CHAPTER 20
____________________________
Roy Fenton
This chapter surveys the development of steam shipping in Cornwall until the First World War, concentrating on native undertakings rather than those from elsewhere whose services called at Cornish ports. It also considers whether Cornwall’s embrace of steam shipping can be related to its geography. The term ‘maritime steam’ is interpreted as referring to sea-going trading vessels, so that tugs and pleasure craft that rarely ventured out of harbour are excluded, while steam trawlers and drifters are left to the historians of fishing craft.
Short-sea Steam
The first viable steam ship is generally considered to be Bell’s Comet, which opened regular services on the Clyde in 1812.1 Early steam technology was costly, unreliable and enormously inefficient, so early steamer services were confined to estuaries, coastal and short-distance open-water passages. They conveyed mainly passengers, who would often pay well for the prospect of a reliably brief sea crossing, and high-value goods that included mails and time-sensitive cargoes such as livestock or fresh farm produce.
Cornwall had one important route which met the criteria for the early use of steam, that to the Scilly Isles. Farr has pointed out that the considerable business activity connected with shipowning, shipbroking, repairing and victualling on the islands brought a demand for regular communication with the mainland.2 He identifies the Devon-owned Sir Francis Drake as one of the first steamers to visit the islands in June 1831. However, the first locally-owned steamer to serve the islands did not arrive until 1858, when the Scilly Isles Steam Navigation Company was formed by Scilly interests to take delivery of the Little Western. Making three round trips each week, this iron screw steamer seems to have satisfied local needs, but in 1871 another steamer service was begun by the Penzance-based West Cornwall Steamship Co. Ltd, financed by shareholders in the West Cornwall Railway. Their iron paddler Earl of Arran supplemented rather than competed with Little Western, and was deputising for her when lost in July 1872. Just three months later Little Western herself was wrecked following an abortive attempt to salvage a disabled vessel and her loss finished off the Scilly Isles Steam Navigation Company. The West Cornwall Company subsequently chartered or bought a mixed bag of second-hand vessels for the route until their Lady of the Isles was completed by Harveys of Hayle in 1875. She lasted thirty years on the mail service and a further thirty-five doing the arduous work of a salvage vessel. An enlarged version, Lyonesse, was supplied in 1889 and remained on the Scilly Isles service until 1918. Her sale brought to an end the long and at times financially troubled history of the West Cornwall Steam Ship Co. Ltd. The gap was filled by the formation in 1919 of the Isles of Scilly Steamship Co. Ltd, a locally owned company which provides to the present day a connection to the mainland and inter-island launches.3
20.1 The Lyonesse was built by Harveys of Hayle in 1889 for the Scilly Isles service (World Ship Society Ltd)
Coastal Liner Services
Farr identifies the Bristol-owned Cambria as the first steamer to offer a regular service along the south coast of Cornwall, running between Plymouth, Fowey and Falmouth in the summer of 1824.4 This prompted the Plymouth owners of Sir Francis Drake to place her on a rival service between Falmouth and Portsmouth in 1825. South Cornish services were then largely monopolised by Bristol Channel and Devon owners, the latter also making some sailings to Jersey and Guernsey. Native Cornish undertakings tended to be few and short-lived: for example, the Falmouth and Southampton Steam Packet Company ran the wooden paddler Lord Beresford only from September 1841 to May 1843. There were also small, locally owned ‘market boats’ running between Cornish ports, in, for instance, the Falmouth–Truro area, but few can be counted as sea-going. An exception was the pioneer paddler Forager of the Fowey and Par Steamship Company, formed with local capital in 1854 to provide a .weekly service for passengers between Fowey and Plymouth. The company lasted only until 1859, when the railway reached Truro. The rather grandly titled South Devon and Cornwall Steam Packet Co. Ltd, formed at Looe in 1893, could boast only an ageing Clyde ‘puffer’, the Cartsburn.5 The company was wound up after just two years although Cartsburn was then owned in Liskeard until 1899.
Cornish enterprise had a larger share of north-coast services. The first steamer to call at Hayle is recorded in 1824 and regular services from the port are believed to have started in 1831, when Penzance, Hayle and Bristol interests formed the Hayle Steamship Company to operate a weekly service between Bristol, St Ives and Hayle with the wooden Herald.6 Harveys of Hayle, mining engineers and shipbuilders, had a growing interest in this company, and built the engines for the paddler Cornwall of 1842, added when the arrival of the Great Western Railway in Bristol boosted travel to Cornwall. The added business attracted a rival, and Vivian Stevens of St Ives put the Brilliant on to the Hayle to Bristol route. The Hayle Steamship Company was renamed the Hayle and Bristol Steam Packet Company in 1848 and, confusingly, the owners of the Brilliant adopted the same title.
New ships were introduced periodically. With growing confidence in their ironworking abilities, Harveys built both the hull and engines of the Cornubia of 1858 for the ‘Original’ Hayle and Bristol company.7 Her speed meant that in 1861 she was bought for use as a blockade runner in the American Civil War. By then the companies appear to have amalgamated, probably as a result of traffic diminishing when the completion of the Saltash Bridge in 1860 enabled through rail services from London to reach both Hayle and Penzance. Nevertheless, steamer services continued, with Harveys both building and owning the Bride of 1863 and Bessie of 1865. With two ships running occasional competitors were quickly seen off, but rail competition seriously hurt the service and Harveys gradually moved their ships into other trades.
The last chapter in the story of Hayle to Bristol services began in 1893 when Hosken, Trevithick, Polkinhorn and Co. Ltd of Penzance bought the screw steamer Norseman, which was quickly replaced with the M.J. Hedley. A humble bulk carrier, the latter is nevertheless credited with carrying some passengers on a weekly triangular service linking Bristol, Hayle and Liverpool, although she was recorded in other ports before her sale in 1917.
Cornish ports benefited from their geographical situation and enjoyed calls by steamers running between London, the Irish ports, Bristol and Liverpool. Calls at Falmouth began in 1826 with the Erin, which was on a service from Belfast to London.8 From 1868 Samuel Hough’s London to Liverpool steamers called at Penzance and their success probably stimulated a major Cornish venture into regular liner trades by George Bazeley.9 This Penzance miller and provision merchant bought a schooner in 1875 to carry his grain and two years later advertised a regular steamer service to London and South Wales with the former French steamer Progrés of 1872. The service prospered and, in 1880, Bazeley extended his services to Bristol with the William J. Taylor. The ambitious miller opened a Penzance to Liverpool service in 1882, using the trading title Little Western Steamship Company, but this was not well patronised and was withdrawn in a matter of months, the ships finding plenty of work on his Bristol and London routes. On George Bazeley’s death in 1886 his sons George Paulle and William J. Bazeley inherited a prosperous business, with four ships offering a twice-weekly service for general cargo and passengers.
20.2 Typical of Bazeley’s second-hand steamers was Mercutio of 1879 (World Ship Society Ltd)
Reduced services continued right through the First World War, but the Bazeleys’ business did not long outlast the conflict. The other liner companies putting steamers into Penzance and Falmouth had now been bought by Coast Lines Ltd. This company resulted following amalgamations of Liverpool-based companies: Powell and Bacon, merged in 1910, and then the Hough company, absorbed in 1912. This traded as Powell, Bacon and Hough until 1917, when it was acquired by Owen Phillips (later Lord Kylsant). Under Philipps, Coast Lines pursued an aggressive policy of acquisition and in 1920 made an offer of £160,000 for Bazeleys’ business. As the three surviving steamers were valued at just £45,000 this offer was just too good to refuse and in the spring of 1920 the business was transferred to Coast Lines. One steamer was sold, two were given ‘Coast’ names, the administration moved to London, whilst Penzance was served by calls from Coast Lines’ steamers on longer routes. The operation of liner services by native Cornish companies had come to an end.
Coastal Bulk Trades
Bulk cargoes of coal, stone, lime, timber, ore and grain are of relatively low value and not time-critical, so into the final quarter of the nineteenth century their trade was dominated by wooden sailing vessels, which were cheaper to build and run than early steamers. Significant increases in the efficiency of engines, and particularly boilers, and economies in building iron hulls were needed to enable the steam coaster to begin to compete in these trades during the 1870s.10
Early steam coasters owned in south Wales, Bristol or Liverpool made calls at Cornish mineral ports to bring in coal or to load ore. The earliest evidence of ownership of such vessels by Cornishmen is the Hayle of 1867, appropriately built and owned at Hayle by Harvey and Co.11 Circumstantial evidence points to her being used in the coal trade out of Newport, probably with voyages to Hayle. Harveys also had the Express of 1847, registered in their ownership in 1867, which had been converted from paddle to sail in 1859 and then to screw propulsion in 1863. Once the Hayle to Bristol service became moribund Harveys built dedicated colliers: the Carnsew in 1888 and a second Hayle in 1893. Harveys’ shipowning outlived their shipbuilding, their last vessel, the Troon-built Pulteney, surviving until 1933.
20.3 Bain’s coaster, Treleigh (Roy Fenton)
At the village of Scorrier George Williams and Co. had an early fleet of coasters, beginning with the Ogmore of 1866, which had a shallow draft to suit small harbours around the Bristol Channel. Ownership of the Salisbury was initially shared among three members of the Williams family, although this had been whittled down to just Michael Williams of Truro by the time she was sold in 1899. She was replaced with the altogether larger Ailsa of 1894, which, with the addition of the Pulteney of 1899, saw out the Williams family’s shipowning career, both being sold in 1916.
At the mineral port of Portreath David Bain made a cautious move from sail to steam in 1887 with the purchase of Veronica. David Bain died in December 1898 and the business was continued under his name by his sons Frederick and Arthur. The staple cargo carried to Portreath was by now coal from south Wales or Lancashire, but losses in this trade were heavy: six out of eleven ships owned. The loss by collision of Plover in May 1918 left just Treleigh and Holme Wood. The management seemed unwilling to face the depressed trading conditions of the 1920s and sold both coasters for scrap in 1924. A careful acquisition policy meant that of the eleven steamers that David Bain or his sons owned at Portreath over thirty-seven years only two were built to Bain’s order. Treleigh of 1894 was typical of smaller coasters, with all her superstructure aft. She outlived Bain’s venture, being sold to a Redruth owner in 1924 and lasting until scrapped at Lelant in 1932. The other steam coaster built for Bain was the Guardian of 1896, whose name reflected David Bain’s pride in being guardian of the local workhouse.
John Bennetts of Penzance, originally a colliery agent, had a fleet of six steam coasters, beginning with the Progrés of 1872, acquired from Bazeley in 1885. She was to be his only loss, sinking following a collision off the Lizard in June 1895 on a voyage from Gloucester to London with salt. Bennetts’ last acquisition was given the singular name Pivoc, made up of the initial letters of the names of his other ships: Progrés, India, Vril, Ormerod and Cornubia (Bennetts’ only new building). Pivoc was the last ship in the fleet, sold in 1919.
The china-clay ports of south Cornwall generated much business for steam coasters, especially to Runcorn and other north-western ports, usually allowing a back cargo of Lancashire coal, but Cornish owners were not to benefit greatly from this. Owners from the Mersey, such as Richard Hughes, Richard Clark and the Zillah Shipping and Carrying Co. Ltd, entered the china-clay trade early and held it firmly up to and beyond the demise of the steam coaster.12 In Fowey they were challenged only by Charles Toyne and his sometime partner John Carter, who were also shipbrokers.13 The former bought the ageing Stockton from Bazeley in 1897 and financed her by floating the Fowey Steamship Co. Ltd. In 1900 the Toyne, Carter partnership began ordering steam ships: Torfrey and Par from the esteemed Paisley yard of John Fullerton and Co. and Foy from Workington, each registered to a single ship company. Foy of 1902 was a good example of the commonest design of British steam coaster, with engines aft, bridge amidships and a raised quarter deck. The original owners were the Fowey (Number 3) Steamship Co. Ltd, managed by Toyne, Carter and Co. She was sold with the other Toyne, Carter managed ships in 1918 and, after a variety of British owners, passed to Holland, which was unusual in that Dutch coasters tended to be sold to British owners, not vice versa. As Flevomeer she stranded off Nyköbing in 1934. The Toyne, Carter steamships were sold immediately after the First World War.
Deep-sea Shipping
Edward Hain (1851–1917) was Cornwall’s most prolific operator of steam ships and is arguably one of the nineteenth century’s most successful tramp ship owners.14 He was from the fourth generation of the Hain family of St Ives known to be involved with the sea, although his family’s earlier shipowning was on a small scale, with perhaps a dozen small sailing vessels passing through its hands. A significant factor was investment in the family’s ships by the Bolithos of Penzance, and in recognition the Hains’ only iron sailing ship was named T.S.B. after Thomas Simon Bolitho. Edward Hain chose not to go to sea as his predecessors had done, instead gaining commercial experience in the St Ives branch of Bolitho’s Bank and in London. On his return to the family business in St Ives he was convinced that its future lay with steam and used connections with the Bolithos to help secure finance for an iron steamer ordered from South Shields. When launched on 26 November 1878 the steamer was named Trewidden after the Bolitho’s estate. This was an inspired naming scheme that emphasised the Cornish origins of the fleet for many years after it had severed other connections with the county.
Edward Hain used the 64th share system and, from 1885, single-ship companies to finance his growing fleet until in 1901 he set up the Hain Steamship Co. Ltd with a capital of £500,000 in £10 shares, to which all ships were transferred. Consolidation of ownership had administrative advantages, let Hain increase his capital base and probably increased his personal financial interest. Cooper has researched the trade and crew composition of the Hain fleet in January 1900.15 Outward, the ships predominantly loaded south Wales coal, usually for South America but also for the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Homeward cargoes were often grain, but also rice from Burma and other food stuffs, usually for discharge at a major British or continental port. Officers on deck and in the engine room were predominantly Cornish, with twenty out of the twenty-two masters being born in the county. The crews, in comparison, were much more polyglot. A remarkable aspect of Edward Hain’s story was his unremitting loyalty to just one shipbuilder, John Readhead and Co. There were other owners who favoured one particular builder, but the unbroken sequence of seventy-four steamers delivered to Hain from Readheads’ South Shields yard between 1878 and 1918 may well be unique.
The First World War was disastrous for the Hains. Two ships were trapped in German ports and another confined to the Black Sea. The first sinking was the Treneglos, torpedoed in the Mediterranean on 14 November 1915, and losses mounted with the intensifying of the submarine war, the eventual toll being eighteen vessels and 100 lives. But family losses affected the fate of the business even more deeply. Sir Edward’s only son, the fifth Edward Hain, who was being groomed to succeed him, was killed at Gallipoli in 1915. Sir Edward never recovered from this loss. The 66-year-old was badly shaken when present during a German air raid on London in June 1917 and on 20 September 1917 died at his home near St Ives.
The shipping community wasted little time in grieving. On 27 October P&O’s Lord Inchcape made an offer of close to £4.4 million for the twenty-three ships, which was accepted. He was motivated by the need to find ships to replace severe war losses, but justified the purchase to the P&O board on the basis that the Hain ships would help out P&O’s cargo liners during buoyant periods of trade, especially with their being operated on ‘more economical lines’; in other words, their officers were fewer and paid less. Inchcape stressed the need to preserve Hain’s separate identity and the P&O group were steadfast in doing this right up to 1964, when the Hain Steamship Co. Ltd was amalgamated with another P&O subsidiary to become Hain-Nourse Management Ltd. The ‘Tre-’ names survived even longer, not disappearing until P&O was infected by enthusiasm for corporate identity in 1975. However, the connection with Cornwall began to be severed soon after the 1917 take-over, when the directors moved from St Ives to London, leaving the office there to deal mainly with staffing matters.
Perhaps in an effort to emulate Hain, from 1881 John Banfield of Penzance – manager of the West Cornwall Steamship Company – floated a number of single-ship companies to take delivery of tramps built by Schlesinger, Davis and Co. on the Tyne: Mount’s Bay, Carbis Bay and Boskenna Bay.16 But the venture did not prosper and by 1895 the largest ships ever to be registered in Penzance had moved away.
Like the Hains, the Chellew family had its roots in St Ives, from where William Chellew (1829–1916) moved to Devoran to begin a timber importing business that progressed to building and running a few small wooden sailing vessels and at least one small steamer, the North Star.17 As with the Hains, it was a new generation who propelled the company into serious steam, after William’s eldest son Richard (1856–1929) entered the business in 1874. However, it took Richard until 1883 to persuade his father to put his faith in steam. The Cornwall Steam Ship Co. Ltd was floated to own the new steamer City of Truro, both the company’s and the ship’s names being chosen to strike a chord with local backers, as were extravagant promises of dividends up to 30 per cent. Investors were slow to put their trust in an untried business, however, and insufficient money was raised to meet the bill of £25,000 from builders William Gray of Hartlepool, who were paid partly in bills of exchange. As a result, none of the promised dividends were paid during the first three years of trading of the City of Truro. Not surprisingly, when Chellew tried to float another company in 1887 he had few takers until earnings from City of Truro started to grow. Then, from 1888, new Chellew companies and ships came quickly and, from the fifth steamer, the Pencalenick of 1889, all bore Cornish place names with the prefix ‘Pen’. Chellew’s early ships were built at Hartlepool or on the Wear. In October 1889 he placed a contract with Harvey and Company of Hayle for the Penwith and Penpol. These were the largest vessels yet built in Cornwall, but the local yard could not compete with shipbuilders in the north-east, to whom Chellew returned for his subsequent ships. Penwith foundered in the Bay of Biscay in 1911.
Richard Chellew’s ability to trade his ships profitably and raise new finance is particularly notable as he had no previous experience in the business. For instance, figures presented at the 1894 Annual General Meeting showed that original investors in the Cornwall Steam Ship Co. Ltd had received dividends of £174 19s. 3d. for each £50 share. With most of Chellew’s vessels loading coal in south Wales, an office was opened in Cardiff that in time became more important than the Truro office. Neither Chellew’s nor the Hains’ ships were more than very occasional visitors to Cornish ports. Chellew was unlucky in having four ships in the Baltic in August 1914, of which two eventually escaped and two were lost. The fleet suffered five other war losses, but towards the end of the war was given the management of a number of ships ordered in Canada by the British government.
In 1918 Richard Chellew had all the vessels owned by single-ship companies reregistered under one company, the R.B. Chellew Steam Navigation Co. Ltd, with management in the hands of R.B. Chellew and Co. This was a preliminary to his retiring from the business. Aged sixty-three, he was in poor health and confined to a wheelchair; and he had no sons to whom he could pass his business. In 1920 he sold the management company, R.B. Chellew and Co., to a Frank Shearman of south Wales.
20.4 Chellew’s Penwith, seen here in the Avon, and her sister Penpol were the largest vessels built in Cornwall (J. and M. Clarkson)
Owning the management company allowed Shearman to control how the ships were run but, without a majority stake in the owning company R.B. Chellew Steam Navigation Co. Ltd, he could not dictate whether, for instance, the fleet would be sold. This was a situation that was to bedevil the company’s remaining years, with no single individual or organisation being in control. Day-to-day management was in the hands of Frederick Perman, who, as head clerk, had effectively run Chellew’s Truro office from 1918. In 1921 the office was transferred to Cardiff and the company ceased to have any real connection with Cornwall. Perman continued to manage the company until his death in March 1948. He was by then the largest single shareholder, but did not have an overall majority. Blocks of shares moved several times over the years, leading to other changes, including a move to London, another back to Cardiff, abandonment and later reinstatement of the original Chellew colours and naming scheme, and eventually a decision to sell the ships and wind up the company in 1955.
In a nice piece of symmetry the fourth native tramp ship owner completed the triumvirate of ‘Tre’, ‘Pen’ and ‘Pol’ naming schemes begun by Hain and Chellew. William Badcock (1864–1921) was born in St Ives and worked for Edward Hain.18 In 1900 he floated the Polurrian Steamship Co. Ltd to acquire the steamer of that name under construction at Blumer’s yard in Sunderland. The Poldhu Steamship Co. Ltd was established the following year to acquire the Poldhu from the same yard. In 1909 Badcock moved from St Ives to Cardiff and took delivery of a third new vessel, the Polvarth. Two years later, accurately sensing an improving market, he bought three second-hand steamers that he renamed Polmanter, Polcarne and Polperro. All were either lost or sold at a considerable profit before the end of the war and William Badco, as he had become in 1916, did not re-enter shipping.
At least two other Cornishmen became well-established owners of tramp steamers: the Padstow-born John Cory (1823–1910)19 and Edward Nicholl (1862–1939), from Pool, between Redruth and Camborne,20 but both did so following a move to Cardiff. While the names and reputations of the tramping enterprises begun by Cornishmen lasted for many years, by the early 1920s the companies’ management was conducted well beyond the county. With Bazeley’s coastal liner operations also selling out, it was only the coastal bulk trades described above that kept Cornish shipowning alive.
Conclusions: Cornish Enterprise, Cornish Geography and Cornish Mariners
Cornwall has an important place in the early development of steam technology, as home both to some of Newcomen’s pumping engines and, in native Richard Trevithick, to a pioneer of the steam carriage and railway locomotive. However, in the field of steam navigation Cornishmen made a limited impact. Compared to similar services elsewhere, locals were perhaps thirty years late in running steamers to the Scilly Isles. Given Cornwall’s distance from centres of population and manufacture and the lateness of its connection to a national rail network, it is surprising that the modest second-hand fleet of George Bazeley was its only contribution to long-distance coastal liner services. Despite mineral riches including lead, copper and china clay, and the need for coal to work them, the number of steam coasters owned in Cornish ports – fewer than forty in total over the period – is actually smaller than the number owned by just one of several Liverpool owners specialising in the Cornish china-clay trade. Not one Cornishman began a deep-sea liner operation. Cornwall’s major contribution to steam shipping was made despite its geography. Hain, Banfield, Chellew, Badcock and the emigrants Cory and Nicholl established important tramp fleets notwithstanding their ships being strangers to Cornish ports. The owners’ entrepreneurial skills were significant, but the ready supply of reliable deck and engineering officers from Cornwall was also part of their success. The Cornish mariner may well have been the Duchy’s major contribution to steam navigation.
Notes and References
1 N.W. Kennedy, Records of Early British Steamships (Liverpool: Birchall, 1933).
2 G. Farr, West Country Passenger Steamers (Prescott: Stephenson, 1967), p. 148 onwards.
3 D. Chudley, Bridge over Lyonesse (Penzance: Isles of Scilly Steamship Co. Ltd, 1992).
4 Farr, West Country Passenger Steamers, p. 162.
5 Cornwall Record Office [hereafter CRO]: MSR/PEN Penzance ship registers.
6 Farr, West Country Passenger Steamers, p. 115.
7 C. Noall, Harveys: 200 Years of Trading (Truro: UBM Harveys, 1979); E. Vale, The Harveys of Hayle: Engine Builders, Shipwrights, and Merchants of Cornwall (Truro: Bradford Barton, 1966).
8 Farr, West Country Passenger Steamers, p. 159.
9 A. Pawlyn, ‘Bazeleys of Penzance and the Little Western Steamship Company’, in Ships in Focus Record 10 (1999), pp. 78–84; 11 (2000), pp. 146–53, 12 (2000), pp. 206–11.
10 This topic is developed in Roy Fenton, ‘Transition in the UK Coastal Bulk Trades: 1840–1914’, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Thames Valley University, 2005.
11 The major sources of information on the steam coasters and owners discussed in this section are: The National Archives [hereafter TNA]: BT 108, BT 110, ship registration documents; Cornwall Record Office [hereafter CRO]: MSR/PEN Penzance, MSR/HAY Hayle and MSR/FOY Fowey ship registers; HMSO, Mercantile Navy List (London, annual), various editions; Lloyd’s Register, Lloyd’s Register of Shipping (London, annual), various editions. For a more detailed account of coaster owners see C.V. Waine and R.S. Fenton, Steam Coasters and Short Sea Traders (Albrighton: Waine Research, 1994, 3rd edn).
12 R.S. Fenton, Mersey Rovers: The Coastal Tramp Ship Owners of Liverpool and the Mersey (Gravesend: World Ship Society, 1997).
13 C.H. Ward-Jackson, Ships and Shipbuilders of a West Country Seaport: Fowey 1786–1939 (Truro: Twelveheads, 1986), p. 65.
14 K.J. O’Donoghue and H.S. Appleyard, Hain of St Ives (Kendal: World Ship Society, 1986).
15 M. Cooper, ‘Hain in a Hundred: a British Tramp Fleet at Work: New Year’s Day 1900’, Ships in Focus Record 34 (2006), pp. 104–11.
16 CRO: MSR/PEN Penzance ship registers.
17 A. Atkinson, ‘Richard B. Chellew and Chellew Navigation Co. Ltd’ in Roy Fenton and John Clarkson (eds), British Shipping Fleets, Vol. 2 (Preston: Ships in Focus Publications, 2008).
18 R. Fenton and D. Jenkins, ‘The Other St Ives Shipowners’, in Ships in Focus Record 45 (2010), pp. 24–30.
19 J.G. Jenkins and D. Jenkins, Cardiff Shipowners (Cardiff: National Museum of Wales, 1986).
20 D. Burrell, ‘Cardiff Hall Line’, in Roy Fenton and John Clarkson (eds), British Shipping Fleets (Preston: Ships in Focus Publications, 2000).