Horses dramatically affected early civilization and became inextricably entangled in a reciprocal relationship with man. By providing tractive power for vehicles and mounts for riding they immediately expanded the political, economic, and military horizons of ancient settlements. Although their capabilities were not unique, other animals were either too small (donkeys) or large (elephants), with only the ox being comparable. An ancient Chinese saying summarized their respective strengths: “Horses are the means to go far, oxen the means to bear weight.”33
Observations recorded over the centuries attest to the horse’s superiority not just in speed but also in ability to deliver a significantly greater percentage of its load to a designated location within a given time frame. However, far more important for the chariot’s utilization in warfare is the horse’s ability to trot at seven to nine miles per hour and to race briefly at fourteen to twenty miles per hour depending on the chariot’s drag.
Even though horses are said to be shy and shun conflict, troops confronting them are normally disconcerted by their size, irrespective of whether they are being employed as cavalry or are yoked to the front of a chariot. Being highly visible embodiments of temporarily constrained “wild power,” their psychological impact, whether in peaceful conditions or the chaos of the battlefield, is great.34 In measured parades their constrained cadence lends an aura of majesty, and the sound of their pounding hooves as they charge forward augments their impact. Because image can be as important as capability, they were frequently selected for contingents and matched for chariot employment by color, size, and spirit.
Although not as freewheeling and maneuverable as cavalry, chariot forces could still produce immense terror. Particularly when massed in a battlefield charge, their terrifying bulk often shattered formations and scared defenders into breaking and running even after it was historically attested that solid formations that maintained their integrity could withstand such onslaughts. Segmenting and individually racing about, they could cause the chaos and consternation described in Caesar’s observations on the British use of chariots.35
An incident from the Spring and Autumn period suggests the psychological importance of prestige to the chariot’s riders and undermines claims that chariots merely served as transport for dismounted fighters. By then China’s sedentary core had already been battling the peripheral peoples for nearly a millennium, dating back to Hsia conflicts with the Tung Yi and others, and some steppe peoples had long fielded forces with chariot components, though others continued to rely solely on infantry. In 541 BCE, when a Chin chariot contingent found itself confronted by a Ti infantry force, the commander ordered his men to dismount and re-form as infantry units. Unwilling to suffer this loss of dignity, one man resisted and was promptly executed, after which Chin scored an unexpected victory.36
In some civilizations the horse became the focus of culture and center of existence, even being accorded the status of a spirit or god. In China, apart from being sacrificed to honor (or appease) the ancestors, it early on acquired a number of symbolic and mystic roles. Horses were associated with fire and thought to be most active (or rambunctious) in the summer; therefore, the annual sacrifice to the horse was conducted at this time according to the idealized compilation of Chou rites known as the Chou Li.37 Ritual practices eventually came to integrate a wide range of magical and mystical aspects, including specifying the color of the king’s horses so that they would be in accord (or resonate) with the season.
As the horse’s prestige and importance increased, methods for discriminating between sturdy and sickly animals evolved and eventually became codified. Incidental aspects also came to be integrated into the vibrant prognosticatory tradition that would characterize China through the ages. Unfortunately, even though the horse is still a prominent member of the twelve animals found in the popular zodiac, little more than remnants of horse prognostication have been preserved, scattered about a few Sung dynasty compilations. Apart from horses reportedly having given birth to humans, three of the more interesting are:38
“When horses eat pebbles and stones, the general is courageous, and the warriors strong, their attack will certainly result in victory.”
“When horses sprout horns the ruler will be defeated.”
“If a colt is born without eyes the ruler will suffer long illness; without a mouth or nose, the ruler will not have any sons; without ears, deaf, or without feet, the ruler will lose his position; without a tail, troops will arise, the state will be weak, and the ruler will lack posterity.”