Notes

Introduction

1. “Text of Council Statement,” New York Times, December 4, 1948, 11.

2. Ibid.

3. I use the term “ecumenical Protestantism” to emphasize a shared commitment among this group of Protestants to unite Christians (especially Protestants, but also Orthodox Christians and, after the 1960s, Catholics) across denominational, national, racial, and economic boundaries. “Ecumenical” gatherings—whether among a group of churches in a small town, at a meeting of the Federal Council of Churches, or at multinational gatherings across the world—brought together Christian realists and pacifists, whites and African Americans, clergy and laity, and Americans and colonial subjects. The globally minded outlook and the boundary crossing that ecumenism promoted are at the heart of the political and theological developments described in this book. The term “ecumenical” is coming into increasing use by historians who are dissatisfied with the three major alternative classifications: “mainline” Protestants, the “Protestant establishment,” and “liberal” Protestants. As Elesha Coffman shows, the term “mainline” Protestants came into widespread usage only in the 1960s and quickly became synonymous with “decline.” See Elesha J. Coffman, The Christian Century and the Rise of the Protestant Mainline (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 8. The “Protestant establishment” is a helpful term because it emphasizes the embeddedness of Protestants in the domestic power structures of the United States, and this book occasionally uses the term when discussing the cultural and political authority of this group. But as Heather A. Warren points out, “religious establishment” came into use in the early 1960s and “became synonymous with ‘mainline’ Protestantism.” Like “mainline,” the term “Protestant establishment” does not capture the international dimension of this community or the proliferation of its political and cultural values long after it had lost its “establishmentness” in the 1960s. See Heather A. Warren, Theologians of a New World Order: Reinhold Niebuhr and the Christian Realists, 1920–1948 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 4. On the Protestant establishment, see William R. Hutchison, ed., Between the Times: The Travail of the Protestant Establishment in America, 1900–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). “Liberal” Protestantism—referring to a critical and historical understanding of the Bible and an openness to Enlightenment values, such as a respect for scientific inquiry and cosmopolitanism—has a much longer and more distinguished history. But, for the purposes of this book, it blurs the boundary between theological liberalism and political liberalism. On theological liberalism, see Gary Dorrien, The Making of American Liberal Theology, vol. 2, Idealism, Realism, and Modernity, 1900–1950 (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003). See also Matthew Hedstrom, The Rise of Liberal Religion: Book Culture and American Spirituality in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

4. Gary J. Dorrien, The Making of American Liberal Theology, vol. 1, Imagining Progressive Religion, 1805–1900 (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001); Dorrien, The Making of American Liberal Theology, vol. 2; William R. Hutchison, The Modernist Impulse in American Protestantism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982).

5. The views of both ecumenical and evangelical Protestants changed over time, which means that definitions of either group must be historically specific. This book defines both groups in relation to their characteristics at mid–twentieth century and emphasizes the relational development of their identities. One of the more influential definitions of evangelicalism, which focuses solely on theology, is detailed in David W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1930s (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989). On postwar US evangelicalism, see Molly Worthen, Apostles of Reason: The Crisis of Authority in American Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).

6. Ecumenical Protestants were divided in their attitudes toward nonbelievers and whether the state should remain neutral toward nonbelief. See K. Healan Gaston, Imagining Judeo-Christian America: Religion, Secularism, and the Redefinition of Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019).

7. C. Howard Hopkins, John R. Mott, 1865–1955: A Biography (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1979), 665.

8. On the moral establishment, see David Sehat, The Myth of American Religious Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). See also William R. Hutchison, Religious Pluralism in America: The Contentious History of a Founding Ideal (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003).

9. C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956).

10. On the advent of mid-century globalism, see Or Rosenboim, The Emergence of Globalism: Visions of World Order in Britain and the United States, 1939–1950 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017); Susan Schulten, The Geographical Imagination in America, 1880–1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Samuel Zipp, The Idealist: Wendell Willkie’s Wartime Quest to Build One World (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2020).

11. On Christian nationalism, see Sam Haselby, Origins of American Religious Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014); Matthew McCullough, The Cross of War: Christian Nationalism and U.S. Expansion in the Spanish-American War (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2014); John Fea, Believe Me: The Evangelical Road to Donald Trump (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2018). See also Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry, Taking America Back for God: Christian Nationalism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020).

12. John Foster Dulles, “The Problem of Peace in a Dynamic World,” in Marquess of Lothian et al., The Universal Church and the World of Nations (London: Wilett, Clark, 1938), 152–53.

13. On ecumenical Protestant mobilization in support of the Cold War, see Jonathan P. Herzog, The Spiritual-Industrial Complex: America’s Religious Battle Against Communism in the Early Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996). On ecumenical Protestant resistance to American militarism, see Andrew Preston, “Peripheral Visions: American Mainline Protestants and the Global Cold War,” Cold War History 13, no. 1 (2013): 109–30; Michael G. Thompson, For God and Globe: Christian Internationalism in the United States between the Great War and the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015).

14. See, for example, Carol Anderson, Bourgeois Radicals: The NAACP and the Struggle for Colonial Liberation, 1941–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015); Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003). On the personalist influence on the American understanding of human rights, see Rufus Burrow Jr., God and Human Dignity: The Personalism, Theology, and Ethics of Martin Luther King, Jr. (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Gene Zubovich, “American Protestants and the Era of Anti-Racist Human Rights,” Journal of the History of Ideas 79, no. 3 (2018): 427–43; Samuel Moyn, Christian Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015).

15. On the history of religion and human rights, see Marco Duranti, The Conservative Human Rights Revolution: European Identity, Transnational Politics, and the Origins of the European Convention (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017); Steven L. B. Jensen, The Making of International Human Rights: The 1960s, Decolonization, and the Reconstruction of Global Values (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017); James Loeffler, Rooted Cosmopolitans: Jews and Human Rights in the Twentieth Century (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018); Moyn, Christian Human Rights; Sarah B. Snyder, From Selma to Moscow: How Human Rights Activists Transformed U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018). On histories of human rights that spend little time on religion, see Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005); Mark Philip Bradley, The World Reimagined: Americans and Human Rights in the Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016); Stefan-Ludwig Hoffmann, “Human Rights and History,” Past and Present 232 (2016): 279–310; Barbara J. Keys, Reclaiming American Virtue: The Human Rights Revolution of the 1970s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014); Samuel Moyn, Not Enough: Human Rights in an Unequal World (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2018); Sarah B. Snyder, Human Rights Activism and the End of the Cold War: A Transnational History of the Helsinki Network (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

16. See, for example, Bradley, The World Reimagined.

17. “Resolution on the Report of the President’s Committee on Civil Rights,” November 18, 1947, Folder 16, Box 57, RG 18, Federal Council of Churches Papers, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA (hereafter, FCC Papers).

18. Gary Dorrien, Social Ethics in the Making: Interpreting an American Tradition (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 111–12.

19. “Text of Report on ‘The Church and Disorder of Society,’ ” New York Times, September 3, 1948, 11.

20. “Statement of Guiding Principles,” Post War, January 1943, 5, Folder 8, Box 29, FCC Papers.

21. Lillian Calles Barger, “ ‘Pray to God, She Will Hear Us’: Women Reimagining Religion and Politics in the 1970s,” in The Religious Left in Modern America: Doorkeepers of a Radical Faith, ed. Doug Rossinow, Leilah Danielson, and Marian Miller (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 211–31; Margaret Bendroth, “Women, Politics, and Religion,” in Religion and American Politics, ed. Mark Noll, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Ann Braude, ed., Transforming the Faiths of Our Fathers: Women Who Changed American Religion (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004); Ann Braude, “A Religious Feminist—Who Can Find Her? Historiographical Challenges from the National Organization for Women,” Journal of Religion 84, no. 4 (2004): 555–72; Virginia Lieson Brereton, “United and Slighted: Women as Subordinated Insiders,” in Between the Times: The Travail of the Protestant Establishment in America 1900–1960, ed. William R. Hutchison (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 143–67; Bettye Collier-Thomas, Jesus, Jobs, and Justice: African American Women and Religion (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2014); Susan Hartmann, “Expanding Feminism’s Field and Focus: Activism in the National Council of Churches in the 1960s and Beyond,” in Women and Twentieth-Century Protestantism, ed. Margaret Bendroth and Virginia Brereton (Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005), 49–69; Melinda M. Johnson, “Building Bridges: Church Women United and Social Reform Work Across the Mid-Twentieth Century” (PhD diss., University of Kentucky, 2015); Natalie Maxson, Journey for Justice: The Story of Women in the World Council of Churches (Geneva: WCC Publications, 2013); Nancy Marie Robertson, Christian Sisterhood, Race Relations, and the YWCA, 1906–46 (Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007); Judith Weisenfeld, African American Women and Christian Activism: New York’s Black YWCA, 1905–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997); Martha Lee Wiggins, “United Church Women: ‘A Constant Drip of Water Will Wear a Hole in Iron’: The Ecumenical Struggle of Church Women to Unite Across Race and Shape the Civil Rights Century” (PhD diss., Union Theological Seminary, 2006).

22. For an influential account of the mid-century liberal political order, see Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001). See also Jefferson Cowie, The Great Exception: The New Deal and the Limits of American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017).

23. Compounding the trouble for liberal politicians in the 1970s was the simultaneous collapse of support from the labor movement. See Jefferson Cowie, Stayin’ Alive: The 1970s and the Last Days of the Working Class (New York: New Press, 2012).

24. On religious polarization, see Robert D. Putnam and David E. Campbell, American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010); Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith Since World War II (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988).

25. Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Knopf, 1955).

26. On the absence of religion in post–Civil War US historiography, see Jon Butler, “Jack-in-the-Box Faith: The Religion Problem in Modern American History,” Journal of American History 90, no. 4 (2004): 1357–78. On the recent growth of scholarship on US religion, see John McGreevy, “American Religion,” in American History Now, ed. Eric Foner and Lisa McGirr (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011), 242–260. The literature on evangelicalism is too voluminous to list here. One important account that emphasizes the anti-ecumenical politics of the Christian Right and the limits of its political reach from the 1980s to the present day is Neil J. Young, We Gather Together: The Religious Right and the Problem of Interfaith Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

27. Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People, 2nd ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004); Hutchison, Religious Pluralism in America; Martin E. Marty, Modern American Religion, vol. 3 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).

28. Coffman, The Christian Century.

29. This book builds on an argument first put forward by sociologist N. J. Demerath, who argues that ecumenical Protestants continued to shape American culture in the late twentieth century despite their diminishing numbers, and it applies his argument to the political arena. N. J. Demerath, “Cultural Victory and Organizational Defeat in the Paradoxical Decline of Liberal Protestantism,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 34, no. 4 (1995): 458–69. Demerath’s observation is further developed in David A. Hollinger, After Cloven Tongues of Fire: Protestant Liberalism in Modern American History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013); Hedstrom, The Rise of Liberal Religion.

30. For an important variation on this theme, one that ties it to the rise of Christian nationalism, see Kevin M. Kruse, One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America (New York: Basic Books, 2015).

31. William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945–1960: The Soul of Containment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Thompson, For God and Globe; Andrew Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012); Preston, “Peripheral Visions.”

32. In the discussions of ecumenical Protestants and American power, Reinhold Niebuhr frequently emerges as a focal point. This book situates him in the religious community to which he dedicated most of his time and energy, including his writing, speaking, and political maneuvering. In doing so, it shows his contributions to the UN, the World Council of Churches, and the Cold War while also highlighting his blind spots on racism, human rights, and events in East Asia. This book argues that it was not any single person or group, but the debates and disagreements among a diverse group of people and perspectives—coming together under the banner of ecumenism and globalism—that shaped the religious politics of ecumenical Protestants. On books that focus on Reinhold Niebuhr and his allies, see David L. Chappell, A Stone of Hope: Prophetic Religion and the Death of Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); Mark Thomas Edwards, The Right of the Protestant Left: God’s Totalitarianism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); Mark Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left: “Christianity and Crisis” Magazine, 1941–1993 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1999); Donald B. Meyer, The Protestant Search for Political Realism, 1919–1941, 2nd ed. (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988); Warren, Theologians of a New World Order.

33. Campbell Craig and Fredrik Logevall, America’s Cold War: The Politics of Insecurity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 10.

34. The important exception, albeit much smaller demographically, was the Communist Party. More generally, the interracial Left of the 1930s was critical of segregation long before liberal organizations like the Federal Council of Churches was. See Kevin Boyle, “Labour, the Left and the Long Civil Rights Movement,” Social History 30 (August 2005): 366–67; Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919–1950 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008); Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, “The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past,” Journal of American History 91 (March 2005): 1233–63; Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, “Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement,” Journal of American History 75 (December 1988): 786–811.

Chapter 1

1. Ira Katznelson, Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time (New York: Liveright, 2014).

2. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Inaugural Address, March 4, 1933, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/inaugural-address-8.

3. Quoted in David A. Hollinger, After Cloven Tongues of Fire: Protestant Liberalism in Modern American History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013), x.

4. Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F. D. R. (New York: Knopf, 1955). For an overview of the political coalition Roosevelt’s New Deal inaugurated, see Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989).

5. Charles DeBenedetti, Origins of the Modern American Peace Movement, 1915–1929 (Millwood, NY: KTO Press, 1978); Richard W. Fanning, Peace and Disarmament: Naval Rivalry & Arms Control, 1922–1933 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995); Robert David Johnson, The Peace Progressives and American Foreign Relations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).

6. Bruce Barton, The Man Nobody Knows: A Discovery of the Real Jesus (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1925).

7. Donald B. Meyer, The Protestant Search for Political Realism, 1919–1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 8.

8. William R. Hutchison, The Modernist Impulse in American Protestantism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976).

9. On fundamentalism, see Joel A. Carpenter, Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Sara Diamond, Spiritual Warfare: The Politics of the Christian Right (Boston, MA: South End Press, 1989); Darren Dochuk, Anointed with Oil: How Christianity and Crude Made Modern America (New York: Basic Books, 2019); Darren Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sunbelt: Plain-Folk Religion, Grassroots Politics, and the Rise of Evangelical Conservatism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2012); Robert Booth Fowler, A New Engagement: Evangelical Political Thought, 1966–1976 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1982); William R. Glass, Strangers in Zion: Fundamentalists in the South, 1900–1950 (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2001); R. Marie Griffith, God’s Daughters: Evangelical Women and the Power of Submission (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Barry Hankins, Uneasy in Babylon: Southern Baptist Conservatives and American Culture (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2002); Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); D. G. Hart, That Old-Time Religion in Modern America: Evangelical Protestantism in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2002); Randall J. Stephens and Karl Giberson, The Anointed: Evangelical Truth in a Secular Age (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011); Matthew Avery Sutton, American Apocalypse: A History of Modern Evangelicalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017); Daniel K. Williams, God’s Own Party: The Making of the Christian Right (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Molly Worthen, Apostles of Reason: The Crisis of Authority in American Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).

10. Edward J. Larson, Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America’s Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion (New York: Basic Books, 1997).

11. Harry Emerson Fosdick, “Shall the Fundamentalists Win?,” Christian Work, June 10, 1922, 716–722.

12. Quoted in Robert Moats Miller, Harry Emerson Fosdick: Preacher, Pastor, Prophet (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 130.

13. Ibid., 117–43.

14. Heath W. Carter, Union Made: Working People and the Rise of Social Christianity in Chicago (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015); Susan Curtis, A Consuming Faith: The Social Gospel and Modern American Culture (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001); Martin E. Marty, Modern American Religion, vol. 1, The Irony of It All, 1893–1919 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 286–97; Paul A. Carter, The Decline and Revival of the Social Gospel (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1956); Gary Dorrien, Social Ethics in the Making: Interpreting an American Tradition (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009); Henry F. May, Protestant Churches and Industrial America (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949).

15. Robert Moats Miller, Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam: Paladin of Liberal Protestantism (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1990), 74. In addition to urban reform, social gospel advocates were also active in rural areas. See Kathryn S. Olmsted, “The 1930s Origins of California’s Farmworker-Church Alliance,” Pacific Historical Review 88, no. 2 (May 2019): 240–61.

16. Carter, Decline and Revival.

17. Oxnam recorded his travels in diaries, some of which were later published. For the full collection, see “Diaries and Journals, 1903–1963,” Boxes 1–32, G. Bromley Oxnam Papers, MSS35329, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC (hereafter, Oxnam Papers).

18. Quoted in Miller, Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam, 96.

19. E. Stanley Jones, Christ of the Mount: A Working Philosophy of Life (New York: Abingdon Press, 1931), 11.

20. Quoted in Dana L. Robert, Christian Mission: How Christianity Became a World Religion (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 90.

21. E. Stanley Jones, The Christ of the Indian Road (New York: Abingdon Press, 1925).

22. Miller, Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam, 93–97.

23. David A. Hollinger, Protestants Abroad: How Missionaries Tried to Change the World but Changed America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017); Andrew Preston, “The Religious Turn in Diplomatic History,” in Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, ed. Frank Costigliola and Michael J. Hogan (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 284–303.

24. The group included Henry Pitney Van Dusen, Alva W. Taylor, Arthur E. Holt, Kirby Page, Paul Blanshard, Jerome Davis, and Cameron Hall—all of whom would take on influential roles in Protestant institutions in later years.

25. G. Bromley Oxnam, “European Notes, Summer 1921,” Box 4, Oxnam Papers.

26. On the post–World War I Red Scare, see Beverly Gage, The Day Wall Street Exploded: a Story of America in Its First Age of Terror (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).

27. Sidney Webb et al., Labor and the New Social Order: A Report on Reconstruction (London: Labour Party, 1918).

28. Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998).

29. “Hits Reds, Points at Mr. Oxnam,” Los Angeles Times, April 26, 1923, 12. See also “Shall Radical Head Schools? Facts About G. Bromley Oxnam and Associates,” Los Angeles Times, April 26, 1923, part II, 1.

30. G. Bromley Oxnam, Russian Impressions (Los Angeles: n.p., 1927), quote at 7. A copy is stored in the Oxnam Papers.

31. Ibid., 53.

32. Ibid., 54–55.

33. Miller, Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam, 77. On McPherson, see Matthew Avery Sutton, Aimee Semple McPherson and the Resurrection of Christian America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).

34. Oxnam, Russian Impressions, 55.

35. Ibid., 61.

36. Little has been written about the exportation abroad of the modernist-fundamentalist controversies. On the importance of travel in the development of fundamentalist thought, see Darren Dochuk, “Fighting for the Fundamentals: Lyman Stewart and the Protestant Politics of Oil,” in Faithful Republic: Religion and Politics in Modern America, ed. Andrew Preston, Bruce J. Schulman, and Julian E. Zelizer (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 41–55. See also Dochuk, Anointed with Oil; Markku Ruotsila, The Origins of Christian Anti-Internationalism: Conservative Evangelicals and the League of Nations (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2008).

37. Oxnam, Russian Impressions, 67–70, 74–75.

38. William Ernest Hocking, Re-Thinking Missions: A Laymen’s Inquiry after One Hundred Years (New York: Harper, 1937). On Hocking’s report, see William R. Hutchison, Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 158–177.

39. Carter, Decline and Revival, 147.

40. Michael G. Thompson, For God and Globe: Christian Internationalism in the United States Between the Great War and the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 50.

41. Curtis, A Consuming Faith, 167.

42. Quoted in Carter, Decline and Revival, 146.

43. Quoted in ibid., 151–52.

44. Graham Taylor, “The Church Keeps Up with Social Trends,” The Survey, February 1933, 65.

45. Federal Council Bulletin 16 (1933): 9.

46. “Text of Gov. Roosevelt’s Address at Detroit on Social Problems,” New York Times, October 3, 1932, 2.

47. K. Healan Gaston, Imagining Judeo-Christian America: Religion, Secularism, and the Redefinition of Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019); Kevin Michael Schultz, Tri-Faith America: How Catholics and Jews Held Postwar America to Its Protestant Promise (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). For a pre-history of the Judeo-Christian idea, see David Mislin, Saving Faith: Making Religious Pluralism an American Value at the Dawn of the Secular Age (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015).

48. Quoted in Burton Wheeler, “Memo on conference at the White House with the President,” August 4, 1939, http://www.lib.montana.edu/digital/objects/coll2207/2207-B11-F03.pdf; Richard Breitman and Allan J. Lichtman, FDR and the Jews (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2013), 64–66; Gaston, Imagining Judeo-Christian America, 60–62.

49. David J. O’Brien, American Catholics and Social Reform: The New Deal Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968); Kenneth J. Heineman, A Catholic New Deal: Religion and Reform in Depression Pittsburgh (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999).

50. Quoted in Michael Janson, “A Christian Century: Liberal Protestantism, The New Deal, and the Origins of Post-War American Politics” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2007), 126–27.

51. Quoted in ibid., 134.

52. “Charles Clayton Morrison, Religious Leader, Dies,” New York Times, March 4, 1966, 33.

53. James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1956); James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970); Kenneth S. Davis, FDR, 4 vols., (New York: Putnam, 1972–1993); Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt (Boston: Little, Brown, 1952); Geoffrey C. Ward, Before the Trumpet: Young Franklin Roosevelt, 1882–1905 (New York: Harper & Row, 1985); Geoffrey C. Ward, A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Row, 1989).

54. “Al Smith Vetoes Roosevelt,” editorial, Christian Century, February 17, 1932, 213.

55. Carl Knudsen, “And What Shall This Man Do?,” Christian Century, February 10, 1932, 188–90.

56. The full text of the speech was printed as “Text of Gov. Roosevelt’s Address at Detroit on Social Problems,” New York Times, October 3, 1932, 2.

57. Richard Wrightman Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr: A Biography (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1987), 135–36.

58. Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics (1932; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 8–9.

59. Quoted in Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 123.

60. Ibid., 123–24, 129–30.

61. Niebuhr, Moral Man, 222.

62. Ibid., 91, 93.

63. Quoted in Elesha J. Coffman, The Christian Century and the Rise of the Protestant Mainline (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 117–18.

64. Ibid., 119.

65. Mark Thomas Edwards, The Right of the Protestant Left: God’s Totalitarianism (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr; Heather A. Warren, Theologians of a New World Order: Reinhold Niebuhr and the Christian Realists, 1920–1948 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

66. “Mr. Roosevelt’s Dream for the Tennessee Valley,” editorial, Christian Century, February 15, 1933, 211–12.

67. Frank Davis Ashburn, Peabody of Groton, a Portrait (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1967); Louis Auchincloss, The Different Grotons (Groton, MA: Trustees of Groton School, 1960); William Amory Gardner, Groton Myths and Memories (Groton, MA, 1928); James McLachlan, American Boarding Schools: A Historical Study (New York: Charles Scribner, 1970); James McLachlan, Views from the Circle: Seventy-Five Years of Groton School (Groton, MA: Trustees of Groton School, 1960).

68. “The Inaugural Address,” editorial, Christian Century, March 15, 1933, 351–52. Italics in original.

69. Untitled editorial, Christian Century, March 15, 1933, 383.

70. Ibid.

71. Elizabeth Fones-Wolf and Ken Fones-Wolf, “Lending a Hand to Labor: James Myers and the Federal Council of Churches, 1926–1947,” Church History 68, no. 1 (March 1999): 64–65.

72. James Myers to Cameron Hall, “Memorandum,” May 26, 1947, Folder 21, Box 63, RG 18, Federal Council of Churches Papers, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA (hereafter, FCC Papers).

73. James Myers to Berton Eugene Kline, December 24, 1924, Folder 20, Box 51, FCC Papers.

74. Fones-Wolf and Fones-Wolf, “Lending a Hand to Labor,” 72, 77.

75. Jerold S. Auerbach, Labor and Liberty: The La Follette Committee and the New Deal (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1966), 32.

76. “Three Faiths Back Wagner Labor Bill,” New York Times, March 26, 1935, 12; Janson, “A Christian Century,” 144–49.

77. “Two Groups Press for Wagner Bill,” New York Times, March 22, 1935, 9.

78. On the demographic composition of Congregationalists of the era, see Bendroth, The Last Puritans: Mainline Protestants and the Power of the Past (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 137.

79. “Traditionally, women evaluate …” [Untitled] [Signed Olive H. Carpenter?], and Unsigned, “Social Creed,” in Folder 4 (“Laymen”), Box 25, General Council Records 1861–1961, Congregational Library, Boston, MA (hereafter, GCR).

80. R. Marie Griffith, Moral Combat: How Sex Divided American Christians and Fractured American Politics (New York: Basic Books, 2017), 44.

81. Olive H. Carpenter, “Traditionally, women evaluate,” Folder 4 (“Laymen”), Box 25, GCR.

82. Ibid.

83. “Credo” [“HLT S” on top-left of page], Folder 4 (“Laymen”), Box 25, GCR.

84. Ibid.

85. Irene Jean Crandall, “Some Social Ideals,” Folder 4 (“Laymen”), Box 25, GCR.

86. Ibid.

87. “History of Legislative Department—Council for Social Action,” LC-4, Council for Social Action Papers, Congregational Library, Boston, MA (hereafter, CSA Papers).

88. Cyrus Ransom Pangborn, “Free Churches and Social Change: A Critical Study of The Council for Social Action of the Congregational Christian Churches of the United States” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1951), 50–51.

89. Quoted in Bendroth, Last Puritans, 140–41.

90. For example, in an aggregate of surveys from 1945 and 1946, 71.6 percent of Congregationalists agreed that “the most important job of the government is to make certain that there are good opportunities for each person to get ahead on his own.” Only 65.3 percent of Northern Presbyterians and 64.9 percent of Episcopalians agreed. See “Christianity and the Economic Order, Study No. 10,” Information Service, May 15, 1948, 7.

91. Quoted in Bendroth, Last Puritans, 144.

92. Letter from Russell J. Clinchy “To the Members of the Council for Social Action,” p. 3, 1938, Series 21, State Conferences, SC-3: Local Reports, 1937–38, CSA Papers.

93. Bendroth, Last Puritans, 143.

94. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London: Gollancz, 1965). On the conservative politics of the laity, see Coffman, Christian Century, 164–71.

95. Pangborn, “Free Churches and Social Change,” 53.

96. On the reemergence of the laymen’s groups during the Cold War, see Chapter 9 in this volume.

97. Matthew Avery Sutton, “Was FDR the Antichrist? The Birth of Fundamentalist Antiliberalism in a Global Age,” Journal of American History 98, no. 4 (May 2012): 1061.

98. John Evans, “Red Influences Seen Pressing into Churches: Report New Dealers Heed Radicals’ Pleas,” Chicago Daily Tribune, August 14, 1936, 11.

99. Sutton, “Was FDR the Antichrist?,” 1052.

100. “Capitalism Finds a Friend,” editorial, Christian Century, August 26, 1936, 1125–26.

101. Rev. John Evans, “Keynoter at Church Rally Dares Radicals to ‘Come Out,’ ” Chicago Tribune, August 13, 1936, 6.

102. “Attack Told by Minister,” Los Angeles Times, August 16, 1936, 5; “Police Accuse Angeleno Pastor of Attack Hoax,” Los Angeles Times, August 17, 1936, 3.

103. “Capitalism Finds a Friend.”

104. Sarah E. Igo, The Averaged American: Surveys, Citizens, and the Making of a Mass Public (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 104.

105. John Von Rohr, The Shaping of American Congregationalism, 1620–1957 (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press, 1992), 388; “Faith & Followers,” Time, June 7, 1948, 76.

106. “Christianity and the Economic Order, Study No. 10,” Information Service, May 15, 1948, 2.

107. “The President Accepts Nomination,” editorial, Christian Century, July 8, 1936, 955–56.

108. “Thursday, July 12th, 1934,” Diary, Europe 1934, Box 6, Oxnam Papers.

109. “Radio Address on Brotherhood Day, February 23, 1936,” in Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 13 vols. (New York: Random House, 1938–50), 5:85.

110. Alan Brinkley, End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Vintage, 1996).

Chapter 2

1. Andrew Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012), 321–26.

2. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Annual Message to Congress, January 4, 1939, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/annual-message-congress.

3. “American Malvern,” Time, March 16, 1942, 44, 46–48, quote at 48.

4. Or Rosenboim, The Emergence of Globalism: Visions of World Order in Britain and the United States, 1939–1950 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), 6–10; Samuel Zipp, The Idealist: Wendell Willkie’s Wartime Quest to Build One World (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2020).

5. Henry P. Van Dusen, For the Healing of the Nations: Impressions of Christianity Around the World (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940), xix.

6. Henry Sloane Coffin, “Let the Church Be the Church,” Religion in Life 7, no. 1 (Winter 1938): 54.

7. Graeme Smith, Oxford 1937: The Universal Christian Council for Life and Work Conference (New York: Peter Lang, 2004), 56.

8. Ernest Fremont Tittle, “The Voice of the Church at Oxford,” Religion in Life 7, no. 1 (Winter 1938): 21.

9. For an overview of the Anglo-American discussions prior to and during the Oxford conference, see Smith, Oxford 1937.

10. “Report on Church and Community,” in The Churches Survey Their Task: The Report of the Conference at Oxford, July, 1937, on Church, Community, and State, vol. 8, ed. J. H. Oldham (London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1937), 68.

11. William Adams Brown, What the Oxford Conference of 1937 May Mean for the Life of the Church (New York: Universal Christian Council for Life and Work, 1937), 13.

12. Udi Greenberg concludes that European Protestants hoped for unity in order to “unleash an uncompromising anti-secular crusade at home,” but “American ecumenism had a different intellectual agenda and operated in a different political context than its European counterpart.” See Udi Greenberg, “Protestants, Decolonization, and European Integration, 1885–1961,” Journal of Modern History 89, no. 2 (June 2017): 314–54, quote at 315–16.

13. On European secularization, see David Blackbourn, Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Bismarckian Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); Owen Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1975); Ruth Harris, Lourdes: Body and Spirit in the Secular Age (London: Penguin Press, 1999); Jennifer Michael Hecht, The End of the Soul: Scientific Modernity, Atheism, and Anthropology in France (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003); John McManners, Church and State in France, 1870–1914 (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1972); Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1976).

14. Draft Report on The Universal Church and the World of Nations (Geneva: Universal Christian Council for Life and Work, n.d.), 5, 6.

15. Marquess of Lothian et al., The Universal Church and the World of Nations (Wilett, Clarck, 1938), 17–18, 21.

16. John Foster Dulles, “The Problem of Peace in a Dynamic World,” in ibid., 145–46.

17. John Foster Dulles, “As Seen By a Layman,” Religion in Life 7, no. 1 (Winter 1938): 40, 43.

18. Dulles, “The Problem of Peace in a Dynamic World,” 149, 154–57, 170. For background on Dulles’s views, see Bevan Sewell, “Pragmatism, Religion, and John Foster Dulles’s Embrace of Christian Internationalism in the 1930s,” Diplomatic History 41, no. 4 (September 2017): 799–823.

19. Dulles, “The Problem of Peace in a Dynamic World,” 157.

20. Dean Keith Thompson, “Henry Pitney Van Dusen: Ecumenical Statesman” (PhD diss., Union Theological Seminary, Richmond, VA, 1974 [University Microfilms International, 1978]).

21. George Dugan, “Dr. Henry Van Dusen, 77, Of Union Seminary, Dies,” New York Times, February 14, 1975, 40; Marjorie Hyer, “Dr. Henry P. Van Dusen Dies at 77,” February 15, 1975, B6; Mark Thomas Edwards, The Right of the Protestant Left: God’s Totalitarianism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), chaps. 1 and 2; Thompson, “Henry Pitney Van Dusen.”

22. Heather A. Warren, Theologians of a New World Order: Reinhold Niebuhr and the Christian Realists, 1920–1948 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), chap. 2.

23. For Van Dusen’s correspondence during the trip, see Folder 11, Box 19, Series 5, Henry Pitney Van Dusen Papers, Burke Library, Union Theological Seminary, New York, NY (hereafter, HPVD Papers).

24. Willem Adolph Visser ’t Hooft, Memoirs (London: SCM Press, 1973), 59.

25. William Ernest Hocking, Re-Thinking Missions: A Laymen’s Inquiry After One Hundred Years by the Commission of Appraisal (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1932). On Hocking, see Chapter 1.

26. See Van Dusen, For the Healing of the Nations, part 1; Thompson, “Henry Pitney Van Dusen,” 180–94.

27. Quoted in Van Dusen, For the Healing of the Nations, 127. See also Thompson, “Henry Pitney Van Dusen,” 203.

28. Thompson, “Henry Pitney Van Dusen,” 212.

29. Philip M. Coupland, Britannia, Europa and Christendom: British Christians and European Integration (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 48.

30. Ibid., 49–50.

31. Mark Lincoln Chadwin, The Hawks of World War II (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 139.

32. Alfred O. Hero Jr., American Religious Groups View Foreign Policy: Trends in Rank-and-File Opinion, 1937–1969 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1973), 283.

33. See Edwards, The Right of the Protestant Left. The beginning of Miller’s activities and the organization of the Century Group coincided with a change of public opinion revealed by Roosevelt’s internal pollsters, which began to shift in favor of greater aid to Britain beginning in the summer of 1940. See James T. Sparrow, Warfare State: World War II Americans and the Age of Big Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 43.

34. Francis Pickens Miller, Man from the Valley: Memoirs of a 20th-Century Virginian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 88–103. For a detailed account of the Roosevelt administration in the summer and fall of 1940 and its decision to back the Bases for Destroyers deal, see Ian Kershaw, Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That Changed the World, 1940–1941 (New York: Penguin Press, 2007), 184–242.

35. Coupland, Britannia, Europa and Christendom, 56.

36. On the negotiations over the Atlantic Charter and the ambiguity of its meaning, see Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 1–4, 14–45.

37. Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 392.

38. Henry P. Van Dusen, “Dear Friends,” October 10, 1941, page 2, Folder 5, Box 19, Series 5, HPVD Papers.

39. Ibid.

40. On Wilson’s foreign policy and religion, see Cara Lea Burnidge, A Peaceful Conquest: Woodrow Wilson, Religion, and the New World Order (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).

41. Eddy, quoted in Michael G. Thompson, “Sherwood Eddy, the Missionary Enterprise, and the Rise of Christian Internationalism in 1920s America,” Modern Intellectual History 12, no. 1 (April 2015): 23. One example of the greater separation between Christianity and US culture took place in 1930s China, where the numbers of ordained ministers being sent to China as missionaries began to decline in that decade and the number of Chinese ministers began to rise.

42. Ernest Hemmingway, A Farewell to Arms (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1929); Erich Maria Remarque, All Quiet on the Western Front, trans. A. W. Wheen (New York: Little, Brown and Co., 1929); Report of the Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry [the Nye Committee Report], US Congress, Senate, 74th Congress, 2nd session, February 24, 1936, 3–13.

43. Ray H. Abrams, Preachers Present Arms: A Study of the War-Time Attitudes and Activities of the Churches and the Clergy in the United States, 1914–1918 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1933), xvi, 245.

44. For a list of supporters Wyland had enlisted by March 1941, see “Facts and Purposes of the National Committee on Food For the Small Democracies,” Folder 11, Box 27, National Committee on Food for the Small Democracies Papers, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University (hereafter, NCFSD Papers). Among the most prominent backers of the Hoover plan were Albert Buckner Coe, Ralph E. Diffendorfer, Harry Emerson Fosdick, Georgia Harkness, John Haynes Holmes, Walter Horton, E. Stanley Jones, Rufus M. Jones, Charles Clayton Morrison, John R. Mott, Albert W. Palmer, Daniel A. Poling, Ralph W. Sockman, and Ernest F. Tittle.

45. Robert Moats Miller, How Shall They Hear Without a Preacher? The Life of Ernest Fremont Tittle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 438.

46. Chadwin, Hawks of World War II, 135–36; “Churchmen Assail Hoover Food Plan,” New York Times, December 2, 1940, 16. Oxnam also publicly opposed Hoover’s Plan.

47. Quoted in Chadwin, Hawks of World War II, 135–38.

48. For a sampling of Christian Century editorials, see “Europe’s Specter of Starvation,” August 21, 1940, 1020–21; “Churchmen Support a Needless Starvation,” October 16, 1940, 1267–68; “In Humanity’s Name,” November 13, 1940, 1406–8; “Food for the Hungry In Europe,” November 27, 1940, 1467; “The Incomparable Atrocity,” December 11, 1940, 1543–45; “Britain Bars Food to Occupied Nations,” December 25, 1940, 1603.

49. In addition to Woolley and Catt, the signatories included Union Theological Seminary president Henry Sloane Coffin, head of the Episcopal Church and future Federal Council president Henry St. George Tucker, and longtime YMCA and missionary leader Robert E. Speer. See “Churchmen Support a Needless Starvation,” 1268.

50. Ibid.; “In Humanity’s Name,” Christian Century, November 13, 1940, 1406.

51. Gary J. Dorrien, Soul in Society: The Making and Renewal of Social Christianity (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1995), 116.

52. Wyland memorandum, Folder 9, Box 115, NCFSD Papers.

53. Mark Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left: “Christianity and Crisis” Magazine, 1941–1993 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1999).

54. Richard Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr: A Biography (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 152–53.

55. John Haynes Holmes to Rev. Henry P. Van Dusen, January 21, 1941, Folder 6, Box 139, NCFSD Papers.

56. Niebuhr quoted in Martin E. Marty, Modern American Religion, vol. 3, Under God, Indivisible, 1941–1960 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 30–31.

57. “Churchmen Assail Hoover Food Plan,” 16.

58. “Conflicts of Outlook,” The Advance, February 1, 1941, 63.

59. “Churches Ask U.S. to Seek Peace Now,” New York Times, March 1, 1940, 2.

60. Charles Daniel Brodhead, “Confer on U.S. Wartime Policy,” Christian Century, March 13, 1940, 366.

61. “The Churches and the International Situation,” Federal Council Bulletin, April 1940, 8.

62. A Message from the National Study Conference on the Churches and the International Situation: Philadelphia, PA., February 27–29, 1940 (New York: Federal Council of Churches, 1940), 11.

63. Miller, How Shall They Hear, 435.

64. Message from the National Study Conference, 11–12.

65. Brooke L. Blower, “From Isolationism to Neutrality: A New Framework for Understanding American Political Culture, 1919–1941,” Diplomatic History 38, no. 2 (April 2014): 345–76.

66. “The Churches and the International Situation,” 8.

67. Walter W. Van Kirk, “Developing a Positive Peace Policy,” Federal Council Bulletin, May 1940, 11–12.

68. Gene Zubovich, “William Ernest Hocking and the Liberal Protestant Origins of Human Rights,” in Christianity and Human Rights Reconsidered, ed. Sarah Shortall and Daniel Steinmetz-Jenkins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 139–57.

69. See, for example, Edwards, The Right of the Protestant Left; Warren, Theologians of a New World Order. On the important role of pacifists, see David A. Hollinger, “The Realist-Pacifist Summit Meeting of March 1942 and the Political Reorientation of Ecumenical Protestantism in the United States,” Church History 76, no. 3 (September 2010): 654–77. See also Joseph Kip Kosek, Acts of Conscience: Christian Nonviolence and Modern American Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009).

70. Miller, How Shall They Hear, 421.

71. The commission was originally called the Commission for the Study of the Bases for a Just and Durable Peace.

72. Quoted in Robert Moats Miller, Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam: Paladin of Liberal Protestantism (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1990), 261. The speeches were printed in When Hostilities Cease: Addresses and Findings of the Exploratory Conference on the Bases of a Just and Enduring Peace, Chicago Temple, May 27–30, 1941 (Chicago: Commission on World Peace of the Methodist Church, 1941).

73. When Hostilities Cease, 5.

74. Miller, Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam, 261.

75. Miller, How Shall They Hear, 444.

76. “After the Bomber Comes the Builder,” Methodist Woman, July 1941, 3–4, quote at 3.

77. When Hostilities Cease, 111.

78. “After the Bomber Comes the Builder,” 4.

79. When Hostilities Cease, 107.

80. Ibid., 107–8.

81. “Minutes,” page 76, Folder 11, Box 1, RG 18, Federal Council of Churches Papers, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA (hereafter, FCC Papers). The initial members were John Foster Dulles (chairman), Henry A. Atkinson, Edwin E. Aubrey, Roswell P. Barnes, Albert W. Beaven, John Bennett, James H. Franklin, Georgia Harkness, Harold A. Hatch, William E. Hocking, John Bassett Moore, Justin Wroe Nixon, G. Bromley Oxnam, Albert W. Palmer, Luman J. Shafer, Channing H. Tobias, Walter W. Van Kirk, Henry P. Van Dusen, and Mary E. Woolley. The following organizations were invited to send two representatives each: International Council of Religious Education, Foreign Missions Conference of North America, Home Missions Councils, National Council of Church Women, United Stewardship Council, Church Peace Union, World Alliance for International Friendship through the Churches.

82. Minutes, Committee of Direction of the Commission to Study the Bases of a Just and Durable Peace, New York, March 21, 1941, Folder 6, Box 29, FCC Papers.

83. “The Church’s Thirteen Points: Statement of Guiding Principles Adopted by the National Study Conference on the Bases of a Just and Durable Peace,” Christian Century, March 18, 1942, 349–50.

84. Ibid.

85. Coupland, Britannia, Europa and Christendom, 52; “American Malvern,” 44, 46–48.

86. “The Churches and a Just and Durable Peace: Reports Adopted at the National Study Conference at Delaware, Ohio, March 3–5, 1942,” Christian Century, March 25, 1942, 394–95. This leftward shift in economic thinking is all the more surprising because the conference lacked virtually any representatives of labor. Business owners, on the other hand, had a strong showing. Harvey S. Firestone Jr., of the Firestone Tire Company, and John Holmes, of Swift & Company, were among the representatives from major corporations. Yale social ethicist Liston Pope complained that “labor was not represented more adequately at the conference.” Pope pointed out that during the discussion only a single person had been a member of a union, and he happened to be a member of a teacher’s union at a university. See Liston Pope to James Myers, March 14, 1942, Folder 17, Box 11, Series 1, Group 49, Liston Pope Papers, Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library (hereafter, Pope Papers). James Myers, who was in charge of organizing the economics section of the Delaware conference, agreed that the lack of labor representation was “a sad reflection on Protestantism and [reflective of] the actual fact of relative [sic] fewer labor people in our churches.” See James Myers to Liston Pope, June 2, 1942, Folder 17, Box 11, Series 1, Pope Papers. Underline in original. On ecumenical Protestantism’s relationship with labor, see Chapters 8 and 9 in this volume.

87. On Muste, see Leilah Danielson, American Gandhi: A. J. Muste and the History of Radicalism in the Twentieth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014).

88. A. J. Muste, “Social Bases for a Just and Durable Peace,” January 30, 1942, Folder 9, Box 28, FCC Papers; David A. Hollinger, After Cloven Tongues of Fire: Protestant Liberalism in Modern American History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013), 65–66.

89. Nurser, For All Peoples and All Nations: The Ecumenical Church and Human Rights (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2005), 187.

90. Gene Zubovich, “American Protestants and the Era of Anti-racist Human Rights,” Journal of the History of Ideas 79, no. 3 (2018): 427–43.

91. “Set Fair Play As Goal of a Future Peace,” Chicago Defender, March 21, 1942, 4.

92. HPVD [Henry P. Van Dusen], “The Churches Speak,” Christianity and Crisis, April 6, 1942, 1–2; “The Churches and the Peace,” Christian Century, March 18, 1942, 342–43.

93. “The Churches and the Peace,” 342.

94. “The Church Is Not at War!,” Christian Century, March 25, 1942, 375–77; HPVD [Henry P. Van Dusen], “Is The Church at War?,” Christianity and Crisis, April 6, 1942, 2–3. See also Herman Will Jr., “The Churches and the Post-War World: A Report of the National Study Conference at Delaware, Ohio,” motive, April 1942, 47–49.

95. Hollinger, After Cloven Tongues of Fire; Matthew Hedstrom, The Rise of Liberal Religion: Book Culture and American Spirituality in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

Chapter 3

1. On the World Order movement’s impact on US foreign relations, see Robert A. Divine, Second Chance: The Triumph of Internationalism in America During World War II (New York: Atheneum, 1967), esp. 160–62; Andrew Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012), 384–410.

2. On divisions among ecumenical Protestants about international affairs after 1945, see William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945–1960: The Soul of Containment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 29–62.

3. On the links between international planning and domestic reforms, see David A. Hollinger, After Cloven Tongues of Fire: Protestant Liberalism in Modern American History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013), 56–81; Andrew Preston, “Peripheral Visions: American Mainline Protestants and the Global Cold War,” Cold War History 13, no. 1 (2013): 109–30; Michael G. Thompson, For God and Globe: Christian Internationalism in the United States Between the Great War and the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015).

4. By locating the emergence of one strand of the American human rights discourse in the ecumenical Protestant milieu, including the emphasis on economic concerns, race, and religion, this chapters builds on the new scholarship on the history of human rights. The influence of US domestic concerns on international human rights, albeit without reference to religious organizations, has been most fully explored by Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005). Carol Anderson has spotlighted the role of race in the human rights debates of the 1940s, especially among African Americans. See Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003). On the use of human rights by racialized minorities in the 1940s United States, including Asian Americans and Native Americans, see Mark Bradley, The World Reimagined: Americans and Human Rights in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 92–121. The importance of religion and race for human rights in the 1960s has been chronicled by Steven L. B. Jensen, The Making of International Human Rights: The 1960s, Decolonization, and the Reconstruction of Global Values (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017). This chapter also builds on Samuel Moyn’s work, which has demonstrated the importance of religious groups in articulating human rights in the 1940s. But this book shows that ecumenical Protestant evocations of human rights are best understood in a liberal, not conservative, context. See Samuel Moyn, Christian Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015). The role of ecumenical Protestant organizations in the modern human rights movement is often mentioned but has not yet been fully explored. On the role of ecumenical Protestants in the human rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s, see William Patrick Kelly, Sovereign Emergencies: Latin America and the Making of Global Human Rights (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 67–77; Sarah B. Snyder, From Selma to Moscow: How Human Rights Activists Transformed U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018).

5. Philip M. Coupland, Britannia, Europa and Christendom: British Christians and European Integration (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 55–56.

6. Present on the American side were the members of the Dulles Commission, along with the president of Hunter College, the head of Princeton’s Institute for Advanced Studies, and an executive on the Council on Foreign Relations.

7. Coupland, Britannia, Europa and Christendom, 60–61.

8. “Notes of Meeting on ‘Peace Aims’ ” [marked “Highly Confidential”], Balliol College, Oxford, July 15–16, 1942, Group No. 3, Series IA, Box No. 163, Folder 22, Kenneth Scott Latourette Papers, Yale Divinity Library, New Haven, CT (hereafter, KSL Papers).

9. On Toynbee’s ideas about international relations, see Andrea Bosco and Cornelia Navari, eds., Chatham House and British Foreign Policy, 1919–1945: The Royal Institute of International Affairs During the Inter-War Period (London: Lothian Foundation Press, 1994); Christopher Brewin, “Arnold Toynbee, Chatham House, and Research in a Global Context,” in Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis: Inter-War Idealism Reassessed, ed. David Long and Peter Wilson (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 277–301; Maurice Cowling, Religion and the Public Doctrine in Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 1:19–45; Ian Hall, “ ‘Times of Troubles’: Arnold J. Toynbee’s Twentieth Century,” International Affairs 90, no. 1 (2014): 23–36; Ian Hall, “ ‘The Toynbee Convector’: The Rise and Fall of Arnold J. Toynbee’s Anti-Imperial Mission to the West,” The European Legacy 17, no. 4 (2012): 455–69; Kenneth Thompson, Toynbee’s Philosophy of World History and Politics (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985).

10. Coupland, Britannia, Europa and Christendom, 63.

11. John Nurser, For All Peoples and All Nations: The Ecumenical Church and Human Rights (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2005), 57–58.

12. Coupland, Britannia, Europa and Christendom, 60–61.

13. “Notes of Meeting on ‘Peace Aims.’ ”

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. “Churchmen Detail ‘Pillars of Peace,’ ” New York Times, March 19, 1943, 1.

17. Ibid.

18. Arthur Hays Sulzberger, “Six Pillars of Peace,” Folder 14, Box 29, RG 18, Federal Council of Churches Papers, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA (hereafter, FCC Papers).

19. “Churchmen Detail ‘Pillars of Peace.’ ”

20. Charles F. Boss to Walter W. Van Kirk, June 24, 1943, Folder 14, Box 29, FCC Papers.

21. Bishop Wilbur E. Hammaker to Rev. Charles F. Boss, June 21, 1943, Folder 14, Box 29, FCC Papers.

22. Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 394–96.

23. Ibid.

24. Coupland, Britannia, Europa and Christendom, 66.

25. Ibid.

26. The Federal Council of Churches cooperated with the Foreign Missions Conference, the Home Missions Council, the International Council of Religious Education, the Missionary Education Movement, and the United Council of Church Women.

27. Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 399; Walter W. Van Kirk, “Christian Mission Prepares Ground for Church Action,” Post War World, December 15, 1943, 1; “Drive for World Order of Nations Opened by Christian Church Group,” New York Times, October 29, 1943, 1.

28. Quoted in Van Kirk, “Christian Mission Prepares Ground for Church Action.”

29. “Johnstown Churches Plan Peace Program,” Post War World, December 15, 1943, 1.

30. “North Dakota Reports Results of Forums” and “Johnstown Churches Educate for Peace,” Post War World, April 15, 1944, 3.

31. Van Kirk, “Christian Mission Prepares Ground for Church Action.”

32. Quoted in Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 395. On the activities of local councils of churches during the 1940s, see “City Council of Churches Records, 1909–1970,” Burke Library, Union Theological Seminary, Columbia University Libraries, New York.

33. “Northern Baptist Crusade Planned,” Post War World, February 15, 1944, 1; “Northern Baptist Crusade Launched,” Post War World, April 15, 1944, 1.

34. On the historical memory of the Congregationalists, see Margaret Bendroth, The Last Puritans: Mainline Protestants and the Power of the Past (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).

35. “World Order Compact Signed on May 21 by Congregationalists,” Post War World, June 15, 1944, 1. On the lobbying efforts of the Congregationalists’ Washington Office, see Mark N. Wilhelm, “The Washington Office of the Congregational Christian Churches and the Search for a Public Theology” (PhD diss., Union Theological Seminary, New York, 2003).

36. “Congregationalists Start Campaign for World Order,” Post War World, April 15, 1944, 1.

37. “World Order Studied by Lutheran Women,” Post War World, April 15, 1944, 1; “Lutherans Study Post War Problems,” Post War World, June 15, 1944, 3.

38. “Presbyterians U.S.A. Plan World Order Movement,” Post War World, October 16, 1944, 3 (italics in original); “World Order Studied at Montreat Seminar,” Post War World, October 16, 1944, 1.

39. “The Coming Peace,” Post War World, October 16, 1944, 4.

40. Quoted in Robert Moats Miller, Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam: Paladin of Liberal Protestantism (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1990), 280.

41. Divine, Second Chance, 161.

42. Sarah E. Igo, The Averaged American: Surveys, Citizens, and the Making of a Mass Public (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007).

43. On the origins of Christian republicanism, see Mark A. Noll, America’s God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

44. Miller, G. Bromley Oxnam, 280–86; “Religion: Methodist Crusade,” Time, November 22, 1943, 43; Nurser, For All Peoples, 70–71.

45. Vera Micheles Dean, “Politics and Human Welfare,” Methodist Woman, April 1943, 5–7; Thelma Stevens, “Church Activities: Demobilization Challenges the Church,” Methodist Woman, October 1944, 20–22 (italics in original).

46. On Protestant women as “subordinated insiders” within the Protestant establishment, see Virginia Lieson Brereton, “United and Slighted: Women as Subordinated Insiders,” in Between the Times: The Travail of the Protestant Establishment in America 1900–1960, ed. William R. Hutchison (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 143–67. On ecumenical Protestant women’s politics more broadly, see Lillian Calles Barger, “ ‘Pray to God, She Will Hear Us’: Women Reimagining Religion and Politics in the 1970s,” in The Religious Left in Modern America: Doorkeepers of a Radical Faith, ed. Doug Rossinow, Leilah Danielson, and Marian Miller (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008), 211–31; Margaret Bendroth, “Women, Politics, and Religion,” in Religion and American Politics, ed. Mark Noll, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Ann Braude, ed., Transforming the Faiths of Our Fathers: Women Who Changed American Religion (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004); Ann Braude, “A Religious Feminist—Who Can Find Her? Historiographical Challenges from the National Organization for Women,” Journal of Religion 84, no. 4 (2004): 555–72; Bettye Collier-Thomas, Jesus, Jobs, and Justice: African American Women and Religion (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2014); Susan Hartmann, “Expanding Feminism’s Field and Focus: Activism in the National Council of Churches in the 1960s and Beyond,” in Women and Twentieth-Century Protestantism ed. Margaret Bendroth and Virginia Brereton (Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005), 49–69; Melinda M. Johnson, “Building Bridges: Church Women United and Social Reform Work Across the Mid-Twentieth Century” (PhD diss., University of Kentucky, 2015); Natalie Maxson, Journey for Justice: The Story of Women in the World Council of Churches (Geneva: WCC Publications, 2013); Nancy Marie Robertson, Christian Sisterhood, Race Relations, and the YWCA, 1906–46 (Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007); Judith Weisenfeld, African American Women and Christian Activism: New York’s Black YWCA, 1905–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997); Martha Lee Wiggins and Rosemary Skinner Keller, “United Church Women: ‘A Constant Drip of Water Will Wear a Hole in Iron’: The Ecumenical Struggle of Church Women to Unite Across Race and Shape the Civil Rights Century” (PhD diss., Union Theological Seminary, 2006).

47. Jacquelyn Hall and Bob Hall, “Interview with Thelma Stevens,” February 13, 1972, Interview G-0058, Southern Oral History Program Collection (#4007), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Thelma Stevens, Legacy for the Future: The History of Christian Social Relations in the Women’s Division of Christian Service, 1940–1968 (Cincinnati: United Methodist Church, 1978), 11–23. See also Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919–1950 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008), 416.

48. Stevens, Legacy for the Future, 32–33.

49. Nancy L. Wright, “A Study Experience at Mount Sequoyah,” Methodist Woman, October 1942, 18–19; Stevens, Legacy for the Future, 28, 32.

50. Thelma Stevens, “Departmental Suggestions: The Larger Community,” Methodist Woman, July 1943, 16–17. On the limits of racial liberalism, see Mark Brilliant, The Color of America Has Changed: How Racial Diversity Shaped Civil Rights Reform, 1941–1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

51. Mrs. Helen B. Bourne, “Education and Cultivation: The Church and America’s Peoples,” Methodist Woman, August 1943, 23–24.

52. Louis Adamic, From Many Lands (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1940); Carey McWilliams, Brothers Under the Skin (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1943).

53. Bourne, “Education and Cultivation.”

54. “November Eleven World Community Day,” Methodist Woman, October 1943, 3.

55. “D.C. Church Groups Will Join Nation-Wide Peace Program,” Washington Post, November 7, 1943, 10.

56. “Women Vote 58–1 for Peace Union,” New York Times, November 28, 1943, 32.

57. Thelma Stevens, “World Community Day—What Can We Do?,” Methodist Woman, November 1943, 18–19.

58. Thelma Stevens, “Christian Social Relations in the Crusade,” Methodist Woman, November 1944, 12–13.

59. Thelma Stevens, “Demobilization Challenges the Church,” Methodist Woman, October 1944, 20–22; Helen B. Bourne, “Christians and a New World Economy,” Methodist Woman, 24. On the triumph of rights-based liberalism, see Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), 10.

60. Thelma Stevens, “Department of Christian Social Relations and Local Church Activities,” Methodist Woman, November 1944, 23–24, 28 (italics in original); Franklin Roosevelt’s Annual Address to Congress—the “Four Freedoms,” Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, http://docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/od4frees.html.

61. Stevens, “Department of Christian Social Relations.”

62. Stevens, Legacy for the Future, 41.

63. Stevens, “Department of Christian Social Relations.”

64. Bendroth, “Women, Politics, and Religion”; Brereton, “United and Slighted.”

65. Stevens, Legacy for the Future, 32.

66. Thomas Keehn and Kenneth Underwood, “Protestants in Political Action,” Social Action, June 15, 1950, 5–39; “Council for Social Action, Congregational Christian Churches, Action on National Legislation,” Folder LC-4, Box 4, Series 8, Congregational Christian Churches Council for Social Action Records, Congregational Library and Archives, Boston, MA (hereafter, CSA Papers); Benson Y. Landis, “Report from Washington Office Committee,” Folder 17, Box 1, FCC Papers; Mark N. Wilhelm, “The Washington Office of the Congregational Christian Churches and the Search for a Public Theology” (PhD diss., Union Theological Seminary, 2003). On the precursors to the 1940s lobbying groups, see Luke Eugene Ebersole, Church Lobbying in the Nation’s Capital (New York: Mcmillan, 1951). On early Catholic efforts at lobbying, see Douglas J. Slawson, The Foundation and First Decade of the National Catholic Welfare Council (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1992).

67. John Evans, “Need Church in Politics, Pastor Asserts,” Chicago Tribune, June 22, 1946, 13.

68. Ibid.

69. “Document A, Council for Social Action, Congregational Christian Churches, Action on National Legislation,” LC-4, Box 3, Series 8, CSA Papers.

70. Divine, Second Chance, 227.

71. Ibid., 230–31.

72. On the early criticism of the United Nations, see Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009).

73. Quoted in Divine, Second Chance, 216.

74. Edward Stettinius, Memorandum to the President, December 5, 1944, Box 131, Dumbarton Oaks Conference, October 1944–1945, Series 1: Safe File, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Papers as President: The President’s Secretary’s File, 1933–1945, Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library & Museum, Hyde Park, NY.

75. “Minutes of the first meeting of the Committee on Arrangements for the Second National Study Conference on the Churches and a Just and Durable Peace,” May 24, 1944, and May 31, 1944, Folder 1, Box 28, FCC Papers.

76. Walter W. Van Kirk to William Ernest Hocking, October 31, 1944, Item 1931, Folder 1, Carton 8, MS Am 2375, William Ernest Hocking Correspondence, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (hereafter, WEH Correspondence).

77. “MINUTES of the First Meeting of the Pre-Cleveland Commission I,” October 9, 1944, Folder 21, Box 27, FCC Papers.

78. “MINUTES of the Second Meeting of the Pre-Cleveland Commission I,” November 6, 1944, Folder 21, Box 27, FCC Papers.

79. Reinhold Niebuhr, “An Analysis and Criticism of the Dumbarton Oaks Agreement,” Folder 22, Box 27, FCC Papers.

80. Ibid.

81. William Ernest Hocking to Walter W. Van Kirk, November 1, 1944, p. 2, Carton 8, WEH Correspondence.

82. O. Frederick Nolde, “Religious Liberty,” Folder 22, Box 27, FCC Papers.

83. Nurser, For All Peoples, 41–42.

84. Gene Zubovich, “William Ernest Hocking and the Liberal Protestant Origins of Human Rights,” in Christianity and Human Rights Reconsidered, ed. Sarah Shortall and Daniel Steinmetz-Jenkins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 139–57.

85. William Ernest Hocking to Charles Malik, August 3, 1947, Folder 12, Box 20, Charles Habib Malik Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. The most extensive account of the relationship between Hocking and Malik can be found in Linde Lindkvist, Religious Freedom and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 52–55, 87–88.

86. Robert Moats Miller, Harry Emerson Fosdick: Preacher, Pastor, Prophet (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 52.

87. Gene Zubovich, “American Protestants and the Era of Anti-Racist Human Rights,” Journal of the History of Ideas 79, no. 3 (September 20, 2018): 427–43.

88. The Christian Mission in the Light of Race Conflict: Report of the Jerusalem Meeting of the International Missionary Council, March 24th—April 8th, 1928 (London: University of Oxford Press, 1928), 217–18, 237.

89. 1942 Christmas Message of Pope Pius XII (Washington, DC: National Catholic Welfare Conference, 1943), 15.

90. “Sheen Says Man Is Being Crucified,” New York Times, March 7, 1938, 11.

91. For a Protestant critique of Catholic conceptions of human rights, see W. E. Garrison, “Democratic Rights in the Roman Catholic Tradition,” Church History 15, no. 3 (September 1946): 195–219.

92. On American Catholic ambivalence toward human rights in the World War II era, see John T. McGreevy, Catholicism and American Freedom: A History (New York: W.W. Norton, 2003), 200–203. For the Vatican’s views, see Giuliana Chamedes, A Twentieth-Century Crusade: The Vatican’s Battle to Remake Christian Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019), 170–72, 237–45. See also Moyn, Christian Human Rights, 25–100. On Jewish understandings of human rights in an international perspective, see James Loeffler, Rooted Cosmopolitans: Jews and Human Rights in the Twentieth Century (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018).

93. “Summary of Consensus of Agreement, World Order Conference, Detroit, November 6, 1944,” Folder 21, Box 27, FCC Papers.

94. “Summary of Consensus Agreement, World Order Conference, Indiana, PA, November 21, 1944,” Folder 21, Box 27, FCC Papers.

95. “Summary of Consensus Agreement, World Order Conference, Philadelphia, November 16, 1944,” Folder 21, Box 27, FCC Papers.

96. “Tentative Draft Report of Pre-Cleveland Commission on the Current International Situation,” not dated, Folder 22, Box 27, FCC Papers.

97. For the wording of the nine amendments, see Richard M. Fagley, “The Cleveland Recommendations and the United Nations Charter,” June 13, 1945, Folder 4, Box 28, FCC Papers.

98. “The Churches and World Order,” Christian Century, February 7, 1945, 176.

99. “Foreign Relations,” Time, January 20, 1945, 22.

100. “Tentative Draft Report of Pre-Cleveland Commission.”

101. “The National Study Conference of the Churches and a Just and Durable Peace, Preliminary Documents, Memorandum III, What Shall the Churches Now Do?,” n.d., 5–6, Folder 4, Box 28, FCC Papers.

102. James Tuttle to Walter Van Kirk, February 15, 1945, and Van Kirk to Tuttle, March 9, 1945, Folder 2, Box 28, FCC Papers.

103. “The Cleveland Conference,” Michigan Christian Advocate, February 1, 1945, 3.

104. A. J. Muste to William Earnest Hocking, April 16, 1945, Folder 1943, Carton 8, WEH Correspondence.

105. William Ernest Hocking to A. J. Muste, April 18, 1945, Folder 1943, Carton 8, WEH Correspondence. See also draft, in same folder, William Ernest Hocking to A. J. Muste, April 18, 1945 [hand-written note on top-right corner].

106. On Nolde, see Nurser, For All Peoples.

107. Nurser, For All Peoples, xi.

108. On the Protestant establishment’s relationship to the Soviet Union, see Gene Zubovich, “The Protestant Search for ‘the Universal Christian Community’ Between Decolonization and Communism,” Religions 8, no. 2 (2017): 17.

109. Nurser, For All Peoples, 113.

110. Ibid., 113–17.

111. “Minutes of the Twenty-Sixth Meeting of the United States Delegation, Held at San Francisco, Wednesday, May 2, 1945, 5:30 p.m.,” in Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, vol. 1, General: The United Nations (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1967), 533.

112. Heather A. Warren, Theologians of a New World Order: Reinhold Niebuhr and the Christian Realists, 1920–1948 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 106–8; Edward L. Parsons, “Report from San Francisco,” Christianity and Crisis, June 11, 1945, 1–3.

113. Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 409; Warren, Theologians of a New World Order, 106–7.

114. “Minutes of the Tenth Meeting of the United States Delegation, Held at Washington, Monday, April 16, 1945, 9 a.m.,” in Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, vol. 1, General: The United Nations, 308–9.

115. Ronald Pruessen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power (New York: Free Press, 1982), 250.

116. Ibid., 251; “Minutes of the Fifty-First Meeting of the United States Delegation, Held at San Francisco, Wednesday, May 23, 1945, 9 a.m.,” in Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, vol. 1, General: The United Nations, 855.

117. Carol Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

118. “The Federal Council and Internationalism,” United Evangelical Action, February 1943, 1–3.

119. Ibid.

120. “The San Francisco Charter,” United Evangelical Action, August 1, 1945, 13. The article emphasized the primacy of religious conversion over political action by quoting Galatians 2:21: “If righteousness is come by the law Christ is dead in vain.”

121. Carl F. H. Henry, The Uneasy Conscience of Modern Fundamentalism (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1947), 20.

122. K. Healan Gaston, Imagining Judeo-Christian America: Religion, Secularism, and the Redefinition of Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019); Kevin Michael Schultz, Tri-Faith America: How Catholics and Jews Held Postwar America to Its Protestant Promise (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).

123. Samuel McCrea Cavert to G. Bromley Oxnam, May 21, 1946, Folder 8, Box 16, FCC Papers.

124. Roswell P. Barnes to John G. Winant, May 22, 1946, Folder 22, Box 67, FCC Papers. Nolde’s work at the Paris conference is summarized in “The Churches and the United Nations: Chronology of Proceedings,” Folder 22, Box 67, FCC Papers.

125. Letters between Merrill and Nolde, quoted in Nurser, 160–61.

126. “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” United Nations, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights, accessed May 12, 2021.

127. Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 390.

Chapter 4

1. “The Church and Race Relations,” pamphlet (New York: Federal Council of Churches, 1946), 5.

2. On ecumenical Protestant mobilization against anti-Japanese racism, see Anne M. Blankenship, Christianity, Social Justice, and the Japanese American Incarceration During World War II (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016); Sarah Marie Griffith, The Fight for Asian American Civil Rights: Liberal Protestant Activism, 1900–1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2018); David A. Hollinger, Protestants Abroad: How Missionaries Tried to Change the World but Changed America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), 139–62; Robert Shaffer, “Cracks in the Consensus: Defending the Rights of Japanese Americans During World War II,” Radical History Review 72 (1998): 84–120.

3. The most thorough account of ecumenical Protestant mobilization against anti-Black racism is James F. Findlay Jr., The Church People in the Struggle: The National Council of Churches and the Black Freedom Movement, 1950–1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

4. Griffith, Fight for Asian American Civil Rights; Nicholas T. Pruitt, Open Hearts, Closed Doors: Immigration Reform and the Waning of Mainline Protestantism (New York: New York University Press, 2021), 49–53.

5. On the role of Protestant missionaries in anti-racist movements in the middle decades of the twentieth century, see Hollinger, Protestants Abroad.

6. Shaffer, “Cracks in the Consensus.”

7. The former missionaries relied on pre-existing network of well-connected figures with links to Japan, including Chicago Theological Seminary president Albert Palmer, John R. Mott, Luman J. Shafer, and Edmund D. Soper.

8. Robert Shaffer, “Galen Merriam Fisher,” in Densho Encyclopedia, http://encyclopedia.densho.org/, accessed November 21, 2012.

9. Sarah Griffith, “ ‘Where We Can Battle for the Lord and Japan’: The Development of Liberal Protestant Antiracism before World War II,” Journal of American History 100, no. 2 (September 2013): 429–53.

10. See biographical note to the Harry Lees Kingman Papers, 1921–1975, BANC MSS 76/173 c, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

11. Ruth Kingman Interview, The Earl Warren Oral History Project, Japanese-American Relocation Reviewed, vol. 2, The Internment, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 1–6.

12. Rebecca Ann Hodges, “Christian Citizenship and the Foreign Work of the YMCA” (PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2017).

13. Galen Fisher to Rev. John M. Yamazaki, October 25, 1941, Documents 1: MS60 A 1, Fisher, Galen Merriam, 1873–1955: Correspondence, October 1941/“Removed from David P. Barrows Papers,” C-B 1005 Bancroft Library, Berkeley (hereafter, Fisher Correspondence).

14. Richard Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps: Dillon S. Myer and American Racism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Cherstin Lyon, Prisons and Patriots: Japanese American Wartime Citizenship, Civil Disobedience, and Historical Memory (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011); Greg Robinson, A Tragedy of Democracy: Japanese Confinement in North America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009); Greg Robinson, By Order of the President : FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).

15. Peter Richardson, American Prophet: The Life and Work of Carey McWilliams (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005), 106–8.

16. Quoted in Blankenship, Christianity, Social Justice, 33.

17. “Minutes,” pp. 41–42, Folder 12, Box 1, RG 18, Federal Council of Churches Papers, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA (hereafter, FCC Papers). This criticism of Roosevelt’s policy was inspired by Fisher, who had regularly fed information to the Federal Council during the war and whose reports became the basis of the organization’s resolutions on internment. See Roswell Barnes to Galen Fisher, October 15, 1941, Documents 1: MS60 A 1, Fisher Correspondence.

18. “A Statement/Berkeley Fellowship of Churches and the First Congregational Church of Berkeley to Japanese Friends and Fellow Americans,” Pacific Coast Committee on American Principles and Fair Play Records, 1940–1951, Folder 5, Carton 2, BANC MSS C-A 171, Bancroft Library, Berkeley (hereafter, Fair Play Records).

19. “Hitlerism Threatens the California Japanese,” Christian Century, March 11, 1942, 309. The journal also argued that the anti-Mexican Zoot Suit riots and anti-Black racism were extensions of the fascist mobilization against Japanese Americans. See “Portent of Storm,” Christian Century, June 23, 1943, 735–36.

20. On the central role of Christianity and Crisis in the development of a Protestant Left, see Mark Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left: “Christianity and Crisis” Magazine, 1941–1993 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1999).

21. “The Evacuation of Japanese Citizens,” Christianity and Crisis, May 18, 1942, 2–5.

22. On the sharply different attitudes toward Myers, see Homer L. Morris to Caleb Foote, May 10, 1945, Folder 31; Caleb Foote to Nevin Sayre, April 14, 1945, Folder 5, Carton 2, Fair Play Records.

23. Joseph Kip Kosek, Acts of Conscience: Christian Nonviolence and Modern American Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 176–77.

24. A sum of $375 per month was granted for this work. See Dwight J. Bradley, “Report upon the Work of the Council for Social Action in Behalf of American Japanese. Season 1942–1943,” RR-7, Council for Social Action Papers, Congregational Library, Boston, MA (hereafter, CSA Papers).

25. “Draft Proposal for Placing Japanese Families in Interior States,” April 3, 1942, signed by Robert Inglis, John C. Bennett, Donald Gaylord, Galen M. Fisher, Folder 5, Carton 2, Fair Play Records.

26. Togo Tanaka to Ruth W. Kingman, November 2, 1944, Folder 31, Carton 2, Fair Play Records.

27. Blankenship, Christianity, Social Justice, 71.

28. “Statement of Dr. Roswell P. Barnes at Hearing on H.R. 2768,” May 28, 1947, Folder 3, Box 12, FCC Papers.

29. Pruitt, Open Hearts, Closed Doors, 108–17, 153–61, 168–80, quotes at 157 and 165.

30. “Draft Proposal for Placing Japanese Families in Interior States,” April 3, 1942, Folder 5, Carton 2; Northern California Council of Churches to the members of the Inter-Racial Commission, February 5, 1945, Folder 5, Carton 2; Togo Tanaka to Ruth W. Kingman, November 2, 1944, Folder 31, Carton 2; “Minutes and Findings of the Meeting of the Protestant Church Commission for Japanese Service,” January 11–12, 1945, Folder 6, Carton 3; “Joint Conference On Future of Japanese Church Work, Resettlement, and Return,” April 24–26, 1945, Folder 6, Carton 3, Fair Play Records.

31. “A Nisei Layman’s Views on Church Integration,” Folder 6, Carton 3, Fair Play Records.

32. Ray Gibbons to Rev. Z. Okayama, May 25, 1944, RR-7, CSA Papers.

33. Kosek, Acts of Conscience, 183.

34. Executive Committee Minutes, 1940, p. 11, Folder 11, Box 1, FCC Papers.

35. Buell Gallagher to Eugene Link, undated [June 1942], Eugene P. Link Papers, 1907–1993 (APAP-025), M. E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY.

36. “A Statement to the President,” Executive Committee of the Fraternal Council of Negro Churches, February 17, 1942, Folder 12, Box 1, FCC Papers.

37. Executive Committee minutes, 1942, p. 50, Folder 12, Box 1, FCC Papers.

38. Ibid.

39. Walter W. Van Kirk, A Christian Global Strategy (Chicago: Willett, Clark & Co., 1945), 75–80.

40. Rachel K. McDowell, “Churches to Mark Conference Gains,” New York Times, June 23, 1945, 11.

41. Minutes of Administrative Committee, Department of Race Relations, November 21, 1941, Folder 1, Box 56, FCC Papers.

42. Ibid.

43. Minutes of Administrative Committee, Department of Race Relations, February 4, 1942, Folder 1, Box 56, FCC Papers.

44. Ibid.

45. Memorandum on Post-War Interracial and Intercultural Relations, February 3, 1942, Folder 1, Box 56, FCC Papers.

46. Executive Committee Minutes, 1942, pp. 26–28, Folder 12, Box 1, FCC Papers.

47. Quoted in Barbara Dianne Savage, Your Spirits Walk Beside Us: The Politics of Black Religion (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), 55.

48. On Benjamin E. Mays, see Lawrence Edward Carter, ed., Walking Integrity: Benjamin Elijah Mays, Mentor to Martin Luther King Jr. (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1998); Randall Jelks, Benjamin Elijah Mays: Schoolmaster of the Movement, A Biography (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2012); Benjamin E. Mays, Born to Rebel: An Autobiography (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003). On Channing H. Tobias, see Nina Mjagkij, Light in the Darkness: African Americans and the YMCA, 1852–1946 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2003); O. Joyce Smith, “Channing H. Tobias: An Educational Change Agent in Race Relations, 1940–1960” (PhD diss., Loyola University, 1993); “Channing Tobias of N.A.A.C.P. Dead,” New York Times, November 6, 1961, 37. On George E. Haynes, see Daniel Perlman, “Stirring the White Conscience: The Life of George Edmund Haynes” (PhD diss., New York University, 1972); Samuel Kelton Roberts, “Crucible for a Vision: The Work of George Edmund Haynes and the Commission on Race Relations, 1922–1947” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1974); Ronald C. White Jr., Liberty and Justice for All: Racial Reform and the Social Gospel, 1877–1925 (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1990), 249–60.

49. For more on southern activism of this generation, see John Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995).

50. The initial group consisted of Will W. Alexander (chairman), Bradford S. Abernethy (director), Louis Adamic, Theodore F. Adams, Eugene M. Austin, Eugene Barnett, Noble Y. Beall, William Y. Bell, Fred L. Brownlee, Ralph J. Bunche, Henry Sloane Coffin, Clark W. Cummings, Dorothy Canfield Fisher, Shelby M. Harrison, George E. Haynes, Paul B. Kern, Benjamin E. Mays, Howard Odum, Liston Pope, Homer P. Rainey, J. McDowell Richards, Benton Rhodes, William Scarlett, David H. Sims, Thelma Stevens, Anson Phelps Stokes, John Thomas, Dorothy Tilly, Channing H. Tobias, Henry St. George Tucker, W. J. Walls, Forrester B. Washington, Luther A. Weigle, and Charles H. Wesley.

51. “Rev. Bradford S. Abernethy Joins Staff of Commission to Study the Bases of a Just and Durable Peace,” Federal Council of Churches Press Release, August 19, 1941; Interview with David Abernethy, June 2012. Both in author’s possession.

52. “Summary” [undated], Folder 21, Box 56, FCC Papers.

53. Loescher’s research for the commission was later published as Frank Loescher, The Protestant Church and the Negro: A Pattern of Segregation (1948; repr., Westport, CT: Negro Universities Press, 1971), 15.

54. Daniel Crowe, Prophets of Rage: The Black Freedom Struggle in San Francisco, 1945–1969 (New York: Garland Publishing, 2000), 16–20, 29, 38–39. On the East Bay during World War II, see Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

55. Michael Emerson and Rodney Woo, People of the Dream: Multiracial Congregations in the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 20. On interracial churches in the 1940s, see Homer A. Jack, “The Emergence of the Interracial Church,” Social Action (1947): 31–38. On Thurman, see Paul Harvey, Howard Thurman and the Disinherited: A Religious Biography (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2020).

56. “All Races Join in Interracial Church on Coast,” Chicago Defender, November 25, 1944, 8.

57. Buell G. Gallagher, Color and Conscience: The Irrepressible Conflict (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1946), 230.

58. Jack, “The Emergence of the Interracial Church.”

59. Minutes, Commission on Church and Minority Peoples, April 21, 1944, Folder 20, Box 56, FCC Papers.

60. Ibid.

61. On segregated religious institutions giving rise to Black leadership, see Thomas Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), chap. 1.

62. Savage, Your Spirits Walk Beside Us, 2; Curtis J. Evans, The Burden of Black Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).

63. “Top Churchmen Assail Segregation in Religion,” Chicago Defender, December 23, 1944, 2; “Open-Door Church Asked,” New York Times, December 16, 1944, 30.

64. See the pencil marks on the document “Suggested Procedures/Tentative draft of Section III of proposed statement by the Commission. For discussion at Princeton,” Folder 1, Box 57, FCC Papers.

65. Liston Pope, “Revised List of Suggested Procedures,” Folder 1, Box 57, FCC Papers.

66. Ibid.

67. Minutes, Commission on Church and Minority Peoples, May 8–10, 1945, pg. 3, Folder 20, Box 57, FCC Papers.

68. “Some Guiding Christian Affirmations,” prepared by the Commission on the Church and Minority Peoples, p. 153, Folder 15, Box 1, FCC Papers.

69. Ibid.

70. Bishop William Scarlett, “A Statement of Christian Principles,” Folder 1, Box 51, FCC Papers.

71. George Haynes to Roswell P. Barnes, “Memorandum,” November 19, 1945, Folder 14, Box 57, FCC Papers. Underlining in original. See also “Memorandum to Bishop Oxnam,” November 19, 1945, Folder 14, Box 57, FCC Papers.

72. “Council Actions at Columbus,” Federal Council Bulletin, April 1946, 9–13, quote at 9.

73. Ibid., 10.

74. Mays, Born to Rebel, 223–24.

75. “Memorandum on Community Tensions,” Folder 14, Box 54, FCC Papers.

76. “U.N.O. City Location Delayed Until January,” Los Angeles Times, December 18, 1945, 5. See also George Padmore, “Race Bias Knocks Dixie Out of Contest for UNO Site,” Chicago Defender, January 12, 1946, 4.

77. On the UN building, and the relationship between World War II–era internationalism and the built environment in New York City, see Samuel Zipp, Manhattan Projects: The Rise and Fall of Urban Renewal in Cold War New York (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

78. “The Church and Race Relations.”

79. Oral history interview with Will Winton Alexander, 1952, Columbia Center for Oral History, Rare Books and Manuscript Library, Butler Library, Columbia University, New York, NY, 721–23.

80. Ibid.

81. Ibid.

82. “The Church and Race Relations.”

83. “Biggest Church Body in America Rips Jim Crow,” Chicago Defender, March 16, 1946, 1.

84. “Protestants Close Ranks,” Christian Century, March 20, 1946, 360–61.

85. For the deleted text, which was crossed out, see “Memorandum on Community Tensions,” p. 7, Folder 14, Box 57, FCC Papers. For the second draft with Haynes’s handwritten note, see same title and folder with the words “Old—P7 deleted finally” on top-right corner of first page. On the history of interracial marriage, see Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

86. “The Church and Race Relations,” 6–7.

87. For a step-by-step account of the clinical approach to racism, see George E. Haynes, “The Interracial Clinic,” Journal of Negro Education 14, no. 2 (Spring 1945): 262–67. On human relations, see Leah N. Gordon, From Power to Prejudice: The Rise of Racial Individualism in Midcentury America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 66–75.

88. George E. Haynes, “Clinical Methods in Interracial and Intercultural Relations,” Journal of Educational Sociology 19, no. 5 (January 1946): 316–25, esp. 318–20.

89. Haynes, “The Interracial Clinic,” 262.

90. For the significance of the California Federation in postwar California history, see Mark Brilliant, The Color of America Has Changed: How Racial Diversity Shaped Civil Rights Reform in California, 1941–1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), chap. 1.

91. The YMCA and YWCA did not publicly affirm the Federal Council’s leadership on the issue of segregation when they not only denounced segregation but also desegregated their national bureaucracy. But the timing of the desegregation proclamation and the participation of YMCA and YWCA leaders in the Commission on Church and Minority Peoples, including Tobias and Eugene Barnett, makes clear the influence of the Federal Council’s initiative.

92. George E. Haynes, Africa: Continent of the Future (New York: The Association Press, 1950).

93. On ecumenical Protestant programs to send students to the Global South, see Ada J. Focer, “Frontier Internship in Mission, 1961–1974: Young Christians Abroad in a Post-Colonial and Cold War World” (PhD diss., Boston University, 2016).

Chapter 5

1. On anti-racist readings of human rights in the United States, see Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Mark Philip Bradley, The World Reimagined: Americans and Human Rights in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), chap. 4. On views of human rights among anti-colonial activists in Africa, see Bonny Ibhawoh, “Testing the Atlantic Charter: Linking Anticolonialism, Self-Determination and Universal Human Rights,” International Journal of Human Rights 18, nos. 7–8 (2014): 842–60; Meredith Terretta, “ ‘We Had Been Fooled into Thinking That the UN Watches over the Entire World’: Human Rights, UN Trust Territories, and Africa’s Decolonization,” Human Rights Quarterly 34, no. 2 (May 2012): 329–60. Much of the literature on human rights in the 1940s highlights priorities other than anti-racism. See Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007); Mary Ann Glendon, A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (New York: Random House, 2001); Paul Gordon Lauren, The Evolution of International Human Rights: Visions Seen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003); Samuel Moyn, Christian Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015); John Nurser, For All Peoples and All Nations: The Ecumenical Church and Human Rights (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2005). On the anthropologists’ position, see The Executive Board, American Anthropological Association, “Statement on Human Rights,” American Anthropologist 49, no. 4 (October–December 1947): 539–43.

2. On the anti-racist understanding of human rights in the 1960s, see Steven L. B. Jensen, The Making of International Human Rights: The 1960s, Decolonization, and the Reconstruction of Global Values (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017). On the influence of the civil rights movement on human rights in the 1960s, see Sarah B. Snyder, From Selma to Moscow: How Human Rights Activists Transformed U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018).

3. John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986).

4. “Prime Minister Churchill’s Speech,” New York Times, November 11, 1942, 4.

5. “Record of Washington Meeting: College of Preachers, Washington Cathedral,” Commission on Church and Minority Peoples, December 18–19, 1945, p. 3, Folder 20, Box 56, RG 18, Federal Council of Churches Papers, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA (hereafter, FCC Papers); Edmund D. Soper, “Seminar on New Race Issues: Finding to be presented at Conference on Christian Bases of World Order, March 10, 1943,” Folder 21, Box 8, Edmund D. Soper Papers, the United Library, Garrett-Evangelical/Seabury-Western Seminaries, Evanston, IL (hereafter, Soper Papers); Buell G. Gallagher, Color and Conscience: The Irrepressible Conflict (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1946), 63, 65–66.

6. Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy (New York: Scribner, 1920), 9.

7. Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 81.

8. Stuart Svonkin, Jews Against Prejudice : American Jews and the Fight for Civil Liberties (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).

9. Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 207–23.

10. John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century Urban North (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).

11. Gerald H. Gamm, Urban Exodus: Why the Jews Left Boston and the Catholics Stayed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).

12. Frank Samuel Loescher, The Protestant Church and the Negro: A Pattern of Segregation (New York: Association Press, 1948).

13. Gunner Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1944).

14. Ibid., 8.

15. David W. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations: The Use and Abuse of An America Dilemma, 1944–1969 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Walter A. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience: Social Engineering & Racial Liberalism, 1938–1987 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).

16. Edmund Davison Soper, The Religions of Mankind (New York: Abingdon Press, 1921); Edmund Davison Soper, The Philosophy of the Christian World Mission (New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1943).

17. David A. Hollinger describes this phenomenon as “missionary cosmopolitanism.” See David A. Hollinger, Protestants Abroad: How Missionaries Tried to Change the World but Changed America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017).

18. Edmund Davison Soper, Racism: A World Issue (New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1947), 7. Participants in a follow-up conference included Dr. Lowell B. Hazzard, Dr. W.W. Sweet, Dr. Charles S. Braden, Dr. Murray Leiffer, E.D.S. [?], C.S.B. [Charles S. Bennett?], Dr. Paul Hutchinson, Dr. E. Burns Martin, Dr. Phillips Brooks Smith, Rev. M. W. Clair, Jr., Dr. Morgan Williams, Mrs. Olin Clarke Jones, Mr. and Mrs. Soper, Dr. Frank Herron Smith, Dr. L.R. Eckardt, Dr. Charles R. Goff, and Dr. Lynn J. Dadcliffe. There were also several others whose names were not listed. See “General Subjects of Delaware Conference,” Folder 21, Box 8, Soper Papers.

19. Edmund D. Soper, “Seminar on New Race Issues,” March 10, 1943, Folder 21, Box 8, Soper Papers.

20. Ibid. The call for a “Pacific Charter” was a featured in Wendell L. Wilkie, One World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1943).

21. Soper, “Seminar on New Race Issues.”

22. Soper, Racism, 7–11.

23. The breadth and systematic character of the book was unique. The study of the role of racism in world affairs was not new. See, for example, W.E.B. Du Bois, The World and Africa: An Inquiry into the Part Which Africa Has Played in World History (New York: Viking Press, 1947).

24. Gallagher, Color and Conscience, 13.

25. Myrdal drew on Gallagher’s earlier writings and cited Gallagher’s 1934 book American Caste and the Negro College respectfully in his study. Gunner Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944; repr., New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 1377.

26. See Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience.

27. Gallagher, Color and Conscience, 3.

28. Ibid., 98.

29. For a discussion of both the possibilities and limits of Cold War discourses on race, see Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).

30. On the close relationship between international affairs and anti-racist activism in the Cold War era, see Azza Salama Layton, International Politics and Civil Rights Policies in the United States, 1941–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Jonathan Rosenberg, How Far the Promised Land? World Affairs and the American Civil Rights Movement from the First World War to Vietnam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006); Nikhil Pal Singh, Black Is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004); Penny M. Von Eschen, Race Against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997).

31. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955).

32. Frank Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen (1946; repr., Boston: Beacon Press, 1992).

33. Ibid., 97.

34. Ibid., 115.

35. Tannenbaum’s book has been continuously in print since 1946 and continues to be assigned in graduate history courses. On the enduring legacy of the book, and what it misses about race in Brazil, see Alejandro de la Fuente, “From Slaves to Citizens? Tannenbaum and the Debates on Slavery, Emancipation, and Race Relations in Latin America,” International Labor and Working-Class History 77 (Spring 2010): 154–73.

36. Soper, Racism, 173.

37. Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 6 (London: Oxford University Press, 1939).

38. Galen Fisher, “Racism and the World Outreach of Church and Nation,” April 1945, Folder 1, Box 57, FCC Papers.

39. Toynbee is cited several times in Racism, yet Soper “had not felt that this dictum was sufficiently well supported to call attention to it,” according to a participant in a discussion of the manuscript. See Wynn C. Fairfield to Rev. George F. Ketcham, November 12, 1945, Folder 1, Box 57, FCC Papers. Buell Gallagher praised the Toynbee thesis but also criticized some of its implications. See Gallagher, Color and Conscience, 55.

40. Soper, Racism, 175.

41. Ibid., 179.

42. Ibid., 182.

43. Ibid., 72–73.

44. Yuri Slezkine, The Jewish Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004).

45. Yuri Slezkine, “The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism,” Slavic Review 53, no. 2 (1994): 414–52, quote at 415.

46. Francine Hirsch, Empire of Nations: Ethnographic Knowledge and the Making of the Soviet Union (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), 14.

47. Terry Martin, Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001).

48. Soper, Racism, 80.

49. Gallagher, Color and Conscience, 183.

50. Ibid., 184.

51. Soper, Racism, 80–81.

52. Ibid., 81.

53. Ibid., 84.

54. Ibid.

55. Gallagher, Color and Conscience, 188–89. Eugene Barnett, the YMCA head who authored its pronouncement that desegregated the national hierarchy in 1946, made similar observations, noting that “an influential section of labor, together with the USSR, have gone much further than the Church in dealing with the problem of race.” See “Record of Washington Meeting.”

56. Buell G. Gallagher to Walter White, July 16, 1944, Frames 785–787, Reel 7; and Walter White to Buell Gallagher, July 20, 1944, Frames 781–782, Reel 7, Papers of the NAACP, Supplement to Part 16, Board of Directors File, 1966–1970, [microform], ed. John H. Bracey Jr. and August Meier, University Publications of America, Bethesda, MD.

57. Fisher, “Racism and the World Outreach of Church and Nation,” 15.

58. See, for example, Emily Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism: Converting the World in the Early American Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015); Tisa Joy Wenger, Religious Freedom: The Contested History of an American Ideal (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017). On the complicated relationship of Christianity and imperialism in the twentieth century, see Melani McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders: A Global History of American Evangelicals (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018); Brian Stanley, Christianity in the Twentieth Century: A World History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), chaps. 2 and 9.

59. Headnote in W. E. B. Du Bois, Color and Democracy: Colonies and Peace (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1945), 123.

60. Ibid. See also Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line, 41. Du Bois had previously been a sharp critic of American missionaries. In 1900, he railed against Christian missionaries at the first Pan-African Congress in London: “Let not the cloak of Christian missionary enterprise be allowed in the future as so often in the past, to hide the ruthless economic exploitation and political downfall of less developed nations, whose chief fault has been reliance on the plighted faith of the Christian church.” Quoted in Edward J. Blum, W.E.B. Du Bois: American Prophet (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 122.

61. Du Bois, Color and Democracy, 131.

62. Carol Anderson, Bourgeois Radicals: The NAACP and the Struggle for Colonial Liberation, 1941–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 84–132.

63. Soper, Racism, 276.

64. On India-US comparisons, see Sarah Azaransky, This Worldwide Struggle: Religion and the International Roots of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017); Daniel Immerwahr, “Caste or Colony? Indianizing Race in the United States,” Modern Intellectual History 4 (2007): 275–301; Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017).

65. Gallagher, Color and Conscience, 174.

66. Berkeley Daily Gazette, May 28, 1948, 11.

67. Berkeley Daily Gazette, May 20, 1948; Berkeley Daily Gazette, May 27, 1948; Harland E. Hogue, Christian Seed in Western Soil: Pacific School of Religion Through a Century (Berkeley, CA: Pacific School of Religion, 1965), 138–39.

68. Buell G. Gallagher, “The Honor of a Certain Aim,” Christian Century, December 22, 1948, 1393–96.

69. For the discussion of racial inclusion that preceded the Cincinnati meeting, see Memorandum to J. Oscar Lee and Roswell P. Barnes, October 1, 1948, Folder 13, Box 57, FCC Papers.

70. The commission consisted of Channing Tobias, Roland Bainton, Homer P. Rainey, Will W. Alexander, Lillian K. Hatford, Norman J. Padelford, Nelson Cruikshank, Shelby Harrison, Liston Pope, Dorothy Height, John H. Alexander, W.G. Mather (chairman), Wynn Fairfield, L. K. Anderson, Frederick Nolde, and Charles W. Seaver.

71. “The Churches and Human Rights: An Official Statement adopted by the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America,” December 1948, pp. 4–6, Folder 16, Box 57, FCC Papers.

72. Ibid.

73. George Dugan, “End of Racial Segregation Asked by Churches’ Council,” New York Times, December 4, 1948, 1; Martha J. Hall, “Protestant Council Indorses Complete End of Segregation,” Washington Post, December 4, 1948, 1; “Church Leaders Visit Truman, Approve Civil Rights,” Chicago Defender, December 25, 1948, 4.

74. John M. Alexander to Rev. Beverly M. Boyd, November 18, 1948, Folder 13, Box 57, FCC Papers.

75. Ibid.

76. “Council Action on Human Rights Gets Chief Public Notice: Goal to Ban Segregation Is Reaffirmed by Leadership,” Presbyterian Outlook, December 13, 1948, 1.

77. Hall, “Protestant Council Indorses Complete End of Segregation,” 1.

78. John M. Alexander, “Comments on the Council’s Statement,” Presbyterian Outlook, December 13, 1948, 7–8.

79. Loescher, The Protestant Church and the Negro, 45.

80. Martin Luther King Jr., “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” Christian Century, June 12, 1963, 770.

81. Jane Dailey, “Sex, Segregation, and the Sacred After Brown,” Journal of American History 91, no. 1 (June 2004): 119–44. The hierarchical bureaucracy of the Federal Council of Churches suppressed grassroots racist theology in national conversations among ecumenical leaders, who disregarded grassroots discourse until the 1954 Brown v. Board decision made it impossible to ignore. In addition, several large southern denominations and fundamentalist denominations were not members of the Federal Council, which further limited the appearance of theological racism among ecumenical Protestant leaders. Denominational histories also confirm that leaders of southern denominations were more liberal on racial matters than their constituencies. The Southern Baptist Convention, which was the largest southern denomination and was unaffiliated with the Federal Council, endorsed the Brown v. Board decision, even though it was deeply unpopular with churchgoers. See Alan Scot Willis, All According to God’s Plan: Southern Baptist Missions and Race, 1945–1970 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2005); Mark Newman, Getting Right with God: Southern Baptists and Desegregation, 1945–1995 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001).

82. Leah N. Gordon, From Power to Prejudice: The Rise of Racial Individualism in Midcentury America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015).

83. For an example of how human rights permeated the ecumenical Protestant milieu, see Dorothy Canfield Fisher, A Fair World for All: The Meaning of the Declaration of Human Rights (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1952), esp. 83–87. This children’s book printed for a wide audience by a popular author casually dismisses scientific racism, undermines claims of racial differences, and argues for the unity of mankind.

84. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights.

Chapter 6

1. Winston Churchill, “Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech, ‘Sinews of Peace,’ ” March 5, 1946, Wilson Center Digital Archive, https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116180, accessed July 7, 2020.

2. Ibid.

3. “Crowd of 35,000 Greets President and Churchill in Columbus,” Columbus Dispatch, March 6, 1946, 6A; Robert W. Potter, “Churchmen Called by Truman to Save World from Ruin,” New York Times, March 7, 1946, 1; “Protestants Close Ranks,” Christian Century, March 20, 1946, 360–61.

4. On the Cold War as an ideological project, see Anders Stephanson, “Cold War Degree Zero,” in Uncertain Empire: American History and the Idea of the Cold War, ed. Joel Isaac and Duncan Bell (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 19–50. On the role of ideology in the global Cold War, see Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

5. “Atomic Warfare and the Christian Faith,” March 6, 1946, Folder 16, Box 2, RG 18, Federal Council of Churches Papers, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA (hereafter, FCC Papers). On the atomic bomb in American popular imagination, see Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon, 1985).

6. “Protestants Close Ranks,” 360–61.

7. Ibid.

8. Charter of the United Nations, https://www.un.org/en/charter-united-nations/, accessed July 7, 2020.

9. Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 8.

10. Ibid., 7. On Protestant criticism of the United Nations, see Chapter 3 of this volume.

11. Senator Bricker quoted in Stewart Patrick, The Sovereignty Wars: Reconciling America with the World (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2017), 127. Poll results in Alfred O. Hero, American Religious Groups View Foreign Policy: Trends in Rank-and-File Opinion, 1937–1969 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1973), 512.

12. “Council Actions at Columbus,” Federal Council Bulletin, April 1946, 9–13, quotes at 9.

13. Ibid.

14. Ibid.

15. William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945–1960: The Soul of Containment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 34.

16. Churchill, “Sinews of Peace.”

17. “Protestants Close Ranks,” 360; “The Church and Race Relations: An Official Statement approved by the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America at a Special Meeting, Columbus, Ohio, March 5–7, 1946,” pamphlet, Folder 14, Box 57, FCC Papers. For more on this statement, see Chapter 4 of this volume.

18. “Council Actions at Columbus,” Federal Council Bulletin, April 1946, 12.

19. George C. Marshall Jr., “Remarks by the Secretary of State at Harvard University on June 5, 1947,” https://www.marshallfoundation.org/library/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2014/06/Marshall_Plan_Speech_Complete.pdf, accessed October 2, 2018.

20. Walter LaFeber, The American Age: U.S. Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad, vol. 2, 2nd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994), 480. On the American ecumenical Protestant reconstruction of religious institutions in Germany, see James D. Strasburg, “God’s Marshall Plan: Transatlantic Christianity and the Quest for Godly Global Order, 1910–1963” (PhD diss., Notre Dame University, 2018), 167–295.

21. “The Churches and the European Recovery Program: Appendix C,” n.d., Folder 20, Box 1, FCC Papers.

22. See Walter LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–2006, 10th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2008).

23. “The Churches and the European Recovery Program.”

24. “President Harry S. Truman’s Address Before a Joint Session of Congress,” March 12, 1947, Avalon Project, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/trudoc.asp, accessed October 2, 2018.

25. Executive Committee Minutes, p. 26, Folder 18, Box 1, FCC Papers.

26. Ibid. For the Federal Council’s evaluation of the United Nations and its role circa 1947, see “United Nations,” Appendix D, p. 20, Folder 18, Box 1, FCC Papers.

27. “American-Soviet Relations,” 1946, Folder 17, Box 1, FCC Papers. See also “Statement on Soviet-American Relations (Confidential),” Folder 17, Box 1, FCC Papers.

28. George A. Coe, letter to the editor, Christian Century, April 13, 1949, 467.

29. “American-Soviet Relations.”

30. Ibid.

31. Ibid., 10–11.

32. Ibid., 13.

33. G. Bromley Oxnam, “Must We Fight Russia?,” Christian Herald, December 1947, 6. Italics in original.

34. Ibid., 7.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid.

37. Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 54.

38. “The Cleveland Conference,” Christian Century, March 2, 1949, 263–64.

39. James A. Craine to Walter W. Van Kirk, July 5, 1948, Folder 21, Box 37, FCC Papers.

40. “Churchmen Argue on Atlantic Pact,” New York Times, March 10, 1949, 4.

41. Ibid.

42. “The Third National Study Conference on the Church and World Order: Message and Findings,” April 1946, p. 6, Folder 20, Box 37, FCC Papers.

43. “Today and Tomorrow: Mr. Dulles on Scandinavia,” Washington Post, March 10, 1949, 11.

44. “Dulles’ Talk Angers Acheson,” Washington Post, March 21, 1949, B15.

45. “Christians & World Order,” Time, March 14, 1949, 65–66; “Churchmen & the Pact,” Time March 21, 1949, 67–68.

46. “Churchmen & the Pact,” Time, March 21, 1949, 67–68; “Cleveland Strikes Out!,” Christian Century, March 23, 1949, 359–60. For Dulles’s brief response and the response of the journal’s editors, see “Correspondence,” Christian Century, April 13, 1949, 467.

47. “A Message to the Churches” can be found in “The Third National Study Conference on the Church and World Order: Message and Findings,” 1949, Folder 20, Box 37, FCC Papers. It was also published as a pamphlet.

48. “Third National Study Conference on the Churches and World Order: Message and Findings,” April 1949, pp. 7–10, Folder 20, Box 37, FCC Papers.

49. Reinhold Niebuhr, The Irony of American History (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1952).

50. The literature on Niebuhr is too large to list here. On his criticism of US policy during the Cold War, see Richard Wightman Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr: A Biography (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985).

51. Unsigned editorials for the Christian Century were written by a variety of individuals listed on the journal’s masthead and sometimes by committee, making it difficult to determine authorship. I would like to thank Elesha Coffman for this insight on the editorial process at the journal. See also Elesha J. Coffman, The Christian Century and the Rise of the Protestant Mainline (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).

52. “Cleveland Strikes Out!,” Christian Century, March 23, 1949, 359–60.

53. Ibid. Charles F. Boss, the longtime head of the Methodists’ foreign policy arm, echoed the Christian Century’s complaints in a letter he wrote directly to the Cleveland conference organizers. “Those in attendance who have been interested in the field over the years were prepared to go beyond the rather cautious statements of the top-level leaders,” Boss wrote. See Charles F. Boss to Richard Fagley, July 27, 1949, Folder 20, Box 37, FCC Papers.

54. “Churchmen & the Pact,” 67–68.

55. On US economic power in post–World War II Europe, see Victoria De Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005); Reinhold Wagnleitner, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria After the Second World War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994).

56. Andrew Preston, “Peripheral Visions: American Mainline Protestants and the Global Cold War,” Cold War History 13, no. 1 (2013): 112.

57. On the connections of the “China hands” to the missionary movement, see David A. Hollinger, Protestants Abroad: How Missionaries Tried to Change the World but Changed America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), 163–86.

58. John Foster Dulles to Mr. Joe J. Mickle, January 20, 1943, Folder 19, Box 163, Group 3, Series IA, Kenneth Scott Latourette Papers, Yale University (hereafter, KSL Papers). This folder contains much of the material on Latourette’s involvement with the State Department and a group of ecumenical Protestant experts on the Far East in the first half of the 1940s. Among the people Latourette corresponded with during the war was Joseph R. Ballantine, director of the Office of Far Eastern Affairs in the State Department during the years 1944–45, and a special assistant to the secretary of state during 1945–47. Ballantine was born in India to Congregationalist missionary parents, and the missionary connection may be part of the reason why Ballantine took time to personally and thoroughly respond to position papers Latourette had written and sent to him.

59. Hollinger, Protestants Abroad, 235–37.

60. Kenneth Scott Latourette, “Background For Understanding the Current Situation in China, Final Revision,” January 1, 1949, Folder 17, Box 37, FCC Papers.

61. Ibid.

62. Henry P. Van Dusen to Walter W. Van Kirk, January 31, 1949, Folder titled “Van Dusen, Henry Pitney 1937–1949,” Box 117, Group 3, Series I, KSL Papers.

63. Henry P. Van Dusen to Walter W. Van Kirk, February 8, 1949, Folder 17, Box 37, FCC Papers. See also Walter W. Van Kirk to Henry P. Van Dusen, February 4, 1949, Folder 17, Box 37, FCC Papers.

64. Quoted in Preston, “Peripheral Visions,” 128. See also Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 180.

65. The Churches and American Policy in the Far East (New York: Federal Council of Churches, 1949), copy in Folder 24, Box 63, FCC Papers.

66. Ibid., 4–5.

67. Arthur N. Feraru, “Public Opinion Polls on China,” Far Eastern Survey, July 12, 1950, 130–32.

68. Quoted in John Mackay Metzger, The Hand and the Road: The Life and Times of John A. Mackay (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2010), 286.

69. “Recognize Red China, Mission Leaders Ask,” New York Times, April 29, 1950, 10.

70. John Mackay, “Stand on China Explained,” New York Times, August 28, 1950, 16.

71. Ibid.

72. Executive Committee Minutes, p. 50, Folder 3, Box 2, FCC Papers.

73. Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 92–97.

74. J. B. Matthews and R. E. Shallcross, Partners in Plunder: The Cost of Business Dictatorship (New York: Covici Friede Publishers, 1935), 327–42.

75. Robert Griffith, The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate, 2nd ed. (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1987), 227–28. Yasuhiro Katagiri, Black Freedom, White Resistance, and Red Menace: Civil Rights and Anticommunism in the Jim Crow South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014), 36–40.

76. On the American Mercury in the 1950s, see David Austin Walsh, “The Right-Wing Popular Front: The Far Right and American Conservatism in the 1950s,” Journal of American History 107, no. 3 (September 2020): 411–32.

77. J. B. Matthews, “Reds and Our Churches,” American Mercury, July 1953, 3.

78. Griffith, The Politics of Fear, 230–31.

79. C. P. Trussell, “Eisenhower Scores Attack on Clergy; M’Carthy Aid Out,” New York Times, July 10, 1953, 1.

80. Griffith, The Politics of Fear, 232–33. For a full account of Matthews’s activities during the civil rights movement, see Katagiri, Black Freedom.

81. Griffith, The Politics of Fear, 233.

82. For the testimony, see “Testimony of Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam: Hearing Before the Committee on Un-American Activities House of Representatives,” 83rd Cong., 1st sess., 1953 (Washington: Committee on Un-American Activities, 1954), 3585–850.

83. Thomas Ferris, “The Christian Beacon,” in The Conservative Press in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Ronald Lora and William Henry Longton (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 143. See also Carl McIntire, G. Bromley Oxnam: Prophet of Marx (Collingwood, NJ: Christian Beacon Press, 1953).

84. “Testimony of Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam,” 3725–26.

85. Ibid., 3735.

86. Richard M. Fried, Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 173; Angela M. Lahr, Millennial Dreams and Apocalyptic Nightmares: The Cold War Origins of Political Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford University Press), 47.

87. “Cleric Repudiates Matthews Charge,” New York Times, July 12, 1953, 29.

88. John A. Mackay, A Letter to Presbyterians Concerning the Present Situation in Our Country and in the World, (Philadelphia: Office of the General Assembly, 1953), 3.

89. Ibid.

90. Ibid., 6.

91. Ibid., 7.

92. Ibid. The quote came from Isaiah 1:18, KJV.

93. See, for example, the front-page coverage in the New York Times: George Dugan, “Presbyterians Warn on Methods Used Here in Fight on Communism,” New York Times, November 3, 1953, 1. The newspaper also published the statement in the same issue, on page 20.

94. Mackay, Letter to Presbyterians, 6.

95. T. C. Chao, “Red Peiping After Six Months,” Christian Century, September 14, 1949, 1067. See also Yongtao Chen, ed., The Chinese Christology of T. C. Chao (Boston: Brill, 2017); Winfried Glüer, Christliche Theologie in China: T. C. Chao 1918–1956 (Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus Mohn, 1979); Daniel Hoi Hui, A Study of T. C. Chao’s Christology in the Social Context of China (1920–1949) (Bern: Peter Lang, 2017).

96. M. Richard Shaull, Encounter with Revolution (New York: Association Press, 1955).

97. On Shaull, the Student Volunteer Movement, and the emergence of the New Left, see Gene Zubovich, “U.S. Protestants and the International Origins of the 1960s Democratic Revolution,” Diplomatic History 45, no. 1 (January 2021): 28–49.

98. William Ernest Hocking, Re-Thinking Mission: A Laymen’s Inquiry After One Hundred Years (New York: Harper, 1932), 240–42.

99. [No author listed], The Message and Decisions of Oxford on Church, Community and State (Chicago: Universal Christian Council, [n.d.]), 35–37.

100. Shaull, Encounter with Revolution, 6–7. Italics in original.

101. On the centrality of consumerism in Cold War conceptions of US citizenship, see Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumer’s Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003).

102. Shaull, Encounter with Revolution, 50–51, 52.

103. Ibid., 52–54.

104. Ibid., 3.

105. Ibid., 44–45.

106. “Mackay Asks Visit by Press to China,” New York Times, January 21, 1957, 43.

107. “A Church Mission to China Is Urged,” New York Times, December 11, 1956, 9.

108. A thorough account of the Russia trip can be found in “Russia Trip, 1956,” Folder 558, Box 27, Group 67, Series 111, Henry Knox Sherrill Papers, Yale Divinity Library Archives and Manuscripts, New Haven, CT. On the Hungary trip, see “World Council of Churches Central Committee meeting—Hungary,” Folder 559, ibid.

109. Carl Henry, “NCC Conference Urges Recognition of Red China,” Christianity Today, December 8, 1958, 25.

110. For the perspective of John C. Bennett, who was one of the architects of the call for recognition, see “Transcript of a Recorded Interview with John Coleman Bennett,” May 13, 1965, the John Foster Dulles Oral History Project, Princeton University Library, Princeton, NJ. The juxtaposition of the resolution and Dulles’s speech was reported widely. Two attempts were made to revise the draft at the conference, both of which attempted to weaken the call for recognition, but both attempts had not met the 25 percent threshold to register a printed dissent on the final statement. This threshold was a precedent established in previous conferences.

111. “A Message to the Churches in the United States of America Adopted by the Fifth World Order Study Conference,” p. 7, Folder 18, Box 1, Series 5, John C. Bennett Papers, Burke Library Archives, Union Theological Seminary, New York, NY (hereafter, Bennett Papers). The text of the China section was reprinted as “Text of China Statement,” New York Times, November 22, 1958, 8.

112. John C. Bennett to Rev. Gilbert Bakes, January 20, 1959, Folder 5, Box 1, Series 1A, Bennett Papers.

113. Henry P. Van Dusen to Henry R. Luce, February 16, 1959, Folder 18, Box 1, Series 5, Bennett Papers.

114. On the emergence of Christianity Today, see Chapter 7 in this volume.

115. John Wicklein, “Poling Condemns Bid to Red China,” New York Times, November 23, 1958, 30.

116. “Dulles Is Cool to Advice of Churchmen on China,” New York Times, November 27, 1958, 18.

117. Henry, “NCC Conference Urges Recognition of Red China,” 27.

118. “NCC World Order Policy Softens on Red China,” editorial, Christianity Today, December 22, 1958, 23.

119. Ibid., 28, 32.

120. The questionnaire, which was printed in the journal and asked for voluntary responses, asked whether Christianity Today readers agreed or disagreed with 1) “U.S. recognition of Red China” and 2) “U.N. admission of Red China.” Printed in Christianity Today, December 22, 1958, 23.

121. “The NCC General Board and Protestant Commitments,” editorial, Christianity Today, March 2, 1959, 22.

122. “NCC World Order Policy Softens on Red China”; “The NCC General Board and Protestant Commitments”; “NCC Sidesteps Action on Cleveland Report,” Christianity Today, March 16, 1959, 25–26; “Ecumenical Free Speech and the Misrepresented Majority,” Christianity Today, March 30, 1959, 22.

123. “The NCC General Board and Protestant Commitments.” On the repudiation of the China resolution by a Brethren group, see “Group Rejects Recognition of Red China,” Los Angeles Times, July 4, 1959, B2.

124. Ibid.

125. F. F., “American Baptists Support U.S. Red China Policy,” Christianity Today, June 22, 1959, 27.

126. George Dugan, “Southern Church Bars Aid to China,” New York Times, April 28, 1959, 71. A minority report of the Southern Presbyterians accused the National Council of having “fought the defense programs of the United States through the years, even when war and destruction were threatening.… They have greatly influenced the advance of socialism and its accompanying inflation; they have sought to curb and abolish the [House] Committee on Un-American Activities; they have created class and racial strife and discord and they have opposed the free enterprise system and advocated collectivism.” Ibid.

127. Jill K. Gill, Embattled Ecumenism: The National Council of Churches, the Vietnam War and the Trial of the Protestant Left (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2011).

Chapter 7

1. There is evidence that clergy were empowered by ecumenical denominations whose national leadership issued forceful public pronouncements. In such instances, clergy were more likely to share the political positions of national leaders (and less likely to share the views of churchgoers) and were more inclined to broadcast their stances on controversial issues to their church’s members. See Charles Y. Glock and Benjamin B. Ringer, “Church Policy and the Attitudes of Ministers and Parishioners on Social Issues,” American Sociological Review 21, no. 20 (April 1956): 148–56.

2. On the scholarship that emphasizes the importance of ecumenical Protestant activism against segregation in the 1960s but minimizes it in the 1940s and 1950s, see James F. Findlay, Church People in the Struggle: The National Council of Churches and the Black Freedom Movement, 1950–1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Mark Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left: “Christianity and Crisis” Magazine, 1941–1993 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1999). Ecumenical Protestantism warrants little mention, for example, in Kevin Michael Kruse and Stephen G. N. Tuck, Fog of War: The Second World War and the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012). On the difficulties of incorporating religion into the narrative of twentieth century US history, see Jon Butler, “Jack-in-the-Box Faith: The Religion Problem in Modern American History,” Journal of American History 90, no. 4 (2004): 1357–78, https://doi.org/10.2307/3660356.

3. Alain Locke, “Reason and Race: A Review of the Literature of the Negro for 1946,” Phylon 8, no. 1 (1947): 27.

4. To Secure These Rights: The Report of Harry S Truman’s Committee on Civil Rights, ed. Steven F. Lawson (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press, 2004), 12–20.

5. On the Commission on Church and Minority Peoples and for Tobias’s biography, see Chapter 3 of this volume.

6. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, Revolt Against Chivalry: Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women’s Campaign Against Lynching (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979); Alice G. Knotts, Fellowship of Love: Methodist Women Changing American Racial Attitudes, 1920–1968 (Nashville, TN: Kingswood Books, 1996); Edith Holbrook Riehm, “Dorothy Tilly and the Fellowship of the Concerned,” in Throwing Off the Cloak of Privilege: White Southern Women Activists in the Civil Rights Era, ed. Gail S. Murray (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004), 23–48.

7. Two other commission participants had connections to ecumenical Protestant institutions. Boris Shishkin, who represented the American Federation of Labor, actively cooperated with the Federal Council’s Department of Church and Economic Life. One of the staff members for the commission had worked for the YWCA.

8. To Secure These Rights, 59. See Gunnar Myrdal and Arnold M. Rose, The Negro in America: The Condensed Version of Gunnar Myrdal’s “An American Dilemma” (New York: Harper & Row, 1964).

9. Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 99–100.

10. To Secure These Rights, 111.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid., 26–27.

13. One of the best accounts of Sherrill’s conservative instincts are recalled in “The Reminiscences of Francis B. Sayre, Jr.,” Bishop Henry Knox Sherrill Project, 1983, Columbia Center for Oral History, Columbia University, New York, NY. See also Sherrill’s autobiography, Henry Knox Sherrill, Among Friends: An Autobiography (New York: Little Brown, 1962).

14. “Minutes,” pp. 93–94, Folder 20, Box 1, RG 18, Federal Council of Churches Papers, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA (hereafter, FCC Papers).

15. Wolfgang Saxon, “James Oscar Lee, 85, Educator and Worker on Race Relations,” New York Times, June 16, 1995, 25.

16. On the “Vermont Plan,” see A. Ritchie Low and Galen R. Weaver, The “Vermont Plan”: Interracial Visitation (New York: Committee on Church and Race of the Congregational Christian Churches, n.d.)

17. An amicus curiae brief in the Takahashi case was submitted jointly by the Home Missions Council of North America, the Council for Social Action of the Congregational Christian Churches, the Council for Social Progress of the Northern Baptist Convention, and the Human Relations Commission of the Protestant Council of the City of New York. “Brief for Amici Curiae,” 1947, Folder 15, Box 61, FCC Papers. For the Shelley brief, see “Supreme Court of the United States,” 1947, ibid.

18. “Digest of the Proceedings, Retreat of Denominational and Interdenominational Secretaries on Social Action, Held May 28–29, 1948,” Folder 21, Box 60, FCC Papers.

19. Ibid. On Height’s cohort of African American women activists, see Bettye Collier-Thomas, Jesus, Jobs, and Justice: African American Women and Religion (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2014); and Julie A. Gallagher, Black Women and Politics in New York City (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012). For the YMCA and YWCA as organizations that empowered African American activism in the North, see Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty.

20. Annual Reports and Meetings, 1945–1955 [Los Angeles], Folders 8–10, Box 3; Bulletins and Newsletters, 1947–1962 [Los Angeles], Folders 11–12, Box 3; Annual Reports and Meetings, 1945–1953 [San Francisco], Folder 17, Box 5, City Councils of Churches Records, 1909–1970, Burke Library Archives, Union Theological Seminary, New York, NY.

21. “Digest of the Proceedings.”

22. On Protestant lobbying groups, see Chapter 3 of this volume.

23. Philip Hamburger, Separation of Church and State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 454–78; Kathleen A. Holscher, Religious Lessons: Catholic Sisters and the Captured Schools Crisis in New Mexico (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 114–17, 154–65; John T. McGreevy, Catholicism and American Freedom: A History (New York: W.W. Norton, 2003).

24. Mrs. Harper Sibley to Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., June 17, 1948, Folder 20, Box 56, FCC Papers.

25. “Memorandum,” J. Oscar Lee to Boyd, Johnson, and Van Kirk, April 23, 1948, Folder 13, Box 57, FCC Papers.

26. Richard M. Fagley to Ray Gibbons, August 9, 1948, Folder 21, Box 37, FCC Papers.

27. Joseph Kip Kosek, Acts of Conscience: Christian Nonviolence and Modern American Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009).

28. George M. Houser to J. Oscar Lee, June 23, 1947, Folder 15, Box 57, FCC Papers.

29. Olyve L. Jeter to George M. Houser, June 25, 1947, Folder 15, Box 57, FCC Papers.

30. George M. Houser to Olyve L. Jeter, June 28, 1947, Folder 15, Box 57, FCC Papers.

31. The Journey of Reconciliation included members of socialist organizations, the Workers Defense League and the Southern Workers Defense League. Roswell P. Barnes thought the that the Journey of Reconciliation was “interesting” and “significant.” See handwritten note on “Journey of Reconciliation, A Report by George M. Houser and Bayard Rustin,” Folder 16, Box 57, FCC Papers.

32. J. Oscar Lee to George M. Houser, July 3, 1947, Folder 15, Box 57, FCC Papers.

33. August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942–1968 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973); Kosek, Acts of Conscience.

34. Galen Weaver to J. Oscar Lee, January 12, 1949, Folder 15, Box 61, FCC Papers.

35. Marian Wynn Perry to J. Oscar Lee, February 23, 1949; “Memorandum,” J. Oscar Lee to Samuel McCrea Cavert, February 28, 1949, Folder 15, Box 61, FCC Papers.

36. “Memorandum,” J. Oscar Lee to Samuel McCrea Cavert, February 28, 1949. A copy of the brief submitted to the Supreme Court can be found under “Appendix B,” Folder 6, Box 56, FCC Papers.

37. “Appendix B, Motion for Leave to File Brief Amicus Curiae,” Folder 6, Box 56, FCC Papers. By referencing emancipation and by calling segregation “a survival, and in its operation, a perpetuation, of the caste system,” the brief also reflected the historical sensibility of Buell Gallagher. On the historical analysis of racism and segregation, see Chapter 5 in this volume.

38. “Minutes,” p. 22, Folder 1, Box 2; “Report of Advisory Committee to the Executive Committee, May 17, 1949,” Folder 15, Box 61; “Resolution on Filing a Brief of Amicus Curiae,” Folder 15, Box 61, FCC Papers.

39. “Memorandum,” F. E. Johnson to Samuel McCrea Cavert, March 17, 1948, Folder 4, Box 12, FCC Papers.

40. Ibid.

41. “Memorandum,” J. Oscar Lee and Thomas C. Allen to Samuel McCrea Cavert, May 11, 1949, Folder 17, Box 12, FCC Papers.

42. “Report of Advisory Committee to the Executive Committee, May 17, 1949,” Folder 15, Box 61, FCC Papers.

43. “Appendix B, Motion For Leave to File Brief Amicus Curiae,” p. 2.

44. “Common welfare—federal council,” press release draft, Folder 17, Box 61, FCC Papers.

45. Edward Hughes Pruden to Thomas C. Allen, October 21, 1949; Thomas C. Allen to Edward H. Pruden, October 25, 1949, Folder 17, Box 61, FCC Papers.

46. J. Waties Waring to Samuel McCrea Cavert, January 6, 1950, Folder 18, Box 61, FCC Papers; Findlay, Church People in the Struggle, 16–17.

47. Jane Dailey, “The Theology of Massive Resistance,” in Massive Resistance: Sothern Opposition to the Second Reconstruction, ed. Clive Webb (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 156.

48. J. McDowell Richards, “Explanation,” Presbyterian Outlook, December 19, 1949, 4.

49. “Agrees That Segregation Is Un-Christian,” Presbyterian Outlook, March 6, 1950, 6.

50. On the connection between resistance to segregation among Protestant churches and the modern conservative movement, see Joseph Crespino, In Search of Another Country: Mississippi and the Conservative Counterrevolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).

51. “Attorney General of Texas Challenges Segregation Brief,” Presbyterian Outlook, January 16, 1950, 1; “Challenges Federal Council Anti-Segregation Brief,” Religious News Service, December 30, 1949, clipping in Folder 17, Box 61, FCC Papers.

52. “Past Usefulness,” News, February 25, 1950, clipping in Folder 18, Box 61, FCC Papers.

53. “Talladega’s First Methodist Secedes,” Birmingham News, December 8, 1949, 1.

54. Samuel McCrea Cavert to Bishop Clare Purcell, December 19, 1949, Folder 18, Box 61, FCC Papers.

55. “Resolution Adopted by the Quarterly Conference of Ashbury Memorial Methodist Church,” Folder 18, Box 61, FCC Papers.

56. Findlay, Church People in the Struggle, 14–15.

57. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

58. Virginia Brereton, “United and Slighted: Women as Subordinated Insiders,” in Between the Times: The Travail of the Protestant Establishment in America, 1900–1960, ed. William R. Hutchison (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 143–67.

59. “The School Decision,” Christian Century, June 2, 1954, 662; “A Summary of Resolutions of the National Council of Churches, 1950–1961,” p. 23, Folder 2, Box 1, Series 1A, National Council of Churches Records, 1948–1973, Burke Library Archives, Union Theological Seminary, New York (hereafter, NCC Papers).

60. “The School Decision,” Christian Century, June 2, 1954, 662.

61. Ibid., 663.

62. Niebuhr also praised the Plessy v. Ferguson decision as “a very good doctrine for its day” because it avoided prompting a “revolt” by southerners. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Supreme Court on Segregation in the Schools,” Christianity and Crisis, June 14, 1954, 75–77.

63. John C. Bennett, untitled editorial, Christianity and Crisis, June 28, 1954, 83.

64. “Editorial,” Christian Century, June 16, 1954, 732; Mark Newman, Getting Right with God: Southern Baptists and Desegregation, 1945–1995 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001); Alan Scot Willis, All According to God’s Plan: Southern Baptist Missions and Race, 1945–1970 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2005), 105–6. For a corrective to Willis’s claim that “Christian” attitudes were synonymous with progressive views on race, see Jane Dailey, “Sex, Segregation, and the Sacred After Brown,” Journal of American History 91, no. 1 (2004): 119–44, https://doi.org/10.2307/3659617.

65. Max Gilstrap, “Covering the World Council,” Christian Science Monitor, August 27, 1954, 18; “World Peace Called Goal of Churches,” Washington Post, August 17, 1954, 1.

66. Benjamin Mays, “The Church Will Be Challenged at Evanston,” Christianity and Crisis, August 9, 1954, 106–8.

67. George Daniels, “WCC Approves Mays’ Plan for Brotherhood,” Chicago Defender, September 11, 1954, 1.

68. The Evanston Report: Second Assembly of the World Council of Churches, 1954, ed. W. A. Visser ‘t Hooft (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1955), 156–57.

69. Ibid., 155.

70. Albert Barnett, “Five Outstanding Impressions of Recent World Council of Churches,” Chicago Defender, September 18, 1954, 4; Evanston Report, 157.

71. Quoted in Chesly Manly, “Segregation Is a Scandal, World Council Told,” Chicago Tribune, August 22, 1954, 8; George Dugan, “Bias In Churches Held False Trend: Negro Leaders Tells Session at Evanston Segregation Is Modern Development,” New York Times, August 22, 1954, 66.

72. “World Leaders Appeal for Church Integration,” Chicago Defender, August 28, 1954, 4; “Our Opinions: The World Council of Churches,” Chicago Defender, September 4, 1954, 11.

73. Rufus Burrow Jr., God and Human Dignity: The Personalism, Theology, and Ethics of Martin Luther King, Jr. (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989); David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: W. Morrow, 1986); Thomas F. Jackson, From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007).

74. Kelly Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK’s Appeal to Protestant America, 1915–1930 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2011); Linda Gordon, The Second Coming of the KKK: The Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s and the American Political Tradition (New York: Liveright, 2017).

75. “Inaugural Address of Governor George Wallace,” January 14, 1963, https://digital.archives.alabama.gov/digital/collection/voices/id/2952, accessed May 17, 2021.

76. Quoted in Findlay, Church People in the Struggle, 21.

77. Ibid., 22–24.

78. Quoted in Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 132.

79. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Federal Court Orders Must Be Upheld,” Little Rock Speech, September 24, 1957, https://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/speeches/rhetoric/ikefeder.htm, accessed September 7, 2018.

80. Karen Anderson, Little Rock: Race and Resistance at Central High School (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009). John A. Kirk, Beyond Little Rock: The Origins and Legacies of the Central High Crisis (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2007).

81. Findlay, Church People in the Struggle, 23.

82. “First meeting of C.S.A. Committee on Racial and Cultural Relations,” October 30, 1952, RR-1, Congregational Council for Social Action Papers, Congregational Library, Boston, MA (hereafter, CSA Papers). See also Galen R. Weaver, “Annual Report for 1953,” RR-2, CSA Papers; “Council for Social Action and Commission on Christian Social Action, Committee on Racial Integration,” January 6, 1956, p. 6, RR-1, CSA Papers.

83. Mrs. E. A. Albright, quoted in meeting notes of the “Council for Social Action and Commission on Christian Social Action Committee on Racial Integration,” January 6, 1956, RR-1, CSA Papers. See also “Our Segregated Churches in the Segregated Southeast Convention,” RR-4, CSA Papers.

84. Robert G. Geoffroy to Galen R. Weaver, November 23, 1955, RR-4, CSA Papers.

85. “Our Segregated Churches in the Segregated Southeast Convention,” p. 14.

86. Ibid.

87. “A Summary of Resolutions of the National Council of Churches,” p. 23, Folder 2, Box 1, NCC Papers; “Council for Social Action and Commission on Christian Social Action, Committee on Racial Integration,” January 6, 1956, p. 2, RR-1, CSA Papers.

88. Carolyn Renée Dupont, Mississippi Praying: Southern White Evangelicals and the Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1975 (New York: New York University Press, 2013), 97–103, quote at 103.

89. For an outline of the program, see “Minutes of the Joint Committee on Race Relations,” November 2, 1956, RR-1, CSA Papers. See also Folders 6–7, Box 58, Council for Social Action of the Congregational Christian Churches, 1949–1958, Fund for the Republic Records, Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library, Princeton, NJ.

90. “Report of Galen R. Weaver for 1956,” pp. 3–4, RR-2, CSA Papers.

91. “Summary Report for the Committee on Race Relations, Oct. 16, 1957, by Dorothy E. Hampton,” RR-4, CSA Papers.

92. Doug Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 6.

93. motive, November 1955.

94. M. Richard Shaull, Encounter with Revolution (New York: Association Press, 1955). For a thorough discussion of Shaull and his book, see Chapter 6 of this volume.

95. Jeremi Suri, Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).

96. Shaull, Encounter with Revolution, 8.

97. C. Wright Mills, White Collar: The American Middle Classes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1952); David Riesman, Nathan Glazer, and Reuel Denney, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1950); William H. Whyte, The Organization Man (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1956).

98. David E. Durham, “Revolution and Reconciliation,” motive, November 1955, 45.

99. Cherian Thomas et al. to the Steering Committee, December 29, 1951, Folder 7252, Box 635, SVM-GP42, Student Volunteer Movement Papers, Yale Divinity Library Special Collections, New Haven, CT (hereafter, SVM Papers); Tracey K. Jones Jr. to Bayard Rustin, January 16, 1952, Folder 2759, Box 636, SVM Papers.

100. “West Held a Seed of Global Revolt,” New York Times, December 29, 1955, 4.

101. Stanley Rowland Jr., “Apartheid Issue Put to Students,” New York Times, December 30, 1955, 12; “West Held a Seed of Global Revolt,” 4.

102. Stanley Rowland Jr., “Southern Youths Back Integration,” New York Times, January 1, 1956, 42.

103. Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity, 111.

104. It also showcased students’ new interests in theologians with anti-fascist credentials, like those of the president of the World’s Student Christian Federation, Philippe Maury, who worked in the French underground during World War II. Students attending the Athens, Ohio, meeting read his book in preparation for the meeting. Philippe Maury, Politics and Evangelism (New York: Doubleday, 1959).

105. Martin Luther King Jr., Speech to the 18th Ecumenical Student Conference on the Christian World Mission in Athens, Ohio, December 30, 1959, Folder 7298, Box 639, SVM Papers.

106. UPI teletype, untitled [Athens, Ohio, byline], December 28, 1959; “3600 Youths Attend Parley on OU Campus,” Wilmington News-Journal, clippings in Ecumenical Student Conferences on the Christian World Mission Records, Collection UA00410, 18th Conference, 1959–1960, Ohio University, Athens, OH; “Students Buck Bias to Attend Christian Meet,” Chicago Defender, December 29, 1959, 3.

107. Quoted in Sara M. Evans, Journeys That Opened Up the World: Women, Student Christian Movements, and Social Justice, 1955–1975 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003), 17.

108. “A Summary of Resolutions of the National Council of Churches, 1950–1961,” p. 24, Folder 2, Box 1, Series 1A, NCC Papers.

109. “YWCA National Board Backs Sin-In Objective,” Chicago Defender, April 23, 1960, 9.

110. George Dugan, “Sit-Ins Supported in Church Report,” New York Times, May 25, 1960, 27; “Episcopalian Church Backs ‘Sit-in’ Move in South,” Washington Post, April 2, 1960, A14; “Methodists Praise Student Sit-In Drive: Vow to End All Racial Barriers,” Chicago Defender, May 9, 1960, A2.

111. “Cleric Urges Snub of Sit-In Laws: Asks Challenge of White Man’s Rules,” Chicago Defender, June 18, 1960, 21.

112. “Meeting at the II General Assembly of the National Student Christian Federation,” Folder 584, Box 45, RG 247, National Student Christian Federation Papers, Yale Divinity School Special Collections, New Haven, CT.

113. Melani McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders: A Global History of American Evangelicals (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 11–12.

114. “Meeting at the II General Assembly of the National Student Christian Federation.”

115. Other accounts of Protestant student radicalization stress the exposure of liberal Protestant student groups to existentialism. See Rossinow, Politics of Authenticity.

116. “Dr. Blake Among 283 Held in Racial Rally in Maryland,” New York Times, July 5, 1963, 1; “High Churchmen Are Arrested in March,” Chicago Defender, July 6, 1963, 1; Victoria W. Wolcott, Race, Riots, and Roller Coasters: the Struggle over Segregated Recreation in America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 183–86.

117. “High Churchmen Are Arrested in March,” 1.

118. On the polling data demonstrating the clergy-laity gap, see Jill K. Gill, Embattled Ecumenism: The National Council of Churches, the Vietnam War and the Trial of the Protestant Left (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2011), 162. On lay opposition to civil rights, see Findlay, Church People in the Struggle.

119. Molly Worthen, Apostles of Reason: The Crisis of Authority in American Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 135–37.

120. Curtis J. Evans, “A Politics of Conversion,” in Billy Graham: American Pilgrim, ed. Andrew Finstuen, Grant Wacker, and Anne Blue Wills (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 154.

121. Quoted in Worthen, Apostles of Reason, 137.

122. Aaron Griffith, God’s Law and Order: The Politics of Punishment in Evangelical America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020).

123. On the persistence of racism in evangelical communities, see Anthea Butler, White Evangelical Racism: The Politics of Morality in America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021).

124. Collier-Thomas, Jesus, Jobs, and Justice, 420–22; Jennifer Scanlon, Until There Is Justice: The Life of Anna Arnold Hedgeman (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

125. Findlay, Church People in the Struggle, 61.

126. Ibid., 57. For a full account of lobbying for the Civil Rights Act, see 48–65.

127. “Excerpts from Addresses at Lincoln Memorial During Capital Civil Rights March,” New York Times, August 29, 1963, 21.

128. Collier-Thomas, Jesus, Jobs, and Justice, 420–22.

129. Claude E. Welch, “Mobilizing Morality: The World Council of Churches and Its Program to Combat Racism, 1969–1994,” Human Rights Quarterly 23, no. 4 (2001): 875–77.

130. Findlay, Church People in the Struggle, 206, 212.

131. Robert D. Putnam and David E. Campbell, American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012).

132. For an overview of evangelicals and Black-white relations, see Michael O. Emerson and Christian Smith, Divided by Faith: Evangelical Religion and the Problem of Race in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

Chapter 8

1. “Text of Report on ‘The Church and Disorder of Society,’ ” New York Times, September 3, 1948, 11.

2. Jonathan P. Herzog, The Spiritual-Industrial Complex: America’s Religious Battle Against Communism in the Early Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); Kevin M. Kruse, One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America (New York: Basic Books, 2015). On the parallels between the postwar political-economic advocacy by American liberals and British Labour leaders, which downplays the differences between the New Deal and European welfare states, see Ilnyun Kim, “The Party of Reform in the Doldrums: The Convergence of Anglo-American Political Progressivism,” Modern Intellectual History, FirstView, 1–24, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479244320000104. See also Ira Katznelson, Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time (New York: Liveright, 2013); Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998).

3. George D. Kelsey, “The Challenge of Our Economic Culture to the Churches,” Folder 7262, Box 636, SVM-GP42, Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions Records, Yale Divinity Library and Archives, New Haven, CT.

4. Quoted in David M. Henkin and Rebecca M. McLennan, Becoming America: A History for the 21st Century (New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2015), 758.

5. Darren Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sunbelt: Plain-Folk Religion, Grassroots Politics, and the Rise of Evangelical Conservatism (New York: W.W. Norton, 2012).

6. Johnson’s most important work on personality is Frederick Ernest Johnson, The Social Gospel and Personal Religion: Are They in Conflict? (New York: Federal Council of the Churches, 1922).

7. Minutes of the Executive Committee of the Federal Council of Churches, p. 126, Folder 15, Box 1, RG 18, Federal Council of Churches Papers, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA (hereafter, FCC Papers).

8. John C. Bennett, Christian Ethics and Social Policy (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1946), 77–81.

9. Ibid., 81.

10. On postwar intellectuals’ debates over the issues of freedom and social control, see Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 1940s and 1950s (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 141–46.

11. Kruse, One Nation Under God, 13. Christian libertarians preferred the language of “individual personality” and “individual rights” to “human persons” and “human rights.”

12. Quoted in ibid. On libertarian thought more broadly, see Angus Burgin, The Great Persuasion: Reinventing Free Markets Since the Depression (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).

13. “Christianity and the Economic Order, Study No. 4, Non-Profit Incentives in Our Economic Life,” Information Service, November 23, 1946, 1–8.

14. Ibid.

15. “Christianity and the Economic Order, Study No. 2, Labor-Management Relations,” Information Service, June 29, 1946, 1–8.

16. Ibid.

17. The request for the conference came from the Northern Presbyterian representatives at the Federal Council. See Robert W. Potter, “Talks Today Link Church, Economics,” New York Times, February 18, 1947, 28. On the conference participants, see David E. Thomas, “Questionnaire Study of the Pittsburgh Conference on the Church and Economic Life,” Folder 15, Box 63, FCC Papers.

18. “Christianity and the Economic Order, More from the Critics,” Information Service, January 25, 1947, 5.

19. “Opening Address of Charles P. Taft,” February 18, 1947, pg. 1, Folder 14, Box 63, FCC Papers.

20. Joseph B. Treaster, “Charles P. Taft, Former Mayor of Cincinnati,” New York Times, June 25, 1983, 14.

21. “Church Conference Set to Study Economic Life,” Religious News Service, February 4, 1947. Perkins was unable to attend the conference, but she did attend the follow-up conference in Detroit in 1950.

22. For a list of all the participants in the Pittsburgh conference, see “Committee on Report” and “Roster of Delegates,” both in Folder 14, Box 63, FCC Papers.

23. Report of the National Study Conference on the Church and Economic Life, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, February 18–20, 1947 (New York: Federal Council of Churches, 1947), p. 5, Folder 14, Box 63, FCC Papers; “Church Study Group Opposes Laissez-Faire Doctrine,” Religious News Service, February 20, 1947, 1. The condemnation of Smith was written by Harvey Seifert, professor of social ethics at USC’s School of Religion; Howard Coonley, past president of the National Association of Manufacturers; and Robert W. Searle, secretary of the Protestant Council of New York.

24. “Church Parley Neatly Ducks Closed Shop,” Chicago Daily Tribune, February 20, 1947, 23; Robert W. Potter, “Church Group Asks a Fight on Poverty,” New York Times, February 20, 1947, 27.

25. Potter, “Church Group Asks a Fight on Poverty,” 27. See also Harold E. Fey, “Protestant Leaders Discuss Church and Economic Order,” Christian Century, March 5, 1947, 308, 317–19.

26. Report of the National Study Conference on the Church and Economic Life, Pittsburgh, 9.

27. “Church Study Group Opposes Laissez-Faire Doctrine,” Religious News Service, February 20, 1947, 2.

28. Report of the National Study Conference on the Church and Economic Life, Pittsburgh, 2, 8–11.

29. Ibid., 19.

30. See, for example, “The Church and Capital: New England Religious and Lay Leaders Examine Free Enterprise, Reach Some Interesting Conclusions Concerning the American Way of Life,” Trends in Church, Education and Industry Cooperation, October, 1949, 5–7. On the mixed results of NAM’s campaigns to forge ties with religious groups in the 1940s, see Elizabeth A. Fones-Wolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on Labor and Liberalism, 1945–60 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 220–22. Kevin Kruse concludes that the efforts of Christian libertarians were more effective at promoting public religiosity than at influencing economic policy. See Kruse, One Nation Under God.

31. Report of the National Study Conference on the Church and Economic Life, Pittsburgh, 17–18.

32. “Christianity and the Economic Order, Study No. 10,” Information Service, May 13, 1948, 1–8. There was little consistency in the use of “upper,” “middle,” and “lower” classes, both in terms of how these categories were conceived as well as how the information about class was collected. Some polls relied on pollsters’ observations of the household belongings during interviews, while others used different factors, such as the type of employment. In this era, income was rarely a determining factor of class status. Note also that statistics on voting patterns excluded the vast majority of African Americans, who were disenfranchised in the 1940s.

33. “Christianity and the Economic Order, Study No. 10,” 1–8.

34. “Church Parley Says Monopoly Is ‘Intolerable,’ ” Chicago Daily Tribune, February 21, 1947, 15. For postconference reactions in the press, see Walter George Muelder, “The Pittsburgh Conference,” Christianity and Crisis, March 17, 1947, 3–6; “Editorial Notes,” Christianity and Crisis, March 17, 1947, 2; Potter, “Church Group Asks a Fight on Poverty,” 27; Fey, “Protestant Leaders Discuss Church and Economic Order,” 308, 317–19. Coverage was largely absent from the journals targeting women. The Methodist Woman and Church Woman, both of which gave tremendous publicity to conferences sponsored by the Dulles Commission, were silent on the Pittsburgh meeting. The discussion of economics in those journals focused on racial justice, consumption, and household economics.

35. [Rev. Paul Silas Heath] to John C. Bennett, March 24, 1947; John C. Bennett to Rev. Paul Silas Heath, March 27, 1947, Folder 15, Box 63, FCC Papers.

36. Muelder, “The Pittsburgh Conference,” 3–6.

37. Report of the National Study Conference on the Church and Economic Life, Pittsburgh, 19.

38. “Memorandum,” Samuel McCrea Cavert to Roswell Barnes, February 26, 1947, Folder 17, Box 63, FCC Papers. E. R. Bowen, a proponent of cooperatives who had attended the Pittsburgh conference, lobbied G. Bromley Oxnam to expand the Industrial Division. See E. R. Bowen to Charles P. Taft, April 14, 1947, Folder 17, Box 63, FCC Papers. See also Cameron Hall to Liston Pope, April 3, 1947, Folder 171, Box 11, Series I, Group 49, Liston Pope Papers, Yale Divinity School Library and Archives, New Haven, CT (hereafter, Pope Papers).

39. On a detailed institutional history of the department, see Howard M. Mills, “The Department of the Church and Economic Life of the National Council of Churches, 1947–1966: A Critical Analysis” (PhD diss., Union Theological Seminary, 1970).

40. “Report of Cameron P. Hall,” p. 2, Folder 1, Box 63, FCC Papers.

41. Reuther, Shishkin, and Cruikshank attended department meetings regularly. See, for example, “Minutes of the Meeting in Philadelphia, Pa., October 2–4, 1947,” Folder 21, Box 63, FCC Papers. Cruikshank, who served as a Methodist minister before joining the AFL, is widely credited for playing a major role in extending Social Security to cover disability in 1956, and for Medicare in 1965.

42. James Myers to Cameron Hall, May 26, 1947, Folder 21, Box 63, FCC Papers. On Myers’s activities during the 1930s on behalf of labor, see Elizabeth Fones-Wolf and Ken Fones-Wolf, “Lending a Hand to Labor: James Myers and the Federal Council of Churches, 1926–1947,” Church History 68, no. 1 (March 1999): 62–86.

43. Originally, two dozen follow-up conferences had been planned, but by 1950 thirty had been held, including many “repeat” conferences. Mills, “The Department of the Church and Economic Life,” 141.

44. “Report to Informal Meeting on March 24 [1947],” Folder 15, Box 63, FCC Papers.

45. “Report of Cameron P. Hall,” pp. 1–2, Folder 1, Box 63, FCC Papers; Cameron P. Hall to Liston Pope, October 1, 1947, Folder 171, Box 11, Series I, Pope Papers.

46. Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sunbelt; Michelle M. Nickerson and Darren Dochuk, eds., Sunbelt Rising: The Politics of Place, Space, and Region (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011).

47. T. C. Chao, “Red Peiping After Six Months,” Christian Century, September 14, 1949, 1067.

48. The most thorough account of the shift in Dulles’s thinking remains Mark G. Toulouse, The Transformation of John Foster Dulles: From Prophet of Realism to Priest of Nationalism (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1985), 196–200. See also Andrew Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012), 450–59.

49. Quoted in Toulouse, The Transformation of John Foster Dulles, 198.

50. “Text of Dulles’ Address to Assembly of Council of Churches,” New York Times, August 25, 1948, 4.

51. “Warns Against Division,” New York Times, August 25, 1948, 4.

52. Toulouse, The Transformation of John Foster Dulles, 198.

53. “Church Council Closes Doors For Discussion of Communism,” Washington Post, August 26, 1948, 1.

54. Rev. John Evans, “World Council Hears 2 Views of Reds,” New York Times, August 25, 1948, 24.

55. “Text of Report on ‘The Church and Disorder of Society,’ ” 11.

56. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age.

57. The Responsible Society: “Christian Action in Society,” pamphlet (New York: World Council of Churches, 1949), 7.

58. Ibid.

59. Kevin Mattson, When America Was Great: The Fighting Faith of Liberalism in Post-War America (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2005).

60. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, The Vital Center: The Politics of Freedom (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1949), 3–5.

61. The Responsible Society, 10–11. On the anti-secularism of the World Council, see Udi Greenberg, “Protestants, Decolonization, and European Integration, 1885–1961,” Journal of Modern History 89, no. 2 (June 2017): 314–54; Justin Reynolds, “Against the World: International Protestantism and the Ecumenical Movement Between Secularization and Politics, 1900–1952” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2016); Samuel Moyn, Christian Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015). On anti-secularism among American ecumenical Protestants, see K. Healan Gaston, Imagining Judeo-Christian America: Religion, Secularism, and the Redefinition of Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019).

62. “Bewilderment at Amsterdam,” Los Angeles Times, September 5, 1948, A4.

63. Ibid.; George Dugan, “Church Council Eases Criticism of Capitalism in Final Session,” New York Times, September 5, 1948, 1, 28. Sockman quoted in “Clergymen Report on World Council,” New York Times, September 22, 1948, 5.

64. Uncle Eversley to John, September 13, 1948, Folder 11, Box 2, Series 5, John Coleman Bennett Papers, Burke Library Archives, Union Theological Seminary, New York, NY (hereafter, Bennett Papers).

65. John C. Bennett to Uncle Eversley, September 22, 1948, Folder 11, Box 2, Series 5, Bennett Papers.

66. Cameron P. Hall, “Confidential Memorandum,” Folder 5, Box 63, FCC Papers; Thomas F. Peterson, “Highlights of the Detroit Study Conference on the Church and Economic Life,” Folder 5, Box 63, FCC Papers; Rev. Franklin D. Elmer Jr., “… and nobody walked out!,” Kiwanis Magazine, copy in Folder 5, Box 63, FCC Papers. Stanley High’s article “Methodism’s Pink Fringe,” published in Reader’s Digest, is discussed in Chapter 9 in this volume.

67. Nelson Lichtenstein, The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit: Walter Reuther and the Fate of American Labor (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 8.

68. Peterson, “Highlights of the Detroit Study Conference.”

69. William Johnson, “The Middle Way, the Middle Truth, and the Middle Life,” Faith and Freedom: The Monthly Journal of Spiritual Mobilization 1, no. 5 (April 1950): 5–6; Peterson, “Highlights of the Detroit Study Conference”; Walter W. Ruch, “Reuther Proposes Economic Parley,” New York Times, February 17, 1950, 25.

70. Kim, “The Party of Reform in the Doldrums.”

71. “Group Urges Taxing to Cut Inequalities,” Washington Post, February 18, 1950, 11.

72. George S. Benson to Cameron P. Hall, July 17, 1950, Folder 5, Box 63, FCC Papers. For the statement Benson was responding to, see “Taxation and Income Distribution: Passages from Eminent and Authoritative Sources” in the same folder.

73. Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sunbelt, 60–66, 112–14.

74. Hall, “Confidential Memorandum.”

75. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The National Study Conference on Church and Economic Life,” Christianity and Crisis, March 6, 1950, 22–23.

76. Ted F. Silvey to Cameron Hall, n.d., Folder 5, Box 63, FCC Papers.

77. Elmer, “… and nobody walked out!”; Harold E. Fey, “The Detroit Conference,” Christian Century, March 1, 1950, 264–65; Cameron P. Hall to Roy C. Blough, April 11, 1950, Folder 15, Box 64, FCC Papers; “Protestants Urge Christian Policy,” Los Angeles Times, February 19, 1950, 14; Johnson, “The Middle Way,” 9. On the “middle way” thinking of the era, see Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age, 135–39, 141–42.

78. “Churchmen Ask Study of Atom Bomb Problem,” Chicago Tribune, February 20, 1950, 5; Walter W. Ruch, “Restraint Asked in Economic Rule,” New York Times, February 20, 1950, 2.

79. William Beveridge, Social Insurance and Allied Services (London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1942).

80. James T. Sparrow, Warfare State: World War II Americans and the Age of Big Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 242–47.

Chapter 9

1. Recent historiography of the Christian Right has emphasized its religious roots in the anti–New Deal mobilization of the 1930s, especially among fundamentalists. Scholars have also emphasized the tenuousness of the formation of the religious Right, with coalitions—especially between evangelicals, Catholics, and Mormons—often warring among themselves. This chapter emphasizes opposition to the political economy of ecumenical Protestants and the clergy-laity gap as key dynamics of the formation of the Christian Right. On the Christian Right’s origins in the 1930s, see Kevin M. Kruse, One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America (New York: Basic Books, 2015), chap. 1; Matthew Avery Sutton, “Was FDR the Antichrist? The Birth of Fundamentalist Antiliberalism in a Global Age,” Journal of American History 98, no. 4 (2012): 1052–74. See also the classic work, Leo P. Ribuffo, The Old Christian Right: The Protestant Far Right from the Great Depression to the Cold War (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983). On the tenuousness of the Christian Right coalition, see especially Neil J. Young, We Gather Together: The Religious Right and the Problem of Interfaith Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). Young emphasizes the opposition to ecumenical Protestants as the most important backdrop to the rise of the Christian Right. “The emergence of the Religious Right was not a brilliant political strategy of compromise and coalition-building hatched on the eve of a history-altering election,” he writes. “Rather, it was the latest iteration of a religious debate that had gone on for decades, sparked by the ecumenical contentions of mainline Protestantism rather than by secular liberal political victories” (5).

2. Historians have largely raised these questions about church-state relations and American democracy in the context of “Judeo-Christian” pluralism rather than the clergy-laity gap. See K. Healan Gaston, Imagining Judeo-Christian America: Religion, Secularism, and the Redefinition of Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019); Kevin Michael Schultz, Tri-Faith America: How Catholics and Jews Held Postwar America to Its Protestant Promise (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Ronit Y. Stahl, Enlisting Faith: How the Military Chaplaincy Shaped Religion and State in Modern America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017).

3. John T. Flynn, The Road Ahead: America’s Creeping Revolution (New York: Distributed by the Committee for Constitutional Government by special arrangement with Devin-Adair, 1949).

4. This chapter emphasizes the internal dynamics of ecumenical Protestant institutions as a key factor in the shaping of Protestant economic thought in the postwar United States. Many accounts of postwar liberal debates on the economy leave out the important contributions of ecumenical Protestants. Others highlight Reinhold Niebuhr as a singular figure. See Kevin Mattson, When America Was Great: The Fighting Faith of Liberalism in Post-War America (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2005). See also Timothy Stanley and Jonathan Bell, Making Sense of American Liberalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012).

5. On Christian libertarianism, which was especially prevalent among Congregationalists, see Kruse, One Nation Under God, 3–34. See also Margaret Lamberts Bendroth, The Last Puritans: Mainline Protestants and the Power of the Past (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).

6. “The Most Important Contemporary Area for Social Action,” Folder 4, Box 25, General Council Records, Congregational Library, Boston, MA (hereafter, GCR).

7. G. Bromley Oxnam, Labor and Tomorrow’s World (New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1944), 149.

8. Quoted in Kruse, One Nation Under God, 38.

9. Douglas Horton to James E. Walter, February 12, 1943, Folder 4, Box 25, GCR.

10. Oxnam, Labor and Tomorrow’s World, 24, 32. On Oxnam’s views of the Soviet Union, see Chapter 1 of this volume.

11. On Oxnam’s anti-Catholicism, see Robert Moats Miller, Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam: Paladin of Liberal Protestantism (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1990), 398–446. Horton was friendlier with Catholics and saw cooperation with the Catholic Church as an extension of his ecumenism. See Theodore Louis Trost, Douglas Horton and the Ecumenical Impulse in American Religion (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 158–71.

12. “The Most Important Contemporary Area for Social Action,” Folder 4, Box 25, GCR.

13. On the “laity” as an identity category, see Chapter 1 of this volume.

14. Quoted in Elesha J. Coffman, The Christian Century and the Rise of the Protestant Mainline (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 162–63.

15. “The Most Important Contemporary Area for Social Action,” Folder 4, Box 25, GCR.

16. Oxnam, Labor and Tomorrow’s World, 111.

17. Douglas Horton to James E. Walter, February 12, 1943, Folder 4, Box 25, GCR.

18. Oxnam, Labor and Tomorrow’s World, 102, 139, 142–43, 146.

19. On the use of the “laymen” label by conservative women activists and its gendered implications, see Michelle M. Nickerson, Mothers of Conservatism: Women and the Postwar Right (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 79–82.

20. See, for example, Darren Dochuk, Anointed with Oil: How Christianity and Crude Made Modern America (New York, NY: Basic Books, 2019).

21. On the information-gathering apparatus created by fundamentalists and their corporate allies to monitor the Federal Council of Churches, see Michael J. McVicar, “Apostles of Deceit: Ecumenism, Fundamentalism, Surveillance, and the Contested Loyalties of Protestant Clergy during the Cold War,” in The FBI and Religion: Faith and National Security Before and After 9/11, ed. Sylvester A. Johnson and Steven Weitzman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2017), 85–107.

22. John E. Moser, Right Turn: John T. Flynn and the Transformation of American Liberalism (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 7.

23. Ibid., 94–95.

24. Ibid., 2, 196.

25. Flynn, The Road Ahead, 1, 9.

26. Ibid., 108.

27. Italics added by Flynn. Quoted in ibid., 113. See John C. Bennett, Christianity and Communism (New York: Association Press, 1948).

28. Flynn, The Road Ahead, 113.

29. Ibid., 119. The National Association of Evangelicals, formed in 1942, was not well known beyond evangelical circles in 1949 and therefore went unmentioned in Flynn’s book.

30. Harry Truman, “Special Message to the Congress Recommending a Comprehensive Health Program,” November 19, 1945, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/special-message-the-congress-recommending-comprehensive-health-program, accessed May 20, 2021.

31. Moser, Right Turn, 177–78; Flynn, The Road Ahead, 206; Ralph W. Gwinn to Rev. Cameron P. Hall, December 21, 1949, Folder 5, Box 63, RG 18, Federal Council of Churches Papers, Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

32. Roswell P. Barnes, Forces Disrupting the Churches (New York: The Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, 1944), 3–4.

33. “Memorandum by John C. Bennett on John T. Flynn’s attack on him in The Road Ahead,” Folder 5, Box 2, Series 5, John C. Bennett Papers, Union Theological Seminary, New York, NY.

34. The Truth About the Federal Council of Churches (New York: The Federal Council of Churches, 1950).

35. “Memorandum by John C. Bennett.”

36. Ibid.

37. On the profit motive resolution, see Chapter 1 of this volume.

38. Cyrus Ransom Pangborn, “Free Churches and Social Change: A Critical Study of the Council for Social Action of the Congregational Christian Churches of the United States” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1951), 50–53. For a sampling of the council’s political activities, see “Action on National Legislation, 82nd Congress,” “Council for Social Action Congregational Christian Churches Action on National Legislation,” and “History of Legislative Department, Council for Social Action,” LC-4, Council for Social Action Papers, Congregational Library, Boston, MA.

39. Italicized words appear in bold type in original. Walter H. Judd to Chester I. Bernard, September 29, 1953, appended to the “Report of the Board of Review of the Activities of the Council for Social Action,” in “Council for Social Action. League to Uphold Congregational Principles,” Box 112, GCR.

40. Committee Opposing Congregational Political Action, They’re Using Our Church (Minneapolis: Committee Opposing Congregational Political Action, n.d.), Folder 5, Box 241, Walter Judd Papers, Hoover Institution Library and Archives, Stanford, CA (hereafter, Judd Papers).

41. On progressivism and volunteerism, see the discussion of Herbert Hoover in David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 70–103.

42. Russell J. Clinchy, “A Statement Presented to the Study Commission of the Council for Social Action—April 1951,” Folder 5, Box 241, Judd Papers. On anti-secular reactions to the New Deal in a southern context, see Alison Collis Greene, No Depression in Heaven: The Great Depression, the New Deal, and the Transformation of Religion in the Delta (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).

43. Buell G. Gallagher, “Welfare Work: Ally or Alternative,” in The Church and Organized Movements, ed. Randolph Crump Miller (New York: Harper, 1946), 125–28.

44. John C. Bennett, “A Statement Presented to the Study Commission of the Council for Social Action—April 1951,” Folder 5, Box 241, Judd Papers.

45. Advocates of the Council for Social Action were Albert B. Coe, Buell G. Gallagher, and Samuel C. Kincheloe. Critics of the council were Walter H. Judd, Thomas G. Long, and Gideon Seymour. The neutral members were Chester I. Barnard (president of the Rockefeller Foundation and member of the Department of Church and Economic Life and the Department of International Justice and Goodwill), Eugene E. Barnett (YMCA leader), and Frank W. Pierce (Standard Oil of New Jersey, and member of the National Lay Committee of the National Council of Churches).

46. “Report of the Board of Review of the Activities of the Council for Social Action,” Box 112, GCR.

47. Walter H. Judd to Chester I. Bernard, September 29, 1953, in “Council for Social Action. League to Uphold Congregational Principles,” Box 112, GCR.

48. Billy Graham to Walter Judd, July 18, 1950, Folder 6, Box 30, Judd Papers.

49. J. William T. Youngs, The Congregationalists (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), chap. 10.

50. Walter H. Judd to Fred Hoskins, April 20, 1957, Folder 4, Box 241, Judd Papers.

51. See various files in Folder 4, Box 241, Judd Papers.

52. For an overview, see Jeanne Gayle Knepper, “Thy Kingdom Come: The Methodist Federation for Social Service and Human Rights, 1907–1948” (PhD diss., Iliff School of Theology and the University of Denver, 1996).

53. Ibid., 192–98.

54. “Negro Heads Methodist Church Federation for the First Time,” Los Angeles Sentinel, January 8, 1948, 6. For biographical details of Brooks’s life, see “Brooks, Robert Nathaniel,” in Encyclopedia of African American Religions, ed. Larry G. Murphy, J. Gordon Melton, and Gary L. Ward (New York: Routledge, 2011), 117. On the educational and institutional trajectories of African American leaders like Brooks, see Chapter 4 in this volume.

55. “Feng’s Accusation,” South China Morning Post, December 29, 1947, 12.

56. “Methodists Scout a Communist Link,” New York Times, December 30, 1947, 18.

57. “Methodist Bishop of Texas Smears Group Brooks Heads,” Afro-American, January 17, 1948; “Revoking of Prize to Reporter Urged,” New York Times, February 5, 1948, 21.

58. Yasuhiro Katagiri, Black Freedom, White Resistance, and Red Menace: Civil Rights and Anticommunism in the Jim Crow South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014), 27.

59. “Church Blasts Press Fallacy,” Chicago Defender, February 21, 1948, 3.

60. On the 1948 meeting, see “Report Concerning ‘Unofficial’ Organizations Associated with the Methodist Church and Resolution,” 2136-3-6:01, General Conference 1948 (D2002–005), Records of the Methodist Federation for Social Action, United Methodist Archives, Drew University.

61. Katagiri, Black Freedom, White Resistance, and Red Menace.

62. Ibid., 27–29.

63. Ibid., 31–32.

64. Knepper, “Thy Kingdom Come,” 199–200; Review of the Methodist Federation For Social Action, Formerly the Methodist Federation for Social Service, February 17, 1952 (Washington, DC: Committee on Un-American Activities, U.S. House of Representatives, 1952), 6–21; “Church Urged to Disown Unit with ‘Red Ideas,’ ” Chicago Tribune, November 4, 1951, 42; Kenneth Dole, “Social Action Official Raps Circuit Riders,” November 14, 1951, Washington Post, B10.

65. On Pew, see Dochuk, Anointed with Oil.

66. On the National Lay Committee as a power struggle between the ecumenical and evangelical factions of American Protestantism, see Henry J. Pratt, The Liberalization of American Protestantism: A Case Study in Complex Organizations (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1972), 84–104; Eckard Vance Toy Jr., “The National Committee and the National Council of Churches: A Case Study of Protestants in Conflict,” American Quarterly 21 (Summer 1969): 190–209. On the National Lay Committee as a contest between labor and capital, see Elizabeth A. Fones-Wolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on Labor and Liberalism, 1945–60 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 218–45.

67. Quoted Fones-Wolf, Selling Free Enterprise, 238.

68. Ibid., 237–39.

69. Ibid., 244–45.

70. Ibid., 242–43.

71. William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945–1960: The Soul of Containment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 81–84.

72. Molly Worthen, Apostles of Reason: The Crisis of Authority in American Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 62, 66.

73. “Christian Criticism and Labor’s Big Stick,” Christianity Today, December 10, 1956, 23–25.

74. Dochuk, Anointed with Oil; Kruse, One Nation Under God; Bethany Moreton, To Serve God and Wal-Mart: The Making of Christian Free Enterprise (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).

75. The Christian Conscience and an Economy of Abundance (New York: National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., 1956), 5.

76. John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1958), 2–3.

77. Michael Harrington, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1962), 1.

78. The Christian Conscience and an Economy of Abundance.

79. American Abundance: Possibilities and Problems from the Perspective of the Christian Conscience: Message and Reports (New York: National Council of the Churches, 1956), 17.

80. Ibid., 7.

81. Ibid., 8–9.

82. Samuel Moyn, Not Enough: Human Rights in an Unequal World (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2018), 2–6.

83. Harvest of Shame, produced by David Lowe (New York: Columbia Broadcasting System, 1960), videocassette.

84. Lyndon B. Johnson, Michigan Commencement Address (Great Society Speech), May 22, 1964, American Rhetoric: Top 100 Speeches, https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/lbjthegreatsociety.htm, accessed December 12, 2018.

Epilogue

1. Ray Holton and Marc Schogol, “Theologian, Wife Saw Only Suffering Left So They Decided It Was ‘Time to Go,’ ” Boston Globe, March 2, 1975, 22; Marjorie Hyer, “Colleague Explains Cleric’s Suicide Try,” Washington Post, April 4, 1975, C5.

2. Harvey G. Cox, “The ‘New Breed’ in American Churches: Sources of Social Activism in American Religion,” Daedalus 96, no. 1 (1967): 135–50, Alinsky quote at 138–39.

3. Darril Hudson, “The World Council of Churches and Racism in Southern Africa,” International Journal 34, no. 3 (Summer 1979): 475–500; Claude E. Welch Jr., “Mobilizing Morality: The World Council of Churches and Its Program to Combat Racism, 1969–1994,” Human Rights Quarterly 23, no. 4 (November 2001): 863–910. On Blake at the Baltimore amusement park, see Victoria W. Wolcott, Race, Riots, and Roller Coasters: The Struggle over Segregated Recreation in America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 183–86.

4. Steven L. B. Jensen, The Making of International Human Rights: The 1960s, Decolonization, and the Reconstruction of Global Values (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017). See also Bonny Ibhawoh, “Testing the Atlantic Charter: Linking Anticolonialism, Self-Determination and Universal Human Rights,” International Journal of Human Rights 18, nos. 7–8 (2014): 842–60; Meredith Terretta, “ ‘We Had Been Fooled into Thinking That the UN Watches over the Entire World’: Human Rights, UN Trust Territories, and Africa’s Decolonization,” Human Rights Quarterly 34, no. 2 (2012): 329–60.

5. Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).

6. Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Carol Anderson, Bourgeois Radicals: The NAACP and the Struggle for Colonial Liberation, 1941–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015); Thomas F. Jackson, From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007); Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights.

7. Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010), 129–33; Sarah B. Snyder, From Selma to Moscow: How Human Rights Activists Transformed U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018), 99, 120–21.

8. Mark Philip Bradley, The World Reimagined: Americans and Human Rights in the Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 3.

9. On post-Protestants, see N. J. Demerath, “Cultural Victory and Organizational Defeat in the Paradoxical Decline of Liberal Protestantism,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 34, no. 4 (1995): 458–69; Matthew Hedstrom, The Rise of Liberal Religion: Book Culture and American Spirituality in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); David A. Hollinger, After Cloven Tongues of Fire: Protestant Liberalism in Modern American History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013).

10. See, for example, Justin Reynolds, “Against the World: International Protestantism and the Ecumenical Movement Between Secularization and Politics, 1900–1952” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2016), 345–408.

11. American Friends Service Committee, Speak Truth to Power: A Quaker Search for an Alternative to Violence; A Study of International Conflict ([Philadelphia]: American Friends Service Committee, 1955).

12. James F. Findlay, Church People in the Struggle: The National Council of Churches and the Black Freedom Movement, 1950–1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 203–4.

13. “Youth Sit-In at Church Conference,” South China Morning Post, July 20, 1968, 16.

14. Jill K. Gill, Embattled Ecumenism: The National Council of Churches, the Vietnam War, and the Trials of the Protestant Left (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2011), 162.

15. Sam Hodges, “Diverse Leaders’ Group Offers Separation Plan,” UM News, January 3, 2020, https://www.umnews.org/en/news/diverse-leaders-group-offers-separation-plan; Kristin Kobes Du Mez, Jesus and John Wayne: How White Evangelicals Corrupted a Faith and Fractured a Nation (New York: Liveright, 2021); R. Marie Griffith, Moral Combat: How Sex Divided American Christians and Fractured American Politics (New York: Basic Books, 2017); Anthony Michael Petro, After the Wrath of God: AIDS, Sexuality, and American Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015); Robert O. Self, All in the Family: The Realignment of American Democracy since the 1960s (New York: Hill & Wang, 2012).

16. See, for example, Lily Geismer, “More Than Megachurches: Liberal Religion and Politics in the Suburbs,” in Faithful Republic: Religion and Politics in Modern America, ed. Andrew Preston, Bruce J. Schulman, and Julian E. Zelizer (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 117–30.

17. Robert D. Putnam and David E. Campbell, American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010); Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith Since World War II (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988). The role of gender in the demographic decline of Christianity in the 1960s is most thoroughly interrogated in the British context. See Callum G. Brown, The Death of Christian Britain: Understanding Secularisation, 1800–2000, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2009).

18. Elesha J. Coffman, The Christian Century and the Rise of the Protestant Mainline (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 5.

19. Reliable data for the mid-century are hard to find, but a common estimate of about 30 percent in 1970 is cited here: Ed Stetzer, “If It Doesn’t Stem Its Decline, Mainline Protestantism Has Just 23 Easters Left,” Washington Post, April 28, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2017/04/28/if-it-doesnt-stem-its-decline-mainline-protestantism-has-just-23-easters-left/. On the 2007 and 2014 statistics, see Michael Lipka, “Mainline Protestants Make Up Shrinking Number of U.S. Adults,” May 18, 2015, Pew Research Center, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/05/18/mainline-protestants-make-up-shrinking-number-of-u-s-adults/.

20. Wade Clark Roof and William McKinney, American Mainline Religion: Its Changing Shape and Future (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987), 152.

21. “Mainline Protestants,” Religious Landscape Study, Pew Research Center, https://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/religious-tradition/mainline-protestant/, accessed May 20, 2021.

22. On the politics of institutional funding, see Jill K. Gill, “The Politics of Ecumenical Disunity: The Troubled Marriage of Church World Service and the National Council of Churches,” Religion and American Culture 14, no. 2 (2004): 175–212.

23. Bobby Chris Alexander, Televangelism Reconsidered: Ritual in the Search for Human Community (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1994); Razelle Frankl, Televangelism: The Marketing of Popular Religion (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987); Shayne Lee, Holy Mavericks: Evangelical Innovators and the Spiritual Marketplace (New York: University Press, 2009); R. Laurence Moore, Selling God: American Religion in the Marketplace of Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); Daniel Vaca, Evangelicals Incorporated: Books and the Business of Religion in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019); James Wellman, High on God: How Megachurches Won the Heart of America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020).

24. For a nuanced reading of evangelicals and South African apartheid through a foreign policy lens, see Lauren Frances Turek, To Bring the Good News to All Nations: Evangelical Influence on Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Relations (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2020), 151–80.

25. Recent scholarship on evangelicals has demonstrated their long relationship with conservatism. See, for example, Darren Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sunbelt: Plain-Folk Religion, Grassroots Politics, and the Rise of Evangelical Conservatism (New York: W.W. Norton, 2012); Du Mez, Jesus and John Wayne; Matthew Avery Sutton, American Apocalypse: A History of Modern Evangelicalism (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2017); Molly Worthen, Apostles of Reason: The Crisis of Authority in American Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). For an account that disputes these findings, see David William Bebbington, George M. Marsden, and Mark A. Noll, Evangelicals: Who They Have Been, Are Now, and Could Be (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2019). Scholars have also noted that the opposition among fundamentalists to ecumenical Protestants had predated the 1940s, with substantial hostility to the social gospel and ecumenism dating back to at least the 1910s. The mid-twentieth-century period has been highlighted here because it was a key moment for the institutionalization of that hostility.

26. See Jefferson Cowie, Stayin’ Alive: The 1970s and the Last Days of the Working Class (New York: New Press, 2010).

27. James T. Kloppenberg, Reading Obama: Dreams, Hope, and the American Political Tradition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 198–209; Kristin Du Mez, “Can Hillary Clinton’s Faith Help Her Lead a Fractured Nation?,” Religion and Politics, July 25, 2016, https://religionandpolitics.org/2016/07/25/can-clintons-faith-help-her-lead-a-fractured-nation/.

28. For an overview of the contemporary religious Left, see Jack Jenkins, American Prophets: The Religious Roots of Progressive Politics and the Ongoing Fight for the Soul of the Country (New York: Harper Collins, 2020); R. Marie Griffith and Melani McAlister, eds., Religion and Politics in the Contemporary United States (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008).