CHAPTER 9
IN THIS CHAPTER
Summary: The period from 8000 BCE to 600 CE saw the beginnings of many of the world’s major belief systems. Both Hinduism and Buddhism originated in India. The philosophies of Confucianism and Daoism profoundly affected traditional Chinese culture. In the Middle East, the Hebrew faith gave the world the concept of monotheism . Christianity emerged from the Hebrew belief in a Messiah , or a savior from sin. Followers of Jesus as the Messiah spread their faith throughout the Roman world.
Key Terms
Analects
animism*
bodhisattvas *
Brahmin*
dharma *
disciple
Edict of Milan*
filial piety*
karma *
Messiah
moksha *
New Testament*
nirvana *
pope*
reincarnation*
shamanism*
yin and yang *
Polytheism
Both nomadic and early agricultural peoples often held to a belief in many gods or goddesses, or polytheism. The ancient river valley civilizations in the Eastern Hemisphere, as well as the early civilizations in the Americas, believed in numerous gods and goddesses representing spirits or objects of nature. The Greeks and Romans also believed in an array of deities who represented natural phenomena but at the same time took on humanlike qualities. Some early peoples practiced a form of polytheism called animism , or a belief that gods and goddesses inhabited natural features. Animism was widespread among many societies in Africa and in the Pacific islands of Polynesia. Shamanism , a form of animism, expressed a belief in powerful natural spirits that were influenced by shamans, or priests. Shamanism remained a common practice in Central Asia and the Americas.
Hinduism
Hinduism is a belief system that originated in India from the literature, traditions, and class system of the Aryan invaders. In contrast to other world religions, Hinduism did not have a single founder. As a result, the precepts and values of Hinduism developed gradually and embraced a variety of forms of worship. Hinduism took the polytheistic gods of nature that had been central to the worship of the Brahmins , or priests, then changed their character to represent concepts.
According to Hindu belief, everything in the world is part of a divine essence called Brahma. The spirit of Brahma enters gods or different forms of one god. Two forms of the Hindu deity are Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer. A meaningful life is one that has found union with the divine soul. Hinduism holds that this union is achieved through reincarnation , or the concept that after death the soul enters another human or an animal. The person’s good or evil deeds in his or her personal life is that person’s karma. Those who die with good karma may be reincarnated into a higher caste, whereas those with evil karma might descend to a lower caste or become an animal. If the soul lives a number of good lives, it is united with the soul of Brahma. Upon achieving this unification, or moksha, the soul no longer experiences worldly suffering.
Hinduism goes beyond a mystical emphasis to effect the everyday conduct of its followers. The moral law, or dharma , serves as a guide to actions in this world. Dharma emphasizes that human actions produce consequences and that each person has obligations to the family and community.
The Hindu religion reinforced the Indian caste system, offering hope for an improved lifestyle in the next life, especially for members of the lower castes. Those of the upper castes were encouraged by the prospect of achieving moksha. Hinduism also extended the Aryan custom of venerating cattle by considering cattle as sacred and forbidding the consumption of beef.
In time, Hinduism became the principal religion of India. Carried by merchants through the waters of the Indian Ocean, Hindu beliefs also spread to Southeast Asia, where they attracted large numbers of followers. During the first century CE, there were already signs of Indian influence in the societies of the islands of the Indian Ocean and in the Malay peninsula. Some rulers in present-day Vietnam and Cambodia adopted the Sanskrit language of India as a form of written communication.
Buddhism
The second major faith to originate in India was Buddhism. In contrast to Hinduism, Buddhism had a founder in an Indian prince named Gautama, born about 563 BCE. Troubled by the suffering in the world, Gautama spent six years fasting and meditating on its cause. After he determined that suffering was the consequence of human desire, he began traveling to spread his beliefs. At this time Gautama became known as “Buddha,” or the “enlightened one.”
Although later followers would consider Buddha a god, Buddha did not see himself as a deity. Rather, he stressed the existence of a divine essence. Buddhism sought self-control and stressed the equal treatment of peoples from all walks of life. The Buddhist faith, therefore, opposed the caste system.
Buddhism shared with Hinduism the concept of reincarnation but in a different perspective. Buddhist belief held that a series of reincarnations would lead the faithful follower to ever higher levels toward the ultimate goal, which was nirvana, or a union with the divine essence.
The popularity of Buddhism emerged from its acceptance of men and women from all ranks of society. At first Buddhism spread through the efforts of monks and nuns who established religious communities in northern India. Located along trade routes, Buddhist monasteries served as lodging for traders, who learned of the teachings of Buddhism through contact with Buddhist monks and nuns. Contact with Hellenistic culture produced the Gandhara Buddhas, a syncretic sculpture combining the symbol of the Buddha with the exaltation of the human body typical of Hellenistic culture. In time, merchants carried the doctrines of Buddhism along the Silk Roads and other trade routes. Initially, Buddhist popularity was strengthened when the Mauryan emperor Ashoka adopted its beliefs. The faith, however, did not enjoy a long-term period of popularity in India because of opposition from Hindu Brahmins and the later promotion of Hinduism by Gupta emperors. Buddhism spread along the trade routes to become popular in Southeast Asia and East Asia, especially in Sri Lanka, Japan, Korea, and China. In China, Buddhism blended with Confucianism to reinforce the concept of patriarchal families. As it spread to other locales, Buddhism developed the belief of bodhisattvas , which held that, through meditation, ordinary people could reach nirvana .
Confucianism
Out of the disorder of the Era of Warring States after the fall of the Zhou dynasty came a number of philosophies designed to create order in China. Among these philosophies was Confucianism, named after its founder Confucius, or Kúng Fu-tse (551–478 BCE). Confucius believed that the source of good government was in the maintenance of tradition; tradition, in turn, was maintained by personal standards of virtue. These included respect for the patriarchal family (filial piety ) and veneration of one’s ancestors.
Confucius also believed that governmental stability depended on well-educated officials. To this end, he required his followers to study history and literature from the Zhou dynasty to determine the value of these subjects for government officials. Some of the students of Confucius compiled his sayings into the Analects, a work which also served to educate the Chinese bureaucracy or government officials. The Han dynasty appreciated Confucian philosophy because it supported order and submission to the government. The civil service examination that developed during the Han dynasty was based on the Analects and the course of study developed by Confucius. The Confucian values of veneration of one’s ancestors and respect for the patriarchal family, as well as good government staffed by a responsible, well-educated bureaucracy, became basic traditions that defined Chinese culture.
Daoism
Another philosophy that developed in response to the Era of Warring States was Daoism. Its founder was Lao-zi (or Lao-tsu), who is believed to have lived during the fifth century BCE. The philosophy adapted traditional Chinese concepts of balance in nature, or yin(female, submissive) and yang(male, assertive). According to Daoist philosophy, human understanding comes from following “The Way,” a life force which exists in nature.
In contrast to the Confucian respect for education and for orderly government, Daoism taught that political involvement and education were unnecessary. Rather, in time, the natural balance of the universe would resolve most problems. Chinese thought and practice gradually blended both Confucianism and Daoism to include a concern for responsibility for the community and time for personal reflection.
Judaism
Unlike other religions of the period, notably Buddhism and Christianity, Judaism was not a missionary religion. Although the Jews had lived in Babylon for 70 years, with some Jews remaining after most of the former captives returned to Babylon, they did little to attempt to convert non-Jews. From the Jewish faith, however, would come another major world religion: Christianity.
Christianity
A key element of Judaism was the belief that God had promised to send the Jews a Messiah , or a savior from their sins. Some of the early Jews felt that that promise was fulfilled when Jesus was born in the Roman province of Judea about 4 to 6 BCE. As an adult, Jesus and his 12 disciples , or followers, went throughout the land of Judea, preaching the forgiveness of sins. Jesus was also called Christ, meaning “anointed.” When Jesus’ teachings were feared as a threat to Roman and Jewish authority, he was tried and put to death by crucifixion.
The network of Roman roads facilitated the spread of Christianity throughout the empire. Missionaries, traders, and other travelers carried the Christian message of forgiveness of sins and an afterlife in heaven for those who believed in Jesus as their savior from sin. The greatest missionary of the early Christian church was Paul of Tarsus. A Roman citizen, he undertook three missionary journeys throughout the Roman Empire in the first century CE. Accounts of Jesus’ life in addition to the missionary efforts of Paul and other followers of Jesus are found in the New Testamentof the Christian Bible.
Several Roman emperors considered Christianity a threat to their rule. Although some, such as Diocletian, persecuted the Christian church, it continued to grow. In 313, the Roman Emperor Constantine changed the position of earlier Roman emperors regarding Christianity. In the Edict of Milan he permitted the practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in 381 under Emperor Theodosius.
After its adoption as the state church of Rome, Christianity in the West began developing an organization under the leadership of the bishop of Rome, or pope . In addition to priests who served local churches, monks and nuns withdrew from society to devote their time to prayer and meditation. As it spread throughout the Roman world, Christianity gained popularity because of its appeal to all social classes, especially the poor. Women received new status as Christianity taught that men and women were equal in matters of faith. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Christianity spread to northern Europe, the Balkans, and Russia.
Rapid Review
Although polytheism was the most common religious belief among early agricultural and nomadic peoples, a number of major belief systems arose before 600 CE. Monotheism was the gift of Judaism, which, in turn, became the source of the Christian religion. In India, two faiths—Hinduism and Buddhism—emerged from the diverse social structure of South Asia. In China, Confucianism and Daoism blended family and political order with the balance of nature to define Chinese philosophical thought.
Review Questions
1 . Both Hinduism and Buddhism
(A) supported the caste system
(B) revered women
(C) became increasingly popular in India
(D) none of the above
2 . Christianity
(A) remained a religion of the Roman Empire
(B) taught the forgiveness of sins through faith in Jesus
(C) was not a missionary religion
(D) failed to utilize the public works of the Roman Empire
3 . Confucianism and early Buddhism
(A) became the dominant philosophy of their respective regions
(B) emphasized the importance of effective government
(C) included a belief in nirvana
(D) did not believe that their founders were gods
4 . Daoism and Confucianism
(A) agreed on the importance of education
(B) disagreed on the need for personal reflection
(C) taught that active political involvement was essential to a stable society
(D) based their teachings on Chinese traditions
5 . The Silk Roads were especially instrumental in the spread of
(A) Confucianism
(B) Daoism
(C) Buddhism
(D) Judaism
6 . During the period of the late Roman Empire, Christianity
(A) experienced a change in its official status
(B) declined in numbers because of persecutions
(C) became less organized as the empire fell
(D) appealed primarily to elite classes
7 . Hinduism
(A) was based on traditions of the Harappan civilization
(B) addressed the consequences of one’s behavior
(C) offered no hope for members of lower castes
(D) gained little acceptance outside India
8 . Buddhism
(A) was the adopted faith of Gupta rulers
(B) opposed Confucian ideals of patriarchal families
(C) changed over time from transmission by traders to its spread through the services of monasteries
(D) changed over time to teach that common people could reach nirvana
Answers and Explanations
1 . D None of the above. Whereas Hinduism supported the caste system, Buddhism did not (A). Buddhism showed respect for women; Hinduism did not (B). Only Hinduism became increasingly popular in India (C).
2 . B Forgiveness of sins was a central teaching of Christianity. Christianity spread beyond the borders of the Roman Empire to Africa and Asia (A). Christian missionaries, especially Paul of Tarsus, actively promoted their faith (C). Missionary efforts were facilitated by the system of Roman roads (D).
3 . D Neither Confucius nor Buddha believed himself to be a god. Later Buddhists, however, sometimes deified Buddha. Although Confucianism became the dominant philosophy throughout most of Chinese history, Buddhism lost popularity to Hinduism (A). Only Confucianism emphasized the importance of effective government (B). The concept of nirvana was a Buddhist belief only (C).
4 . D Confucianism embraced the traditions of centralization of government and veneration of ancestors, whereas Daoism used the concepts of yin and yang to explain its teachings. Confucianism stressed the importance of education (A), whereas Daoism taught personal reflection (B). Confucianism encouraged active political involvement (C).
5 . C Buddhism was spread primarily by traders who followed the Silk Roads. Confucianism (A) spread to Korea and Japan, areas not included in the Silk Roads. Daoism (B) was essentially a Chinese philosophy. Judaism (D) remained a faith of the Middle East and of Jewish diaspora communities; it was not a religion that actively sought converts.
6 . A During the late Roman Empire, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. Persecution only increased its numbers (B). During the latter days of the empire, the Christian religion was acquiring a detailed organization from parish priest to pope (C). The new religion appealed to members of all classes, especially the poor (D).
7 . B Hinduism held its followers responsible for their actions. It was based on the traditions of the Aryan society (A). Offering lower classes the hope of reaching moksha (C), Hinduism became popular in Southeast Asia as well as India (D).
8 . D The Buddhist belief of bodhisattvas, developed after the faith spread out from India, taught that common people could reach nirvana . Hinduism was adopted by the Gupta (A). In China, Buddhism eventually blended with Confucianism to support the concept of patriarchal families (B). Over time, Buddhism changed from spreading through contacts with Buddhist monasteries to being spread by traders (C).