Part 3
This section begins the period of modern history, or at least early modern history, which began Europe’s dominance over the world. How, is a questionbetter left to socialists and other historians to debate. Once things stabilized after the Mongolian invasions, trade intensified along interregionalnetworks.
This trade continued to snowball when European nations began to explore and to colonize. For once, the ability to use technology effectively became a key factor in expanding empires. The Europeans ascended to the position of control over most of the world.
Chapter 14
In This Chapter
• The rise of the Ottoman Turks
• The fall of Constantinople
• The spread of the Ottoman Empire
• The Safavid Empire
• The Mogul Empire
Three power Islamic civilizations were established in the West Asia, North Africa, and southeastern Europe that were very influential to the politics and culture of the interregional connecting point of the Middle East. In the thirteenth century, the Ottoman Turks grew in power in the region of the Middle East to threaten the aging Byzantine Empire. In 1453, the threat became fact when the Turks captured Constantinople. Afterward, the Ottoman Turks expanded into southeastern Europe and North Africa, but the expansion brought problems that started its decline.
To the east of the Ottoman Turks at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Safavid dynasty was founded and conquered the region of present-day Iran. It also suffered internal problems, which brought its end in early eighteenth century.
Finally, further west, during the same time period, the Mogul dynasty was establishedand ruled the Indian subcontinent and mixture of Hindu and Islamic cultures successfully until British incursions in the region.
The Rise of the Ottoman Empire
The group of Turkic people known as the Ottomans emerged during the thirteenth century from the region in the northwest Anatolian Peninsula. Ottoman leader Osman created a sizeable empire, taking territory from the declining Seljuk Empire in the fourteenth century and marking the beginning of the Ottoman dynasty. Following Osman’s lead, rulers of the Ottomans took the title of sultan.
As Ottoman ambitions became more militaristic, they mastered the use of gunpowder with muskets and cannons. The Byzantine Empire was on its way out by that point, and the Ottomans dominated the territories of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. The Ottoman Empire was solidified and expanded with the defeat of the Serbs at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, and by 1400 the Ottomans had conquered the region of Bulgaria. Now they were ready for the “big show,” which was the siege and conquest of Constantinople.
The Fall of Constantinople
Ottoman ruler Mehmed II (r. 1451-81) initiated the attack on Constantinople. After several attempts in 1453, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and killed the Byzantine emperor. The last remains of the Byzantine Empire were gone from the pages of history. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul and became the capital of the expanding Ottoman Empire.
Notable Quotable
"The soldiers fell on the citizens with anger and great wrath … Now they killed so as to frighten all the city, and to terrorize and enslave all by the slaughter.”
—Greek observer of the fall of Constantinople
The Ottomans did not stop there. From 1514 to 1517, the Sultan Selim I (r. 1512-20) led several successful campaigns into the regions of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Arabia, leading to Turkish control of Jerusalem, Mecca, and Medina. Later, Selim I led Ottoman forces into North Africa, conquering much of the region, and was declared caliph and the new defender of Islam.
With expansion into the Middle East and North Africa complete, Suleiman I (r. 1520-66) pushed into Europe. The Ottoman armies advanced up the Danube River, seized the city of Belgrade, and in 1526 defeated the Hungarians in the Battle of Mohacs. The Ottoman armies conquered Hungary and pushed to the borders of Austria.
All hope appeared lost for Christians as the Islamic Ottoman Turks conquered Eastern Europe and moved to put Vienna under siege. But it was at Vienna in 1529 that Suleiman I and his armies were finally stopped. With a combined military effort of the Holy Roman Emperor and several German princes, the siege failed, and Ottoman expansion northward into Europe ceased.
The Ottoman Turks still extended their territorial domination of North Africa, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe into the eastern Mediterranean Sea. In due time, the Turkish navy tried to expand into the western Mediterranean but was rebuffed by the Spanish navy in 1571 at the Battle of Lepanto. Other European nations also worked to push back the Ottoman expansion, and by the late seventeenth century the Turks had been driven out of Hungary by Austrian and Hungarian forces.
The Gunpowder Empire
The Ottoman Empire qualified as one of the first “Gunpowder empires.” These empires were created by ambitious rulers who unified regions that were not originallyunder their control and which did not have many unifying factors other than the empire itself. Of course, the success of Ottoman Empire and other gunpowder empires was based on the use of gunpowder (Logical!).
The achievements of the Turkish Empire can also be attributed to its administrative structure. At the top was the sultan, a hereditary ruler with supreme authority in political and military matters whose status and prestige increased with the expansion of the empire. The imperial council, headed by the grand vizier, advised the sultan on the matters of state and controlled the bureaucracy. The bureaucracy of the empire was efficiently divided into provinces and districts governed by pashas, who were given land by the sultan in exchange for collecting taxes, supplying armies, and maintaininglaw and order.
Another powerful player in the politics of the Ottoman Empire was the queen mother, the mother of the sultan. Generally, she emerged as a major advisor to the throne, and deservedly so, considering she had to make her son stand out from all of the other sons in the harem.
definition
A harem was the part of the household in which the wives and female slaves of the sultan lived. Generally, the sultan favored one or two wives and children over others in the harem, which caused much strife and political intrigue in the harem itself.
Religion in the Ottoman Empire
The Turks of the Ottoman Empire were Sunni Muslim, as were the majority of the Muslims they ruled. As rulers of most of the Islamic world, the sultans claimed the title of caliph by the early sixteenth century, guiding and maintaining Islamic law in the empire through the ulema. The ulema administered the Islamic moral code for the sultans of the empire. In addition, they maintainedthe schools that taught the Islamic religious tradition.
definition
An ulema was a group of religiousadvisors to the Ottoman sultan who administered the legal and educational system based on Muslim law.
All of this emphasis on Islam did not mean that the Turks were intolerant of other religions. In fact, the empire was quite accepting of other religions as long as the religious groups paid a special tax. So Christian Europe’s fear that Ottoman Turks would conquer the whole of Europe and force all Christians to become Muslim were unfounded. In general, the regions conquered by the Turks stayed Christian, although there were a few exceptions, such as the region of present-day Bosnia.
Social Structure
The social structure of the Ottoman Empire was somewhat standard. Of course, on top was the ruling class, followed by the merchant class, which held a privileged positionexempt from government taxes and regulations. Artisans, peasants, and nomadic herders were on the bottom of the structure. In spite of the strength of traditional Islamic roots in Turkish culture, women in the empire were given more freedoms. Although restricted in many ways, they were allowed to own and inherit property. Additionally, women could not be forced into marriage and a few even served as governmentofficials.
Ottoman Art
The sultans of the Ottoman Empire were also patrons of Islamic art as caliphs. This patronage manifested itself quite often in the architecture of the mosques. In the sixteenthcentury, Sinan the Architect, with the encouragement of the sultan, designed and oversaw the construction of more than 80 mosques in the empire. The crowning achievement of this building surge was the Suleimaniye Mosque in Istanbul.
The early eighteenth century was also another period of artistic achievement in the empire, with a surge of textiles, rugs, and wall hangings being produced with intricateand beautiful color schemes and Islamic designs.
Notable Quotable
The janissary corps was an elite group of soldiers and administrators of the sultan’s army. In general, they were young Christian men chosen for their good looks and physical abilities. After initial recruitment, the janissaries had sons who also inherited the right to be in the corps. But by the early 1800s, the force had become an undisciplined political power of over 100,000 men—so the sultan was forced to put its entire membershipto death!
In a Powder Keg That Is Giving Off Sparks
The high-water mark for the Ottoman Empire was the reign of Suleiman I, sometimesreferred to as Suleiman the Magnificent (as opposed to merely great). After his reign in the mid-sixteenth century, a decline began.
Grand viziers and other ministers exercised more power, while the sultans retreated to the tents of their harem. Eventually, an elite group formed, a group that did not seek to benefit the empire but only sought wealth and power. To make matters worse, the pashas also became corrupt, with law, order, and tax collection becoming secondary concerns. Finally the Turkish culture started to be heavily influenced by European or Western standards that were highly contrary to Islamic law. Alcohol, coffee, and tobacco were all used by Turks across the empire during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Unrest smoldered, waiting for the right moment to flame up.
As the Ottoman Empire developed, with its set of problems related to the Islamic tradition,so did the new Islamic Empire of the Safavid in Persia. The Safavid problem was not like the Ottoman tug of war between secular Western culture and traditional Islamic culture; it was between subcultures within the traditional Islamic culture: the Sunni and the Shiites.
The Safavid Empire in Persia
After the empire of Timur the Lane fell in the early fifteenth century, the region of Persia fell into a state of anarchy. However, that state of anarchy did not last for long. A new Islamic regime, the Safavid dynasty, founded by Ismail, a descendent of Safi al-Din (thus the name Safavid), emerged to take control of Persia.
What in the World
The Safavid Empire was located in modern-day Iran, which still has a predominantly Shiite Muslim population. This population still has many conflicts with the Sunni Muslims of the region.
By 1501, through military action and political bargaining,the Safavids were able to seize much of present-day Iraq and Iran. Ismail and his successorscalled themselves shahs or kings of the Persian Empire and considered themselves to be the spiritual leaders of Islam—not the Ottoman caliph! This empire had a Muslim population, but it was ruled by Shiite Muslims, traditional enemies of the Sunni. Of course, this meant tension between the Safavids and the bordering Ottomans.
The Shiite and Sunni Problem
The tension between Shiite Safavids and Sunni Ottoman Turks arose in several events in the history of the Persian Empire. The Safavids at one time sent missionaries to the Ottoman Empire to convert Sunnis to the Shiite views, which only caused more tensions.
In 1508, the Sunni population that inhabited Baghdad after its fall to the Safavids was killed indiscriminately. In retaliation, Selim I moved against the Safavids and defeated the fast expanding dynasty at the Battle of Tabriz. By the late sixteenth century, the Turks had taken control of Azerbaijan and the Caspian Sea from the Shiite Safavids. The Safavid power was waning as they started to lose territory and prestige.
The Safavid Culture
The impact of the Safavid dynasty on the region was significant culturally. The arts flourished under the rule of Shah Abba. The capital city of Isfahan was built during his reign with a sense of planned order. Silk and carpet weaving spread through the region, with the government providing clear roads and resting spots for the traders directing the camel caravans. Persian painting highlighting soft colors and flowing patterns also were traded along these routes. All of these goods were purchased and enjoyed by the empire’s bureaucratic and landed classes, and, for a time, Persia benefitedfrom the rule of a relatively stable dynasty.
The Quick Decline of the Safavid
The high point for the Safavid dynasty was during the rule of Shah Abbas (r. 1588- 1629). He was able to negotiate a peace treaty with the Turks in 1612 to maintain the borders of the Persian Empire. His successors did not have as much luck, talent, or skill to maintain the empire.
Shiite groups dissatisfied with peace with the Sunnis and wanting stricter observance of Islamic law rebelled often. Religious orthodoxy increased even when the Shiite rebellions waned. By the rule of Shah Hussein in the early eighteenth century, the Safavids were ready to fall.
The bordering nations knew of the troubles of the Safavid dynasty and took the opportunityto seize territory. The Afghans invaded from the East and captured the capital of Isfahan, and the Ottoman Turks invaded and took territories on the western borders. Persia again fell into a state of political chaos and anarchy. Persia would remain in this state for many years; to this day the region has never been able to shake its tendency for instability or sometimes harsh rule.
Notable Quotable
"Few cities in the world surpass Isfahan for wealth, and none come near it for those stately buildings, which for that reason are kept entire.”
—John Freyer, A New Account of East India and Persia, Being Nine Years’ Travels, 1672-1681
The Mogul Dynasty
Since about 1500, the subcontinent of India had been divided into a mixture of Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. It was the Moguls who finally unified these small kingdoms and brought unity to the region.
Babur
The founder of the Mogul dynasty was a man known as Babur (r. 1526-30). His father descended from Tamerlane and his mother from Genghis Khan, so one might say he came from good stock! Due to his heritage, Babur inherited the rule of what remained of Tamerlane’s short-lived empire. Using this as a springboard, Babur besieged and conquered Kabul in 1504 in his first military expedition. In due time, he crossed the Khyber Pass into the subcontinent of India.
The Safavid and Mogul Empires.
Babur slowly conquered the subcontinent and then finally captured the city of Delhi in 1526 at the Battle of Panipat to establish himself as the premier power in the plains of north India. He continued his military conquests till his death in 1530. Although Babur ruled with an iron hand, he loved learning and culture and even wrote his own memoirs.
Akbar
Akbar, the grandson of Babur, picked up where his grandfather left off. Despite comingto the throne at age of 14, Akbar was able to unite the entire Indian subcontinent under Mogul rule by 1605. Much like the Ottoman Turks, this rapid expansion was attributed to the use of heavy artillery to conquer the many independent fortresses across India. Akbar created the greatest empire in India since the Mauryan dynasty.
Despite appearances, Akbar was not a ruthless conqueror. His rule was humane in many respects. Although Muslim himself, Akbar was tolerant of other religious traditions in his empire. His administrative polices were also open minded. Akbar recruited non-native Muslims and Hindus to fill his government bureaucracy. Officials known as zaminders received plots of land for personal use in return for their service. Additionally, they kept a portion of the taxes they collected for the empire for their salaries. And unlike the taxation policies of other empires, Akbar was fair-minded about his taxes, and as a result foreign trade flourished during this rule.
Mogul Society and Culture
Mogul society and culture was a curious mixture of Persian and Indian elements. The Moguls were Muslims ruling a Hindu nation; but the blend seemed to work in India. At least for the men. Restrictions on women were universal in both cultures, so the practice of the suttee continued in Hindu society. Additionally, upper class Hindus adopted elements of Islamic law that isolated women further.
definition
Suttee is the Hindu religious customof cremating a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre.
Other exchanges also occurred in the arts. The “Akbar” style of painting used both Muslim and Hindu styles, with the addition of a European perspective and lifelike portraits. These artistic achievements were encouraged by the emperors of the Mogul Empire, who were patrons of the arts.
The Decline of the Mogul Empire
When Akbar died in 1605, he was succeeded by his son Jahangir. At first his rule benefited the empire; Jahangir was able to centralize the government more so than his father. But soon Jahangir fell under the political influence of one of his wives in his harem. She used her position to enrich her offspring and arranged the marriage of Akbar’s niece to her son, Shah Jahan, which put him on the throne. This action began the decline of the empire.
Shah Jahan ruled the Mogul Empire from 1628 to 1658. Although he expanded the Mogul Empire and maintained the political system, Shah Jahan spent too much. When his beloved wife died, he began construction of the beautiful (and expensive) Taj Mahal in her honor, completely draining the treasury for the project. Shah Jahan raised land taxes to continue the project, which drove the peasant population in India into poverty. Domestic problems arose, but he failed to deal with them.
As time passed, Shah Jahan became sick and politically weak. His son, Aurangzeb, took that opportunity to try to seize power. Eventually, Aurangzeb won political controlover the Mogul Empire and imprisoned his father for the remainder of this life. (Talk about gratitude!)
The rule of Aurangzeb was not a good period for India. As a devout Muslim, Aurangzeb forbade suttee and was not religiously tolerant. Many Hindus in the empire were forced to convert to Islam. Consequently, the populace revolted and the Mogul dynasty was weakened by the unrest.
To add to the problems caused by poor rule, British and French merchant traders arrived to shake up the political landscape, and the Mogul Empire was weakened by the sudden invasion of a Persian army and the sacking of the city of Delhi.
In 1757, Mogul and British trading interests came into conflict, and a small British force led by Sir Robert Clive defeated a numerically superior Mogul army. Afterward, the Moguls were forced to allow the British to collect taxes from the region around Calcutta. By the eighteenth century, the British had moved inland to control more Mogul territory. The British trading interests represented by the British East India Company grew rich from Indian trade and obtaining money from local rulers by sellingtrading privileges. By 1803, the British East India Company controlled Delhi, and the Mogul emperor only remained so because of British good will. Finally in 1857, the last Mogul emperor was exiled and the title was abolished in India.
The Least You Need to Know
• The Ottoman Turks emerged from central Asia to create an empire out of the territories of the Middle East, North Africa, and eastern Europe.
• Sulieman the Magnificent was the most able of all of the Ottoman sultans— his reign also marked the high point in Ottoman power and culture.
• The Safavid dynasty came out of the political chaos and anarchy of the Persia to dominate the region and create a short-lived empire.
• The Moguls established an empire which united the Hindu and Muslim kingdomsin India for over 300 years.