in Cyprus: a Province of the Ottoman Empire (1571–1878) (London and Nicosia, 1990), pp. 28–35.

64. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 150–54; Gazioğlu, Turks in Cyprus, pp. 36–48.

65. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 160–61.

66. Ibid., p. 170.

67. Ibid., pp. 229–31.

68. H. Bicheno, Crescent and Cross: the Battle of Lepanto 1571 (London, 2003), p. 208; Gazioğlu, Turks in Cyprus, pp. 61–6.

69. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 233–6.

70. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, p. 252.

71. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 263–4; Bicheno, Crescent and Cross, pp. 300–308.

72. Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 259–60; Bicheno, Crescent and Cross, pp. 252, 260 (plan of deployment and opening stages).

73. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 253, 255, 257.

74. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 272.

75. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 158–60.

76. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, p. 279.

77. Capponi, Victory of the West, p. 256.

78. Ibid., pp. 268–71; Bicheno, Crescent and Cross, p. 263.

79. Crowley, Empires of the Sea, pp. 284–5.

80. Capponi, Victory of the West, p. 279.

81. Bicheno, Crescent and Cross, pp. 319–21; Capponi, Victory of the West, pp. 289–91.

82. Bicheno, Crescent and Cross, plates 6a, 6b, 7.

83. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 247–8.

84. Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 2, p. 1103.

85. Ibid., pp. 1088–9.

5. Interlopers in the Mediterranean, 1571–1650

  1. G. Hanlon, The Twilight of a Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats and European Conflicts, 1560–1800 (London, 1998), pp. 26–7.

  2. D. Hurtado de Mendoza, The War in Granada, trans. M. Shuttleworth (London, 1982), p. 259.

  3. B. Rogerson, The Last Crusaders: the Hundred-year Battle for the Centre of the World (London, 2009), pp. 399–422.

  4. G. Botero, The Reason of State, trans. D. and P. Waley (London, 1956), p. 12; D. Goodman, Spanish Naval Power, 1589–1665: Reconstruction and Defeat (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 9–10.

  5. C. W. Bracewell, The Uskoks of Senj: Piracy, Banditry, and Holy War in the Sixteenth-century Adriatic (Ithaca, NY, 1992), p. 8; A. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice 1580–1615 (London, 1967), pp. 3–15.

  6. E. Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels (Manchester, 1959), and Bandits (London, 1969); cf. T. Judt, Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century (London, 2008); Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, pp. 10–11.

  7. Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, pp. 51–2, 56–62, 67–8, 72–4.

  8. Ibid., p. 70, n. 43 (1558).

  9. Venetian report cited in ibid., p. 83.

10. Bracewell, The Uskoks of Senj, p. 2; Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 3.

11. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 6.

12. Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, p. 8; Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 8.

13. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 10.

14. Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, pp. 63–4; Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 10.

15. Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, pp. 103–4; Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 8.

16. Bracewell, Uskoks of Senj, pp. 202–3.

17. Ibid., pp. 210, n. 109, 211–12.

18. E. Dursteler, Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean (Baltimore, MD, 2006), p. 24.

19. B. Pullan, The Jews of Europe and the Inquisition of Venice, 1550–1670 (Oxford, 1983), especially pp. 201–312; R. Calimani, The Ghetto of Venice (New York, 1987).

20. D. Geanakoplos, Byzantine East and Latin West: Two Worlds of Christendom in Middle Ages and Renaissance, Studies in Ecclesiastical and Cultural History (Oxford, 1966).

21. E.g. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 56; cf. R. Rapp, ‘The unmaking of the Mediterranean trade hegemony: international trade rivalry and the commercial revolution’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 35 (1975), pp. 499–525.

22. F. C. Lane, Venice: a Maritime Republic (Baltimore, MD, 1973), pp. 309–10.

23. M. Greene, ‘Beyond northern invasions: the Mediterranean in the seventeenth century’, Past and Present, no. 174 (2002), pp. 40–72.

24. J. Mather, Pashas: Traders and Travellers in the Islamic World (New Haven, CT, 2009), pp. 28–32; M. Fusaro, Uva passa: una guerra commerciale tra Venezia e l’Inghilterra (1540–1640) (Venice, 1996), pp. 23–4.

25. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, pp. 59–60.

26. T. S. Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade (Manchester, 1959), pp. 92–312.

27. Fusaro, Uva passa, p. 24.

28. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, pp. 60, 72.

29. Rapp, ‘Unmaking of the Mediterranean trade hegemony’, pp. 509–12.

30. Fusaro, Uva passa, pp. 25–6, 48–55; Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, p. 61.

31. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, pp. 74–5.

32. Ibid., pp. 77–8; C. Lloyd, English Corsairs on the Barbary Coast (London, 1981), pp. 48–53; A. Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary: Corsairs, Conquests and Captivity in the Seventeenth-century Mediterranean (London, 2010), pp. 19–25, 30–42.

33. Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, pp. 63–4.

34. Ibid., pp. 64–5, 70–71, 74, 85, 138–43.

35. Ibid., p. 82.

36. J. Baltharpe, The Straights Voyage or St David’s Poem, ed. J. S. Bromley (Luttrell Society, Oxford, 1959), pp. 35, 45, 58–9, 68–9; N. A. M. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: a Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 (London, 2004), pp. 132–3.

37. Rodger, Command of the Ocean, p. 486.

38. M.-C. Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, Seamen and Corsairs: the ‘Flemish’ Community in Livorno and Genoa (1615–1635) (Hilversum, 1997), pp. 47–50.

39. Rapp, ‘Unmaking of the Mediterranean trade hegemony’, pp. 500–502.

40. Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, pp. 50–51.

41. S. Siegmund, The Medici State and the Ghetto of Florence: the Construction of an Early Modern Jewish Community (Stanford, CA, 2006).

42. F. Trivellato, The Familiarity of Strangers: the Sephardic Diaspora, Livorno, and Cross Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period (New Haven, CT, 2009), p. 74; L. Frattarelli Fischer, ‘La città medicea’, in O. Vaccari et al., Storia illustrata di Livorno (Pisa, 2006), pp. 57–109; more generally: D. Calabi, La città del primo Rinascimento (Bari and Rome, 2001).

43. F. Braudel and R. Romano, Navires et merchandises à l’entrée du port de Livourne (Ports, Routes, Trafics, vol. 1, Paris, 1951), p. 21; Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, p. 41.

44. Trivellato, Familiarity of Strangers, p. 76; Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, p. 40.

45. Y. Yovel, The Other Within: the Marranos, Split Identity and Emerging Modernity (Princeton, NJ, 2009).

46. Trivellato, Familiarity of Strangers, pp. 78, 82.

47. Braudel and Romano, Navires et merchandises, p. 45; Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, p. 180.

48. Braudel and Romano, Navires et merchandises, p. 46; J. Casey, The Kingdom of Valencia in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1979), pp. 80–82.

49. Braudel and Romano, Navires et merchandises, p. 47.

50. Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, pp. 67, 91–9, 206–13; K. Persson, Grain Markets in Europe 1500–1900: Integration and Deregulation (Cambridge, 1999).

51. Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, pp. 65, 67–73, 96; on Aleppo: Mather, Pashas, pp. 17–102.

52. Engels, Merchants, Interlopers, pp. 179, 191, 195, 201.

53. T. Kirk, Genoa and the Sea: Policy and Power in an Early Modern Maritime Republic, 1559–1684 (Baltimore, MD, 2005), pp. 45, 193–4; E. Grendi, La repubblica aristocratica dei genovesi (Bologna, 1987), p. 332.

54. Grendi, Repubblica aristocratica, pp. 339–43, 356–7.

55. Kirk, Genoa and the Sea, pp. 34–5, 84–7, 91–6.

56. Grendi, Repubblica aristocratica, p. 207.

57. Kirk, Genoa and the Sea, pp. 119–23.

58. F. Tabak, The Waning of the Mediterranean 1550–1870: a Geohistorical Approach (Baltimore, MD, 2008), pp. 1–29.

6. Diasporas in Despair, 1560–1700

  1. L. P. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614 (Chicago, IL, 2005), pp. 206–7; M. Carr, Blood and Faith: the Purging of Muslim Spain, 1492–1614 (London, 2009), pp. 109–17.

  2. Texts in Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 382–98.

  3. D. Hurtado de Mendoza, The War in Granada, trans. M. Shuttleworth (London, 1982), p. 42.

  4. Cited in G. Parker, Empire, War and Faith in Early Modern Europe (London, 2002), p. 33.

  5. Hurtado de Mendoza, War in Granada, p. 41; Carr, Blood and Faith, pp. 153–8.

  6. Hurtado de Mendoza, War in Granada, pp. 150–51, 217–18, etc.; Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 337–40; Carr, Blood and Faith, pp. 159–79.

  7. Hurtado de Mendoza, War in Granada, p. 218 (with emendations).

  8. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, p. 339.

  9. Carr, Blood and Faith, p. 182.

10. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 295–6, revising H. C. Lea, The Moriscos of Spain: their Conversion and Expulsion (Philadelphia, PA, 1901), p. 296.

11. J. Casey, The Kingdom of Valencia in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1979), pp. 79–100.

12. Lea, Moriscos, pp. 318–19; Casey, Kingdom of Valencia, pp. 228–9, 234; Carr, Blood and Faith, p. 256.

13. Lea, Moriscos, p. 320; partial text in Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 310–11.

14. Lea, Moriscos, pp. 322–5, n. 1.

15. Carr, Blood and Faith, p. 263.

16. Lea, Moriscos, pp. 326–33 (figures: p. 332, n. 1); Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 314–16.

17. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, p. 317; Carr, Blood and Faith, p. 286.

18. Lea, Moriscos, pp. 340–41.

19. Cited in J. Casey, ‘Moriscos and the depopulation of Valencia’, Past and Present, no. 50 (1971), p. 19.

20. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, pp. 320–31.

21. M. García Arenal, La diaspora des Andalousiens (Aix-en-Provence, 2003), p. 103.

22. Ibid., pp. 123, 137, 139.

23. M. Greene, ‘Beyond northern invasions: the Mediterranean in the seventeenth century’, Past and Present, no. 174 (2002), pp. 40–72.

24. Cited in D. Goffman, Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650 (Seattle, WA, 1990), p. 52.

25. Ibid., pp. 61–4, 74–5.

26. E. Frangakis-Syrett, The Commerce of Smyrna in the Eighteenth Century, 1700–1820 (Athens, 1992), pp. 74–9.

27. Goffman, Izmir, pp. 67, 77.

28. Ibid., pp. 81–4; Frangakis-Syrett, Commerce of Smyrna, pp. 80–81, 106.

29. Frangakis-Syrett, Commerce of Smyrna, p. 35.

30. Passages cited in Goffman, Izmir, p. 137; also J. Mather, Pashas: Traders and Travellers in the Islamic World (New Haven, CT, 2009), pp. 94, 213.

31. G. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, the Mystical Messiah 1626–1676 (London, 1973), pp. 106–7, 109, n. 17; and the often inaccurate J. Freely, The Lost Messiah: in Search of Sabbatai Sevi (London, 2001), pp. 14–15.

32. Moses Pinheiro of Smyrna, cited by Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 115.

33. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 126–7.

34. Freely, Lost Messiah, pp. 50, 61.

35. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 358–9; Freely, Lost Messiah, p. 76.

36. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 396–401; Freely, Lost Messiah, p. 85.

37. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 374–5; Freely, Lost Messiah, p. 84.

38. Letter to England, cited by Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 383.

39. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 101.

40. F. Yates, The Rosicrucian Enlightenment (London, 1972).

41. Freely, Lost Messiah, p. 93.

42. Ibid., pp. 133–4.

43. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 673–86.

44. Haim Abulafia, ibid., p. 359.

45. M. Greene, A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean (Princeton, NJ, 2000), pp. 62–7, 110–19.

46. Ibid., p. 17.

47. Ibid., p. 14; R. C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (Liverpool, 1951), pp. 121–2.

48. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 122–5.

49. Ibid., pp. 148–67.

50. Ibid., pp. 181–4; Greene, Shared World, pp. 18, 56.

51. Greene, Shared World, p. 121.

52. Ibid., pp. 122–40, 141–54; Greene, ‘Beyond northern invasions’.

53. Greene, Shared World, p. 155.

54. Ibid., pp. 175–81.

55. J. Dakhlia, Lingua franca: histoire d’une langue métisse en Méditerranée (Arles, 2008).

56. J. Wansborough, Lingua Franca in the Mediterranean (Richmond, Surrey, 1996).

57. H. and R. Kahane and A. Tietze, The Lingua Franca in the Levant: Turkish Nautical Terms of Italian and Greek Origin (Urbana, IL, 1958).

58. G. Cifoletti, La lingua franca mediterranea (Quaderni patavini di linguistica, monografie, no. 5, Padua, 1989), p. 74; Dictionnaire de la langue franque ou petit mauresque (Marseilles, 1830), p. 6, repr. in Cifoletti, Lingua franca, pp. 72–84.

59. R. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 (Basingstoke, 2003), pp. 25, 57, 114–15; A. Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary: Corsairs, Conquests and Captivity in the Seventeenth-century Mediterranean (London, 2010), pp. 58–61; Cifoletti, Lingua franca, p. 108.

7. Encouragement to Others, 1650–1780

  1. R. C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (Liverpool, 1951), pp. 194–211, 236, 264–70.

  2. G. Hills, Rock of Contention: a History of Gibraltar (London, 1974), pp. 142–6.

  3. E. Routh, Tangier: England’s Lost Atlantic Outpost 1661–1684 (London, 1912), p. 10; A. Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary: Corsairs, Conquests and Captivity in the Seventeenth-century Mediterranean (London, 2010), p. 204.

  4. Routh, Tangier, p. 27.

  5. S. Pepys, The Tangier Papers of Samuel Pepys, ed. E. Chappell (Navy Records Society, vol. 73, London, 1935), p. 88; A. Smithers, The Tangier Campaign: the Birth of the British Army (Stroud, 2003), pp. 31–2.

  6. Routh, Tangier, pp. 21, 28.

  7. Cited in ibid., pp. 23–4; Bromley in J. Baltharpe, The Straights Voyage or St David’s Poem, ed. J. S. Bromley (Luttrell Society, Oxford, 1959), pp. xxvii–viii.

  8. Routh, Tangier, pp. 66–9; Smithers, Tangier Campaign, pp. 49–53.

  9. Pepys, Tangier Papers, p. 97; Routh, Tangier, pp. 272–6.

10. Pepys, Tangier Papers, p. 41.

11. Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary, pp. 211–15.

12. Routh, Tangier, p. 81; also Sir Henry Sheres’s opinion in Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary, p. 205.

13. Routh, Tangier, pp. 82–6.

14. Pepys, Tangier Papers, p. 77; Hills, Rock of Contention, p. 150; Routh, Tangier, pp. 242–4.

15. Pepys, Tangier Papers, p. 65; Routh, Tangier, pp. 247–66; also plate facing p. 266; Smithers, Tangier Campaign, pp. 142–9; Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary, pp. 242–53.

16. Earl of Portland, cited by Hills, Rock of Contention, pp. 157–8; M. Alexander, Gibraltar: Conquered by No Enemy (Stroud, 2008), p. 45.

17. Hills, Rock of Contention, pp. 158–9.

18. S. Conn, Gibraltar in British Diplomacy in the Eighteenth Century (New Haven, CT, 1942), p. 5.

19. Hills, Rock of Contention, pp. 167–9, and appendix A, pp. 475–7; M. Harvey, Gibraltar: a History (2nd edn, Staplehurst, Kent, 2000), p. 65; S. Constantine, Community and Identity: the Making of Modern Gibraltar since 1704 (Manchester, 2009), p. 12.

20. Cited in Hills, Rock of Contention, p. 174 from council minutes.

21. Ibid., pp. 176–7.

22. Ibid., pp. 183, 195.

23. Cited in Conn, Gibraltar in British Diplomacy, p. 6.

24. Passages cited in Hills, Rock of Contention, pp. 204–5.

25. Ibid., p. 219.

26. Utrecht clauses, ibid., pp. 222–3; Conn, Gibraltar in British Diplomacy, pp. 18–22, 25–6.

27. Constantine, Community and Identity, pp. 14–34.

28. Baltharpe, Straights Voyage, pp. xxv, 61.

29. D. Gregory, Minorca, the Illusory Prize: a history of the British Occupations of Minorca between 1708 and 1802 (Rutherford, NJ, 1990), pp. 206–7; Conn, Gibraltar in British Diplomacy, pp. 28–111; M. Mata, Conquests and Reconquests of Menorca (Barcelona, 1984), pp. 129–60.

30. Gregory, Minorca, p. 26.

31. J. Sloss, A Small Affair: the French Occupation of Menorca during the Seven Years War (Tetbury, 2000), pp. 40–43; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 35–6, 144–6.

32. Cited by Gregory, Minorca, p. 26.

33. Mata, Conquests and Reconquests, p. 160.

34. Ibid., p. 163; J. Sloss, Richard Kane Governor of Minorca (Tetbury, 1995), p. 224; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 59–60, 151.

35. Gregory, Minorca, pp. 90, 156; Mata, Conquests and Reconquests, p. 164.

36. E. Frangakis-Syrett, The Commerce of Smyrna in the Eighteenth Century, 1700–1820 (Athens, 1992), pp. 119–21, 131; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 144, 149–55, and p. 247, n. 1, summarizing figures from R. Davis, The Rise of the English Shipping Industry in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Newton Abbot, 1962), p. 256; R. Davis, ‘English foreign trade’, in W. Minchinton (ed.), The Growth of English Overseas Trade in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London, 1969), p. 108 and table opposite p. 118; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 144, 149–55.

37. Sloss, Richard Kane, p. 210; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 71, 119, 122, 132–4.

38. Gregory, Minorca, pp. 126–7; Mata, Conquests and Reconquests, p. 164.

39. Mata, Conquests and Reconquests, pp. 237–8.

40. Sloss, Small Affair, pp. 2–4.

41. Mr Consul Banks, in H. W. Richmond (ed.), Papers Relating to the Loss of Minorca in 1756 (Navy Records Society, London, 1913), vol. 42, p. 34, and see also pp. 38, 50; B. Tunstall, Admiral Byng and the Loss of Minorca (London, 1928), pp. 22, 32, 39; D. Pope, At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot (London, 1962), pp. 36, 38 and p. 315, n. 6.

42. Pope, At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot, pp. 59–60, 65.

43. Tunstall, Admiral Byng, p. 103.

44. Sloss, Small Affair, pp. 7–16.

45. Text in Pope, At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot, appendix v, p. 311; Tunstall, Admiral Byng, pp. 137–9.

46. Pope, At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot, pp. 294–302.

47. I. de Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality of 1780: Sir James Harris’s Mission to St Petersburg during the American Revolution (New Haven, CT and London, 1962), pp. 239–63, 295–300.

8. The View through the Russian Prism, 1760–1805

  1. R. C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (Liverpool, 1951), pp. 237–42, 270–76.

  2. M. S. Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russian fleet, 1769–70’, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 31 (1952), pp. 148–50, 152, 154.

  3. N. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean 1797–1807 (Chicago, IL, 1970), p. 4.

  4. Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russian fleet’, p. 150; M. S. Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russo-Turkish war of 1768–74’, English Historical Review, vol. 69 (1954), pp. 39–58.

  5. Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russian fleet’, pp. 153, 155–6, 158–9; Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russo-Turkish war’, pp. 44–5; Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, p. 281; D. Gregory, Minorca, the Illusory Prize: a History of the British Occupations of Minorca between 1708 and 1802 (Rutherford, NJ, 1990), p. 141.

  6. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 286–91; E. V. Tarlé, Chesmenskii boy i pervaya russkaya ekspeditsiya v Arkhipelag 1769–1774 (Moscow, 1945), p. 105, n. 1; F. S. Krinitsyn, Chesmenskoye srazhenye (Moscow, 1962), pp. 32–4 (maps).

  7. Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russo-Turkish war’, pp. 56–7.

  8. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 286–305.

  9. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 7–8; Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russo-Turkish war’, p. 46.

10. S. Conn, Gibraltar in British Diplomacy in the Eighteenth Century (New Haven, CT, 1942), pp. 174–6, 189–98; T. H. McGuffie, The Siege of Gibraltar 1779–1783 (London, 1965); M. Alexander, Gibraltar: Conquered by No Enemy (Stroud, 2008), pp. 92–114.

11. I. de Madariaga, Britain, Russia and the Armed Neutrality of 1780: Sir James Harris’s Mission to St Petersburg during the American Revolution (New Haven, CT and London, 1962), pp. 240–44, 250–52, 258, 263, 298–9; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 187–99.

12. Cited by Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 12, from Annual Register of 1788, or a View of the History, Politics, and Literature for the Year 1788 (London, 1789), p. 59.

13. M. S. Anderson, ‘Russia in the Mediterranean, 1788–1791: a little-known chapter in the history of naval warfare and privateering’, Mariner’s Mirror, vol. 45 (1959), p. 26.

14. Ibid., pp. 27–31.

15. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 178–9.

16. Ibid., p. 27.

17. R. Cavaliero, The Last of the Crusaders: the Knights of St John and Malta in the Eighteenth Century (2nd edn, London, 2009), p. 103.

18. Ibid., pp. 144–9.

19. Ibid., pp. 181–201.

20. D. Gregory, Malta, Britain, and the European Powers, 1793–1815 (Cranbury, NJ, 1996), p. 105; Cavaliero, Last of the Crusaders, pp. 155, 158.

21. Cf. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 35.

22. Gregory, Malta, Britain, p. 106; Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 36–8.

23. M. Crook, Toulon in War and Revolution: from the Ancien Régime to the Restoration, 1750–1820 (Manchester, 1991), pp. 139–48; D. Gregory, The Ungovernable Rock: a History of the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom and its Role in Britain’s Mediterranean Strategy during the Revolutionary War (1793–1797) (Madison, WI, 1985), pp. 52–7; N. A. M. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: a Naval History of Britain 1649–1815 (London, 2004), p. 429.

24. P. Mackesy, The War in the Mediterranean 1803–1810 (London, 1957), pp. 5, 7, 13.

25. Gregory, Ungovernable Rock, pp. 30–31, 47.

26. D. Carrington, Granite Island: a Portrait of Corsica (London, 1971).

27. Gregory, Ungovernable Rock, pp. 63, 73, 80–84.

28. Huntingdon Record Office, Sismey papers 3658/E4 (e).

29. Cited by Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 39, from J. E. Howard, Letters and Documents of Napoleon, vol. 1, The Rise to Power (London, 1961), p. 191.

30. Cavaliero, Last of the Crusaders, pp. 9–101.

31. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 39–40.

32. Cavaliero, Last of the Crusaders, pp. 223, 226.

33. Ibid., pp. 223–4; Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 41–2.

34. Cf. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 45.

35. Cavaliero, Last of the Crusaders, pp. 236, 238, 242.

36. Count Philip Cobenzl, cited ibid., p. 238; Gregory, Malta, Britain, p. 108.

37. R. Knight, The Pursuit of Victory: the Life and Achievement of Horatio Nelson (London, 2005), pp. 288–303; P. Padfield, Maritime Power and the Struggle for Freedom: Naval Campaigns That Shaped the Modern World 1788–1851 (London, 2003), pp. 147–71.

38. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 65.

39. Knight, Pursuit of Victory, p. 675.

40. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 79, 87; Gregory, Malta, Britain, p. 109.

41. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 99.

42. Cited ibid., pp. 124–9.

43. Ibid., p. 128.

44. Gregory, Malta, Britain, pp. 113, 115.

45. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 145–6.

46. Knight, Pursuit of Victory, pp. 362–84.

47. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 162–3; Gregory, Malta, Britain, pp. 116–40.

48. Cited by Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 185.

49. Ibid., p. 186.

50. Knight, Pursuit of Victory, pp. 437–50.

51. Ibid., pp. 501–24.

52. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 198.

53. R. Harris, Dubrovnik: a History (London, 2003), pp. 397–401.

54. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 431–7; Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 198–206.

55. Harris, Dubrovnik, p. 397.

56. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 449–53.

57. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 457–8; Mackesy, War in the Mediterranean, p. 211; Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 216–20, 222; L. Sondhaus, The Habsburg Empire and the Sea: Austrian Naval Policy 1797–1866 (West Lafayette, IN, 1989), p. 19.

9. Deys, Beys and Bashaws, 1800–1830

  1. P. Mackesy, The War in the Mediterranean 1803–1810 (London, 1957), pp. 121–53.

  2. In 1803: ibid., p. 21.

  3. Ibid., pp. 98, 319.

  4. Ibid., appendices 1 and 5, pp. 398, 403–4.

  5. R. Knight, The Pursuit of Victory: the Life and Achievement of Horatio Nelson (London, 2005), p. 555.

  6. Mackesy, War in the Mediterranean, p. 229.

  7. Ibid., pp. 352–5; L. Sondhaus, The Habsburg Empire and the Sea: Austrian Naval Policy 1797–1866 (West Lafayette, IN, 1989), p. 42; M. Pratt, Britain’s Greek Empire: Reflections on the History of the Ionian Islands from the Fall of Byzantium (London, 1978).

  8. D. Gregory, Sicily, the Insecure Base: a History of the British Occupation of Sicily, 1806–1815 (Madison, WI, 1988); Knight, Pursuit of Victory, pp. 307–27.

  9. Mackesy, War in the Mediterranean, p. 375.

10. F. Tabak, The Waning of the Mediterranean 1550–1870: a Geohistorical Approach (Baltimore, MD, 2008), pp. 221–5; D. Mack Smith, A History of Sicily, vol. 3, Modern Sicily after 1713 (London, 1968), pp. 272–4; Gregory, Sicily, p. 37.

11. L. Wright and J. Macleod, The First Americans in North Africa: William Eaton’s Struggle for a Vigorous Policy against the Barbary Pirates, 1799–1805 (Princeton, NJ, 1945), pp. 66–8; F. Lambert, The Barbary Wars: American Independence in the Atlantic World (New York, 2005), p. 91; R. C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (Liverpool, 1951), pp. 394–5.

12. Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 90.

13. Testimony of Elijah Shaw in M. Kitzen, Tripoli and the United States at War: a History of American Relations with the Barbary States, 1785–1805 (Jefferson, NC, 1993), pp. 97–101.

14. J. London, Victory in Tripoli: How America’s War with the Barbary Pirates Established the U.S. Navy and Shaped a Nation (Hoboken, NJ, 2005).

15. J. Wheelan, Jefferson’s War: America’s First War on Terror 1801–1805 (New York, 2003), pp. xxiii, 1, 7, etc.; Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 106–7.

16. F. Leiner, The End of Barbary Terror: America’s 1815 War against the Pirates of North Africa (New York, 2006), p. ix.

17. Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 118.

18. Ibid., p. 8; also pp. 109–13.

19. Ibid., pp. 9, 11, 23.

20. Ibid., pp. 47, 50, 76.

21. Wright and Macleod, First Americans, p. 48.

22. Kitzen, Tripoli, pp. 49–50.

23. Cited in extenso in R. Zacks, The Pirate Coast: Thomas Jefferson, the First Marines, and the Secret Mission of 1805 (New York, 2005), pp. 189–90.

24. Leiner, End of Barbary Terror, p. 19.

25. Wright and Macleod, First Americans, pp. 54–5; Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 31.

26. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 30, 34.

27. Kitzen, Tripoli, pp. 19–20; Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 87.

28. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 100–103; Kitzen, Tripoli, pp. 40–42; Wheelan, Jefferson’s War, pp. 96–7; Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, p. 396.

29. Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 101; Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 397, 403.

30. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 133–4; Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, p. 407.

31. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 140–44; Kitzen, Tripoli, pp. 93–113.

32. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 146–8; Kitzen, Tripoli, p. 122, and plates on pp. 123–4.

33. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 130–54; Kitzen, Tripoli, pp. 135–76.

34. Leiner, End of Barbary Terror, p. 23.

35. Ibid., pp. 26–36.

36. Navy orders to Decatur: ibid., appendix i, pp. 183–6.

37. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 189–93; Leiner, End of Barbary Terror, pp. 87–122, and appendix iii, pp. 189–94 for the Algiers treaty.

38. Leiner, End of Barbary Terror, appendix iii, pp. 189–94 (p. 189 for article 2); Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 195.

39. G. Contis, ‘Environment, health and disease in Alexandria and the Nile Delta’, in A. Hirst and M. Silk (eds.), Alexandria, Real and Imagined (2nd edn, Cairo, 2006), p. 229.

40. O. Abdel-Aziz Omar, ‘Alexandria during the period of the Ottoman conquest to the end of the reign of Ismail’, in The History and Civilisation of Alexandria across the Ages (2nd edn, Alexandria, 2000), pp. 154, 158–9.

41. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 483, 486–7.

42. Ibid., p. 508; Sondhaus, Habsburg Empire and the Sea, p. 63.

43. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 492–3.

44. Ibid., pp. 523–36.

45. K. Fahmy, ‘Towards a social history of modern Alexandria’, in Hirst and Silk (eds.), Alexandria, Real and Imagined, pp. 283–4.

46. J. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period (Cambridge, 1987), p. 249.

47. Ibid., pp. 164, 166, 251, 254.

48. Ibid., p. 261.

PART FIVE
THE FIFTH MEDITERRANEAN, 1830–2010

1. Ever the Twain Shall Meet, 1830–1900

  1. Cf. E. Said’s tendentious Orientalism (London, 1978).

  2. Z. Karabell, Parting the Desert: the Creation of the Suez Canal (London, 2003), pp. 147, 183.

  3. Ibid., pp. 28–37; J. Marlowe, The Making of the Suez Canal (London, 1964), pp. 44–5.

  4. Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, pp. 1–3.

  5. Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 56–7; Lord Kinross, Between Two Seas: the Creation of the Suez Canal (London, 1968), pp. 20–30.

  6. Kinross, Between Two Seas, pp. 32–3; R. Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, and Bureaucrats: Austrian Policy towards the Steam Navigation Company of the Austrian Lloyd 1836–1848 (Wiesbaden, 1975), pp. 148–61.

  7. Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 131–2; Kinross, Between Two Seas, pp. 98–9.

  8. Karabell, Parting the Desert, p. 183.

  9. Ibid., pp. 208–11; Kinross, Between Two Seas, pp. 222–5.

10. Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, pp. 227, 231.

11. Karabell, Parting the Desert, p. 254; Kinross, Between Two Seas, p. 246.

12. Kinross, Between Two Seas, p. 253.

13. G. Lo Giudice, L’Austria, Trieste ed il Canale di Suez (2nd edn of Trieste, l’Austria ed il Canale di Suez, Catania, 1979) (Catania, 1981), pp. 163–7, 180–81; Kinross, Between Two Seas, p. 287; Karabell, Parting the Desert, p. 269.

14. Lo Giudice, Austria, Trieste, p. 180, table 20; p. 181, graph 7; Board of Trade report cited in Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, p. 260.

15. Karabell, Parting the Desert, p. 260; Kinross, Between Two Seas, p. 287.

16. Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, pp. 255–75; Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 262–5; R. Blake, Disraeli (London, 1966), pp. 581–7.

17. Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, pp. 255–75, 313–20; Kinross, Between Two Seas, pp. 293–309, 313–14; Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 262–5.

18. Cited in Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, p. 55: ‘Dämpschiffe warden und können niemals Frachtschiffe seyn’.

19. Ibid., pp. 26–7, 35, 63.

20. Ibid., p. 61.

21. L. Sondhaus, The Habsburg Empire and the Sea: Austrian Naval Policy 1797–1866 (West Lafayette, IN, 1989), p. 95.

22. Cited by Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, p. 63.

23. U. Cova, Commercio e navigazione a Trieste e nella monarchia asburgica da Maria Teresa al 1915 (Civiltà del Risorgimento, vol. 45, Udine, 1992), p. 171, n. 13; Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, pp. 129–32.

24. Sondhaus, Habsburg Empire and the Sea, pp. 5–7, 13, 36.

25. Ibid., pp. 184–7, 209–13.

26. Ibid., pp. 252–9, 273 (battle diagram).

27. Ibid., pp. 36–8, 129, 151, 178–9, 259; L. Sondhaus, The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867–1918 (West Lafayette, IN, 1994), pp. 6–7.

28. Cited in Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, p. 3; see also Lo Giudice, Austria, Trieste, p. 221.

29. Cova, Commercio e navigazione, pp. 10, 28–9, 74–5; Sondhaus, Habsburg Empire and the Sea, pp. 2–3, 12–13.

30. L. Dubin, The Port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: Absolutist Politics and Enlightenment Culture (Stanford, CA, 1999), pp. 44–5.

31. Ibid., pp. 3–4, 10–17, 43.

32. Ibid., pp. 164–73.

33. Ibid., p. 32; Coons, Steamships, Statesmen, p. 9; Cova, Commercio e navigazione, p. 153.

34. C. Russell, ‘Italo Svevo’s Trieste’, Italica, vol. 52 (1975), pp. 3–36; A. J. P. Taylor, The Habsburg Monarchy 1809–1918: a History of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary (London, 1948), pp. 201–3.

35. Lo Giudice, Austria, Trieste, pp. 135, 137, 142, 145–6, tables 8, 9, 10, 14, 16.

36. Ibid., pp. 205–6, table 29 and graph 13.

2. The Greek and the unGreek, 1830–1920

  1. J. Black, The British Abroad: the Grand Tour in the Eighteenth Century (Stroud, 1992).

  2. R. Jenkins, The Victorians and Ancient Greece (Oxford, 1980), pp. 133–9.

  3. Ibid., pp. 313–15, 318–24; C. Wood, Olympian Dreamers: Victorian Classical Painters 1860–1914 (London, 1983), pp. 106–30; J. W. Waterhouse: the Modern Pre-Raphaelite (Royal Academy of Arts, London, 2009).

  4. C. Gere, Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism (Chicago, IL, 2009), p. 20.

  5. Ibid., pp. 38–44.

  6. T. Detorakis, History of Crete (Iraklion, 1994), pp. 368–72.

  7. Ibid., pp. 295–6, 320–26, 349 (very biased).

  8. Gere, Knossos, p. 73.

  9. Ibid., pp. 67, 82–5.

10. A. Gazioğlu, The Turks in Cyprus: a Province of the Ottoman Empire (1571–1878) (London and Nicosia, 1990), pp. 220, 242–8.

11. Ibid., pp. 216–17.

12. Giovanni Mariti (1769), cited ibid., p. 155.

13. Archduke Louis Salvator of Austria, ibid., pp. 164–5.

14. Ibid., pp. 225–34.

15. R. Rhodes James, Gallipoli (2nd edn, London, 2004), p. 4.

16. A. Nevzat, Nationalism amongst the Turks of Cyprus: the First Wave (Acta Universitatis Ouluensis, Humaniora, Oulu, 2005).

17. M. Mazower, Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430–1950 (London, 2004), p. 6.

18. Ibid., p. 194.

19. Ibid., p. 242.

20. Ibid., p. 253.

21. L. Sciaky, Farewell to Ottoman Salonica (Istanbul, 2000), p. 37 (another edition, as Farewell to Salonica: a City at the Crossroads, London, 2007).

22. R. Patai, Vanished Worlds of Jewry (London, 1981), pp. 90–91; Mazower, Salonica, p. 237.

23. Mazower, Salonica, p. 234; also Sciaky, Farewell to Ottoman Salonica, pp. 92–3.

24. Sciaky, Farewell to Ottoman Salonica, p. 37.

25. Mazower, Salonica, pp. 264–5; Sciaky, Farewell to Ottoman Salonica, pp. 73–4.

26. Mazower, Salonica, pp. 266–8; Sciaky, Farewell to Ottoman Salonica, pp. 75–81.

27. Mazower, Salonica, p. 303.

3. Ottoman Exit, 1900–1918

  1. R. Patai, Vanished Worlds of Jewry (London, 1981), p. 120.

  2. J. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 309, 376–81.

  3. Ibid., pp. 281–93.

  4. Ibid., pp. 319–23.

  5. N. Doumanis, Myth and Memory in the Mediterranean: Remembering Fascism’s Empire (Basingstoke, 1997).

  6. R. Rhodes James, Gallipoli (2nd edn, London, 2004), pp. 9–11; P. Halpern, The Mediterranean Naval Situation 1908–1914 (Cambridge, MA, 1971), pp. 357–8; M. Hickey, The First World War, vol. 4: The Mediterranean Front 1914–1923 (Botley, Oxon, 2002), pp. 33–4.

  7. Hickey, Mediterranean Front, p. 36.

  8. Rhodes James, Gallipoli, pp. 23, 33–7.

  9. Ibid., pp. 16–17; P. Halpern, A Naval History of World War I (London, 1994), pp. 106–9.

10. Cited by Rhodes James, Gallipoli, p. 33.

11. Ibid., p. 38.

12. Ibid., pp. 40–41; Halpern, Naval History, pp. 112, 118.

13. Rhodes James, Gallipoli, pp. 61–4; Halpern, Naval History, p. 115.

14. Halpern, Naval History, p. 113.

15. J. W. Streets, ‘Gallipoli’, in L. Macdonald (ed.), Anthem for Doomed Youth: Poets of the Great War (London, 2000), p. 45.

16. Rhodes James, Gallipoli, p. 348; Halpern, Naval History, pp. 106–9.

17. Halpern, Mediterranean Naval Situation, pp. 287–90.

18. L. Sondhaus, The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867–1918 (West Lafayette, IN, 1994), pp. 318–24.

19. Ibid., pp. 258–9; Halpern, Mediterranean Naval Situation, p. 365; Halpern, Naval History, pp. 142–3.

20. Sondhaus, Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, pp. 275–9, 286; Halpern, Naval History, pp. 148, 381–5; P. Halpern, The Naval War in the Mediterranean, 1914–1918 (London, 1987), pp. 107–19, 132–3.

21. Sondhaus, Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, pp. 285–6.

22. Halpern, Mediterranean Naval Situation, pp. 329–30, 337–42; Sondhaus, Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, pp. 307–8; Halpern, Naval History, p. 393; Halpern, Naval War, p. 344.

23. Halpern, Naval History, p. 396; Halpern, Naval War, pp. 386–94.

4. A Tale of Four and a Half Cities, 1900–1950

  1. M. Housepian, Smyrna 1922 (London, 1972), p. 83.

  2. G. Milton, Paradise Lost – Smyrna 1922: the Destruction of Islam’s City of Tolerance (London, 2008), pp. 84–8.

  3. H. Georgelin, La fin de Smyrne: du cosmopolitisme aux nationalismes (Paris, 2005); M.-C. Smyrnelis (ed.), Smyrne: la ville oubliée? Mémoires d’un grand port ottoman, 1830–1930 (Paris, 2006).

  4. Milton, Paradise Lost – Smyrna 1922, pp. 86–7, 98–9; Housepian, Smyrna 1922, pp. 124–5.

  5. H. Nahum, ‘En regardant une photographie: une famille juive de Smyrne en 1900’, in Smyrnelis, Smyrne: la ville oubliée?, p. 103.

  6. E. Frangakis-Syrett, The Commerce of Smyrna in the Eighteenth Century, 1700–1820 (Athens, 1992), pp. 121, 207–14; E. Frangakis-Syrett, ‘Le développement d’un port méditerranéen d’importance internationale: Smyrne (1700–1914)’, in Smyrnelis, Smyrne: la ville oubliée?, pp. 23, 37, 45–9; and in the same volume, O. Schmitt, ‘Levantins, Européens et jeux d’identité’, pp. 106–19.

  7. Milton, Paradise Lost – Smyrna 1922, pp. 16–19; Frangakis-Syrett, ‘Développement d’un port’, p. 41.

  8. Georgelin, Fin de Smyrne, pp. 44–50.

  9. Milton, Paradise Lost – Smyrna 1922, pp. 36–8, 121, 127–8, 155, 178.

10. Ibid., pp. 128–34; Housepian, Smyrna 1922, pp. 63–4, 76.

11. Milton, Paradise Lost – Smyrna 1922, pp. 176, 322, 332, 354; Housepian, Smyrna 1922, pp. 191–2.

12. M. Haag, Alexandria Illustrated (2nd edn, Cairo, 2004), pp. 8–20; M. Haag, Alexandria, City of Memory (New Haven, CT, 2004), pp. 150–51.

13. Haag, Alexandria, City of Memory, p. 17; E. Breccia, Alexandria ad Aegyptum: a Guide to the Ancient and Modern Town and to its Graeco-Roman Museum (Bergamo and Alexandria, 1922); K. Fahmy, ‘Towards a social history of modern Alexandria’, in A. Hirst and M. Silk (eds.), Alexandria Real and Imagined (2nd edn, Cairo, 2006), p. 282.

14. Haag, Alexandria, City of Memory, pp. 136–7.

15. R. Mabro, ‘Alexandria 1860–1960: the cosmopolitan identity’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, pp. 254–7.

16. J. Mawas and N. Mawas (née Pinto) speaking in M. Awad and S. Hamouda, Voices from Cosmopolitan Alexandria (Alexandria, 2006), p. 41.

17. A. Aciman, Out of Egypt (London, 1996), p. 4; K. Fahmy, ‘For Cavafy, with love and squalor: some critical notes on the history and historiography of modern Alexandria’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, pp. 274–7.

18. Haag, Alexandria, City of Memory, pp. 139–50.

19. L. Durrell, Justine (London, 1957); also his Bitter Lemons of Cyprus (London, 1957).

20. M. Awad and S. Hamouda (eds.), The Zoghebs: an Alexandrian Saga (Alexandria and Mediterranean Research Center monographs, vol. 2, Alexandria, 2005), p. xxxix.

21. S. Hamouda, Omar Toussoun Prince of Alexandria (Alexandria and Mediterranean Research Center monographs, vol. 1, Alexandria, 2005), pp. 11, 27, 35.

22. Cited by M. Allott in E. M. Forster, Alexandria: a History and Guide and Pharos and Pharillon, ed. M. Allott (London, 2004), p. xv.

23. Cavafy’s ‘The gods abandon Antony’, trans. D. Ricks, ‘Cavafy’s Alexandrianism’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria Real and Imagined, p. 346; E. Keeley, Cavafy’s Alexandria (2nd edn, Princeton, NJ, 1996), p. 6; Fahmy, ‘For Cavafy’, p. 274; also N. Woodsworth, The Liquid Continent: a Mediterranean Trilogy, vol. 1, Alexandria (London, 2009), p. 175.

24. Y. Shavit, Tel Aviv: naissance d’une ville (1909–1936) (Paris, 2004), pp. 9, 44–6.

25. J. Schlör, Tel Aviv: from Dream to City (London, 1999), pp. 43–4; M. LeVine, Overthrowing Geography: Jaffa, Tel Aviv, and the Struggle for Palestine, 1880–1948 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 2005), pp. 60, 72.

26. Schlör, Tel Aviv, p. 211.

27. Cited in A. LeBor, City of Oranges: Arabs and Jews in Jaffa (London, 2006), p. 30; Shavit, Tel Aviv, p. 31.

28. LeVine, Overthrowing Geography, p. 285, n. 2.

29. Bare Feet on Golden Sands: the Abulafia Family’s Story (Hebrew) (Tel Aviv, 2006), pp. 18–21.

30. Shavit, Tel Aviv, pp. 81–4.

31. LeBor, City of Oranges, pp. 12–13; LeVine, Overthrowing Geography, pp. 33–4.

32. LeBor, City of Oranges, pp. 38–41; Schlör, Tel Aviv, p. 208.

33. Shavit, Tel Aviv, pp. 90–91.

34. Ibid., pp. 9, 34.

35. Ibid., pp. 55–6.

36. LeVine, Overthrowing Geography, p. 88; LeBor, City of Oranges, pp. 46–7; Schlör, Tel Aviv, pp. 180, 183–5.

37. Schlör, Tel Aviv, pp. 191–9.

38. LeVine, Overthrowing Geography, p. 138, fig. 8.

39. P. Halpern, The Naval War in the Mediterranean, 1914–1918 (London, 1987), pp. 295–300; M. Hickey, The First World War, vol. 4: The Mediterranean Front 1914–1923 (Botley, Oxon, 2002), pp. 65–9.

40. M. Mazower, Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430–1950 (London, 2004), pp. 345, 359–60.

41. Ibid., pp. 402–8.

42. Ibid., pp. 423–4.

43. R. Patai, Vanished Worlds of Jewry (London, 1981), p. 97.

44. C. Ferrara degli Uberti, ‘The “Jewish nation” of Livorno: a port Jewry on the road to emancipation’, in D. Cesarani and G. Romain (eds.), Jews and Port Cities 1590–1990: Commerce, Community and Cosmopolitanism (London, 2006), p. 165; D. LoRomer, Merchants and Reform in Livorno, 1814–1868 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 1987), p. 15.

45. LeBor, City of Oranges, pp. 2, 125–35; B. Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1917–1949 (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 95–7, 101.

46. Ecclesiasticus 44:9.

5. Mare Nostrum – Again,1918–1945

  1. D. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble: the North African and the Mediterranean Campaigns in World War II (London, 2004), pp. xi, 5, 661; S. Ball, The Bitter Sea: the Struggle for Mastery in the Mediterranean, 1935–1949 (London, 2009), p. xxxiii.

  2. Cited by Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 10–11.

  3. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, p. 48.

  4. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 7, 18–19.

  5. Ibid., pp. 20–23; M. Haag, Alexandria, City of Memory (New Haven, CT, 2004), p. 151.

  6. H. Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (London, 1961), p. 279 and n. 2.

  7. T. Spooner, Supreme Gallantry: Malta’s Role in the Allied Victory 1939–1945 (London, 1996), p. 14; C. Boffa, The Second Great Siege: Malta, 1940–1943 (Malta, 1992).

  8. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 12–16, 40–46.

  9. Ibid., pp. 59–60; C. Smith, England’s Last War against France: Fighting Vichy 1940–1942 (London, 2009), p. 142.

10. Cited in Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 41.

11. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, p. 63; Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 48, 50.

12. Smith, England’s Last War, pp. 57–94; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 62–9.

13. Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 51; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, p. 358.

14. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 93–5; Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 56–63.

15. Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 68.

16. Spooner, Supreme Gallantry, pp. 27, 40–42, 92, 187–205.

17. See e.g. Admiral of the Fleet Lord Lewin in Spooner, Supreme Gallantry, pp. xv–xvi.

18. Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 149.

19. Spooner, Supreme Gallantry, p. 17.

20. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 259–65; Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 133.

21. Spooner, Supreme Gallantry, p. 11.

22. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 158–76.

23. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 109, 148–9; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 348–51.

24. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 360–62; Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 170–73; Smith, England’s Last War, pp. 246–7, 424–5.

25. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 160–61, 167, 178, 186–7; Smith, England’s Last War, pp. 350–51, 361–2, 366, 372–3, 402, 416.

26. Spooner, Supreme Gallantry, p. 281; Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 261.

27. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 200–209; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, p. 566.

28. Ball, Bitter Sea, p. 220; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 424, 429.

29. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 219–33, 239–40; Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, pp. 430–52.

30. Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, p. 597.

31. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 272–7, and for Moscow meeting, p. 280.

6. A Fragmented Mediterranean, 1945–1990

  1. S. Ball, The Bitter Sea: the Struggle for Mastery in the Mediterranean, 1935–1949 (London, 2009), pp. 303–6.

  2. E. Leggett, The Corfu Incident (2nd edn, London, 1976), pp. 28–100.

  3. Ibid., pp. 113, 128–30.

  4. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 309, 323.

  5. See, e.g., N. Bethell, The Palestine Triangle: the Struggle between the British, the Jews and the Arabs 1935–48 (London, 1979); M. Gilbert, Israel: a History (London, 1998), pp. 153–250; A. Shlaim, The Politics of Partition: King Abdullah, the Zionists and Palestine 1921–1951 (Oxford, 1990: 2nd edn of his Collusion across the Jordan, Oxford, 1988).

  6. Ball, Bitter Sea, pp. 295, 305–14.

  7. Cited by B. Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1917–1949 (Cambridge, 1997), p. 87.

  8. A. LeBor, City of Oranges: Arabs and Jews in Jaffa (London, 2006), p. 122.

  9. A. Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (London, 2000), pp. 118–19; Gilbert, Israel, pp. 306–11; see also Shlaim, Politics of Partition, p. 172.

10. Gilbert, Israel, pp. 297–8, 311–12, 317.

11. Shlaim, Iron Wall, pp. 172–3.

12. H. Thomas, The Suez Affair (London, 1967); Shlaim, Iron Wall, p. 184.

13. M. Oren, Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (London, 2002), pp. 60–116.

14. G. Schachter, The Italian South: Economic Development in Mediterranean Europe (New York, 1965).

15. H. Frendo, Malta’s Quest for Independence: Reflections on the Course of Maltese History (Malta, 1989); B. Blouet, The Story of Malta (3rd edn, Malta, 1987), pp. 211–22.

16. L. Durrell, Bitter Lemons of Cyprus (London, 1957), pp. 193–4.

17. J. Ker-Lindsay, Britain and the Cyprus Crisis 1963–1964 (Peleus: Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Griechenlands und Zyperns, vol. 27, Mannheim and Möhnesee, 2004), pp. 21, 51–65.

18. Durrell, Bitter Lemons, p. 159.

19. Ker-Lindsay, Britain and the Cyprus Crisis, p. 37.

20. M. Gruel-Dieudé, Chypre et l’Union Européenne: mutations diplomatiques et politiques (Paris, 2007), pp. 160, 165–6.

21. D. Ioannides, ‘The dynamics and effects of tourism evolution in Cyprus’, in Y. Apostolopoulos, P. Loukissas and L. Leontidou (eds.), Mediterranean Tourism: Facets of Socioeconomic Development and Change (London, 2001), p. 123.

22. M. Harvey, Gibraltar: a History (2nd edn, Staplehurst, Kent, 2000), pp. 167–8.

23. M. Alexander, Gibraltar: Conquered by No Enemy (Stroud, 2008), p. 237.

24. Private communication from Dr Charles Stanton.

25. Note the ambiguities in the approach of G. Hills, Rock of Contention: a History of Gibraltar (London, 1974).

26. Alexander, Gibraltar, p. 241.

27. S. Constantine, Community and Identity: the Making of Modern Gibraltar since 1704 (Manchester, 2009), pp. 414–15.

7. The Last Mediterranean, 1950–2010

  1. E. David, A Book of Mediterranean Food (London, 1950).

  2. C. Roden, Mediterranean Cookery (London, 1987); J. Goldstein, Cucina Ebraica: Flavors of the Italian Jewish Kitchen (San Francisco, 1998).

  3. Information kindly supplied by Dr V. A. Cremona, Maltese ambassador in Tunis, and by Julian Metcalf, Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs, Valletta.

  4. L. Segreto, C. Manera and M. Pohl (eds.), Europe at the Seaside: the Economic History of Mass Tourism in the Mediterranean (London, 2009); Y. Apostolopoulos, P. Loukissas and L. Leontidou (eds.), Mediterranean Tourism: Facets of Socioeconomic Development and Change (London, 2001); P. Obrador Pons, M. Craig and P. Travlou (eds.),Cultures of Mass Tourism: Doing the Mediterranean in the Age of Banal Mobilities (Aldershot, 2009); N. Theuma, Le tourisme en Méditerranée: une perspective socio-culturelle (Encyclopédie de la Méditerranée, vol. 37, Malta and Aix-en-Provence, 2005).

  5. P. Obrador Pons, M. Craig and P. Travlou, ‘Corrupted seas: the Mediterranean in an age of mass mobility’, in Obrador Pons et al. (eds.), Cultures of Mass Tourism, pp. 163, 167.

  6. K. O’Reilly, ‘Hosts and guests, guests and hosts; British residential tourism in the Costa del Sol’, in Obrador Pons et al. (eds.), Cultures of Mass Tourism, pp. 129–42.

  7. M. Boyer, ‘Tourism in the French Mediterranean; history and transformation’, in Apostolopoulos et al. (eds.), Mediterranean Tourism, p. 47.

  8. P. Battilani, ‘Rimini: an original mix of Italian style and foreign models’, in Segreto et al. (eds.), Europe at the Seaside, p. 106.

  9. Y. Mansfeld, ‘Acquired tourism deficiency syndrome: planning and developing tourism in Israel’, in Apostolopoulos et al. (eds.), Mediterranean Tourism, pp. 166–8.

10. P. Obrador Pons, ‘The Mediterranean pool: cultivating hospitality in the coastal hotel’, in Obrador Pons et al. (eds.), Cultures of Mass Tourism, pp. 98, 105 (fig. 5.3); D. Knox, ‘Mobile practice and youth tourism’, in the same volume, p. 150.

11. E. Furlough, ‘Club Méditerranée, 1950–2002’, in Segreto et al. (eds.), Europe at the Seaside, pp. 174–7.

12. Battilani, ‘Rimini’, pp. 107–9.

13. P. Blyth, ‘The growth of British air package tours, 1945–1975’, in Segreto et al. (eds.), Europe at the Seaside, pp. 11–30.

14. C. Manera and J. Garau-Taberner, ‘The transformation of the economic model of the Balearic islands: the pioneers of mass tourism’, in Segreto et al. (eds.), Europe at the Seaside, p. 36.

15. Ibid., p. 32.

16. Blyth, ‘Growth of British air package tours’, p. 13.

17. V. Monfort Mir and J. Ivars Baidal, ‘Towards a sustained competitiveness of Spanish tourism’, in Apostolopoulos et al. (eds.), Mediterranean Tourism, pp. 18, 27–30.

18. Blyth, ‘Growth of British air package tours’, pp. 12–13.

19. P. Alac, The Bikini: a Cultural History (New York, 2002), p. 38.

20. I. Littlewood, Sultry Climates: Travel and Sex since the Grand Tour (London, 2001), pp. 189–215.

21. C. Probert, Swimwear in Vogue since 1910 (London, 1981); Alac, Bikini, p. 21.

22. Alac, Bikini, pp. 54, 94; Obrador Pons, ‘Mediterranean pool’, p. 103.

23. D. Abulafia, ‘The Mediterranean globalized’, in D. Abulafia (ed.), The Mediterranean in History (London and New York, 2003), p. 312.

24. Theuma, Tourisme en Méditerranée, p. 43.

25. Knox, ‘Mobile practice’, pp. 150–51.

26. M. Crang and P. Travlou, ‘The island that was not there: producing Corelli’s island, staging Kefalonia’, in Obrador Pons et al. (eds.), Cultures of Mass Tourism, pp. 75–89.

CONCLUSION

  1. E. Paris, La genèse intellectuelle de l’œuvre de Fernand Braudel: ‘La Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen à l’époque de Philippe II’ (1921–1947) (Athens, 1999), pp. 315–16, 323.

  2. A. Husain and K. Fleming (eds.), A Faithful Sea: The Religious Cultures of the Mediterranean, 1200–1700 (Oxford, 2007).