Chapter 1
Some basic description of U.S. Army organization is useful to help explain some of the unit designations that follow American tank operations in the European theater of operations (ETO) involved two major types of formations, armored divisions and separate tank battalions. The armored divisions were intended primarily for mobile operations, and their chief role was to exploit deep behind enemy lines once a penetration had been won by the infantry. Of the sixteen armored divisions raised in World War II, all but one served in the ETO in 1944-45. (The 1st Armored Division served in the Mediterranean theater of operations in Italy in 1944-45). Armored divisions were a combined-arms force, and each had a balance of three tank battalions, three armored infantry battalions, and three armored field artillery battalions, plus supporting units. In total, they each contained 168 M4 medium tanks, 83 M5A1 light tanks, and a large number of other armored vehicles. The two exceptions to this organization were the
2nd and 3rd Armored Divisions, which retained the older 1942-pattern "heavy" organization, with six tank battalions instead of three, and so they had proportionately more equipment. Armored divisions in combat typically formed three combined-arms task forces, called combat commands for specific missions. These were designated as CCA, CCB, and CCR, the last being the divisional reserve. The component battalions in each of these combat commands varied from day to day so that units could be rotated out of combat for refit, replenishment, and rest.
The separate tank battalions were formed to provide support to the infantry. In France, most infantry divisions had a tank battalion and a tank destroyer attached to them for the conduct of specific operations. These tanks were used for close support of the infantry, and typically, one tank company would be attached to each of the infantry division's three infantry regiments. The equipment of these units was highly standardized, and nearly all units used the M4, M4A1, and M4A3 medium tank in their three medium tank companies and the M5A1 light tank in their single light tank company. The medium tanks were usually in Companies A, B, and C, while the light tanks were in Company D.
The separate tank destroyer battalions were formed and trained separately from the tank force, and their inspiration came mainly from the artillery branch. While the Armored Force was envisioned mainly as an offensive arm, the Tank Destroyer Command had been organized as a defensive response to the German blitzkrieg. U.S. Army infantry divisions were equipped with various antitank weapons, including the 2.36-inch "bazooka" rocket launcher and the towed 57mm antitank gun. Combat lessons from earlier in the war, however, suggested that these defenses could be overwhelmed when the Germans concentrated their panzers on a narrow front. The idea behind the tank destroyer force was that it could be kept in reserve until the main panzer attack materialized, and then the tank destroyer battalions could be rapidly sent to the point of greatest threat and overwhelm the panzer attack with fire and mobility. In practice, this doctrine proved to be seriously flawed, and instead, the tank destroyer battalions were usually doled out on a scale of one per
infantry division and used much like the separate tank battalions.
Although the tank destroyer battalions initially relied on self-propelled guns as their principal equipment, the poor performance of these battalions in the North African theater led to a backwards step when many battalions were converted to towed 3inch antitank guns in 1943-44. These towed gun battalions proved to be a failure in Normandy, and by 1945, the U.S.Army was in the process of shifting the tank destroyer battalions exclusively to self-propelled guns.The main self-propelled gun in these battalions was the M10 3-inch gun motor carriage (GMC),but the newer M18 76mm GMC and M36 90mm GMC were eventually deployed in the ETO as will be described in more detail below
While tanks and tank destroyers were the backbone of American armored units in the ETO, there was a wide range of specialized infantry, artillery, and engineer vehicles; these are described in greater detail in the following pages.
AMERICAN ARMORED ARSENAL
The workhorse of the American tank force was the M4 medium tank. The British named it the General Sherman after the famous Civil War commander, but this name was not widely used by the U.S. Army during the war. This is a fairly typical mid-production M4 with the initial hull configuration but with the improved turret with the wider M34A1 gun mount that incorporated a new telescopic sight.
The stablemate of the M4 was the M4A1 medium tank. Both tanks were identical except that the M4 used a welded hull while the M4A1, as seen here, had a cast hull with much rounder contours. This tank from the 741st Tank Battalion on maneuvers in 1943 has the earlier turret configuration, which had the narrow M34 gun mount that relied on a less satisfactory periscopic gun sight. Most M4 and M4A1 tanks in Britain were subjected to a "quick fix" program in 1943 that incorporated a number of modifications, including the new M34A1 gun mount.
The U.S. Army began shifting to the improved M4A3 in the summer of 1944, substituting the Ford GAA inline engine for the Continental radial used in the earlier M4 and M4A1. This particular M4A3 also shows the new "wet stowage" hull, which shifted the ammunition out of the tank sponsons into the floor in protected racks to reduce the chances of dangerous ammunition fires if the tank was hit in combat. The first M4A3 tanks began appearing in the ETO in August-September 1944, but they did not become the predominant type until well into 1945.
The U.S. Army began shifting to a new 76mm gun on the Sherman family late in 1943. These first appeared on the M4A1(76mm), which, as seen here, also had a cast version of the wet ammo stowage hull with the larger driver hatches.
A special assault tank version of the Sherman was built in 1944, designated as the M4A3E2. It had substantially thicker armor than the normal version, which is most noticeable on its new turret. It was based on the M4A3 chassis but with thickened armor and was armed with the same 75mm gun as the usual version of the tank. It was intended for use in combat against fortified positions.
There was some controversy over the adoption of the 76mm gun because its high-explosive firepower was not as powerful as the older 75mm gun, even if its antitank performance was better. As a result, its combat debut was delayed until Operation Cobra at the end of July when contact with the German Panther tank convinced American tankers that a more powerful gun was needed.
The 76mm gun was also mounted on the preferred M4A3 chassis as the M4A3 (76mm). these first began to appear in the ETO after the M4A1 (76mm), with their combat debut in August 1944 in small numbers. They did not become widespread until the autumn of 1944, and 75mm Shermans remained the majority until 1945.
The final-production configuration of the 105mm assault gun was based on the M4A3 chassis with the new HVSS (horizontal volute suspension system). These began arriving in the final months of fighting in 1945.
To provide additional high-explosive fire support to the tank battalions, the 105mm howitzer was mounted in a modified M4 turret as the M4 (105mm) assault gun. The assault guns were used in tank battalion and company headquarters, mainly to provide indirect fire support for the line companies.
The standard U.S. Army light tank in 1944 was the M5A1, known as the Stuart by the British. The standard-production version seen here had the exterior.30caliber machine gun mounted on a simple pintle mount on the right side of the turret. There was generally one company of M5A1 light tanks in each tank battalion, compared to three companies of M4 medium tanks.
The most secret tank in U.S. Army service in the ETO was known only by code names such as Leaflet or T10 Shop Tractor. It was a night-fighting tank based on the British Canal Defence Light. It consisted of an M3A1 medium tank chassis with the normal turret replaced with a searchlight turret for nighttime target illumination. Six battalions of these were deployed to the ETO in 1944, but they were so secret that none of the field commanders was aware of their capabilities. Instead, they were converted to mine-exploder battalions. A few saw service in 1945 along the Rhine for night defense.
The final-production configuration of the M5A1 light tank had a folding .30-caliber machine-gun mount on the right side of the turret as seen here, with a sheet metal fairing over it. Other small improvements were also incorporated into M5A1 production in the summer of 1943, including a rear stowage bin on the hull.
The 37mm gun on the M5A1 was widely viewed as inadequate, and after a few attempts, the U.S. Army finally came up with a more acceptable design in 1944, the M24 light tank. It was armed with a lightweight 75mm gun with the same ballistic capabilities of the 75mm gun on the M4 medium tank, but its armor was much thinner. It began to reach the ETO late in 1944, and a handful saw service during the Ardennes fighting in 1944.
Like the M4 medium tank, there was an assault gun version of the M5A1 light tank, the M8 75mm howitzer motor carriage. This vehicle had an enlarged turret, which led to the deletion of the two front roof hatches. The 75mm howitzer was mounted in an open turret with a .50-caliber heavy machine-gun mount in the right rear corner for antiaircraft defense. These vehicles were widely used in armored cavalry units for fire support in 1944.
The M10 3-inch gun motor carriage saw continual evolutionary changes. The version here has the intermediate style of turret counterbalance at the rear of the turret.
U.S. Army doctrine favored a distinct armored vehicle to deal with enemy tanks: the tank destroyer. The principal type in the ETO was the M10 3-inch gun motor carriage (GMC).This consisted of an M4A2 medium tank chassis with a new superstructure and turret with a 3-inch (76mm) gun. The tank destroyers were more lightly armed than tanks, and the turret roof was completely open as seen in this overhead view.
By 1944, the gun on the M10 tank destroyer was not adequate to deal with improved German tanks like the Panther. As a result, a new turret was developed with a 90mm gun, which resulted in the M36 90mm gun motor carriage. These began to appear in the ETO in September-October 1944.
For industrial reasons, some M36 turrets were mounted on the normal M4A3 medium tank hull as the M36B1, and these also served in the ETO.
Tank destroyer doctrine favored speed over armor, and so the M10 3-inch gun motor carriage was regarded only as a stopgap until a faster tank destroyer arrived. This emerged as the M18 76mm gun motor carriage, which was armed with the same gun as the M4 (76mm) medium tanks, but on a light chassis. This was the fastest U.S. Army armored vehicle of the war, with a top road speed of 55 miles per hour, but the small chassis was tight and cramped compared to the M10, and speed proved to be less important in combat than in the dreams of tank destroyer advocates. As a result, the M18 was issued to only a small number of tank destroyer battalions in the ETO.
The U.S. Army used both light tanks and armored cars for reconnaissance in 1944. The principal type was the M8 light armored car, which had originally been designed as a wheeled tank destroyer armed with the standard 37mm antitank gun, but by the time it was ready, the gun was too small for the tank destroyer role. The armored cavalry was not happy about the lack of a heavy machine gun on the initial production series seen here, and most M8 armored cars in combat in the ETO had a ring mount for the .50-caliber heavy machine gun added above the turret.
A turretless version of the M8 light armored car was manufactured as the M20 armored utility vehicle. This was widely used as a headquarters and command vehicle and armed with a .50-caliber heavy machine gun on a ring mount over the open center compartment for self-defense.
This is an example of an intermediateproduction M7 105mm howitzer motor carriage, manufactured in December 1942. It is fairly typical of the types seen in the ETO in the summer of 1944.
High-explosive firepower in the American armored divisions was provided by armored self-propelled artillery in the form of the M7 105mm howitzer motor carriage. This consisted of the basic M4 medium tank chassis fitted with the standard 105mm howitzer. The .50-caliber machine gun in the "pulpit mount" prompted the British to call this vehicle the Priest.
The final production series of the M7 105mm howitzer motor carriage in 1944 had many detail differences from the previous production batches. It has the heavy-duty vertical volute suspension with the one-piece return roller arms, late-style headlight and grouser box fittings, and the late-style rear sponson boxes with the basket on the top.
The U.S. Army's primary bunker-buster was the M12 155mm gun motor carriage, which mated a World War I French 155mm GPF gun on a medium tank chassis. These were deployed in separate artillery battalions, but they were often used in support of armored divisions during the fighting along the Siegfried Line in 1944, where their pointblank firepower was widely appreciated.
Since the M12155mm gun motor carriage could carry very little ammunition on board, the special M30 cargo carrier was developed specifically to carry its ammunition.
The armored infantry relied on halftracks for transport. Two basic types of half-track were in use in 1944: the M2 half-track armored car and the M3 halftrack. The M2 half-track car had a shorter superstructure and was fitted with large stowage bins in the middle of the compartment for stowage, as can be seen here with the side access door open. This vehicle was intended to act as a prime mover for towed guns and as a scout vehicle.
This overhead view of the M2 half-track car shows the smaller space of the interior compartment because of the two large stowage bins behind the driver.
As can be seen in this rear overhead shot of an M2 half-track car, the stowage bins filled up a considerable portion of the hull interior behind the driver.
This overhead view of an M3 half-track shows the larger and more spacious rear compartment. This was the predominant version of the half-track family in the ETO in 1944-45.
This rear overhead image of a M3 half-track shows the more spacious accommodations in the rear body compared to the M2 half-track car.
The M3 half-track was the personnelcarrier version of the half-track family and was intended primarily to carry armored infantry units.
The final production series of the M2 and M3 half-tracks introduced a ring mount for a .50-caliber heavy machine gun above the right seat. These versions were designated as M2A1 and M3A1, the latter of which is shown here.
To provide fire support for the armored infantry battalion, a special mortar-carrier version of the half-track was designed, the M4 81 mm mortar motor carriage. It was based on the M2 half-track car and had the mortar facing rearward. This configuration was not entirely popular, and many units modified the mortar to fire forward.
The M15A1 combination gun motor carriage was the other major antiaircraft version of the half-track in the ETO. The boxy rear turret contained a 37mm automatic cannon and two .50-caliber heavy machine guns. Each armored division deployed an antiaircraft artillery weapons company consisting of eight M16 machine-gun motor carriages and eight M15A1 combination gun motor carriages.
Antiaircraft defense of the armored divisions was provided in part by the M16 machine-gun motor carriage, which consisted of a power-operated Maxson turret in the rear bed of a modified M3 half-track with four.50-caliber heavy machine guns. An expedient version of the M16 was also used in the ETO by taking towed Maxson turrets and mounting them in surplus M2 halftracks-sometimes called a "Patterson conversion" after their inventor.
A variety of specialized armored vehicles was deployed to support tank units. Among the most important were the tank-recovery vehicles. The standard tank-recovery vehicle early in the war was the T2, later designated as the M31 tank-recovery vehicle. This was an M3 medium tank with its armament removed and a special crane fitted to the turret.
This shows how the Gar Wood 1 0-Y 5500 crane was deployed on the T2 (M31) for hoisting. This was often used for extracting engines from M4 medium tanks and similar tasks. This particular example is based on an M3A3 hull.
The U.S. Army switched to tank-recovery vehicles based on the M4 medium tank family in 1944 as the M32 tank-recovery vehicle. These used a completely new turret as seen in this overhead view of an M32B2 (T5E2) based on the M4A2 chassis. Other versions were based on other models of the M4; for example, the M32 tank-recovery vehicle was based on the M4, the M32B1 on the M4A1, and soon.
Another specialized application of the M4 medium tank for engineering missions was the flail tank, which was designed to explode enemy mines. The added framework contained a motor that rotated a flail drum with heavy chains to detonate mines on impact. The T3 Scorpion mine exploder was based on the British Scorpion, though it differed in a number of technical details. It was used in Italy in 1943-44 and, in small numbers, in southern France in the summer of 1944. It was not especially effective, and the U.S. Army in the ETO obtained some of the later British Sherman Crab flail tanks instead.
Another approach to dealing with the mine threat was a set of heavy wheels that could withstand mine blasts. The T1 E3 mine exploder was named Aunt Jemima after the popular pancake brand. Although fairly effective on dry ground, this type of mine exploder was apt to become bogged down in soft or wet soil.
The U.S. Army adopted specialized high-speed tractors based on tank components for the mechanization of the field artillery. The M4 high-speed tractor was used to tow the 155mm gun, 8-inch howitzer, and 90mm antiaircraft gun.
The smaller M5 high-speed tractor was used primarily to tow the 155mm howitzer. Both the M4 and M5 highspeed tractors had compartments in the rear of the vehicle for carrying ammunition for the guns that they towed.
GERMAN PANZER ARSENAL
The backbone of the German panzer force was the Panzerkampfwagen IV (Pz.Kpfw. IV), which made up more than half of the tank inventory in France in 1944. It was roughly equivalent to the M4 Sherman.
A Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausfuhrung H ("Type H") captured in Normandy by the Allies with Allied white stars hastily painted on. The later versions of the Pz.Kpfw. IV had Schirzen ("skirts") attached to the turret and hull sides; in this view, the side skirts are missing. Although these are often described as defenses against bazookas, in fact they were fielded on the Russian front in 1943 as a defense against the ubiquitous Soviet antitank rifles that could otherwise penetrate the thin side armor of German tanks at close range.
The most powerful opponent of the M4 Sherman in Normandy was the Pz.Kpfw. V, better known as the Panther. It had superior firepower, armor, and mobility to the M4 tank. It was first encountered by American forces in mid-July 1944 during the fighting with the Panzer Lehr Division along the Vire River. Seen here is the most common version in the summer of 1944, the Panther Ausf. A.
The Panther underwent continual evolution, and by the autumn of 1944, the most common version encountered by U.S. troops was the Panther Ausf. G, which had a simplified hull with a singlepiece side plate. This particular Panther Ausf. G is one of the rare variants fitted with steel-rimmed road wheels.
Although most American accounts of tank fighting make reference to encounters with Tiger tanks, the U.S. Army seldom, if ever, encountered the Tiger I in combat in the ETO in 1944. There were few Tiger units in Normandy, and they were in the British and Canadian sectors.
While encounters with the Tiger tank were infrequent, American forces did engage its larger successor, the King Tiger, starting in August 1944. The first combat encounters with the King Tiger occurred in the fighting in the Mantes bridgehead on the Seine River north of Paris. This example was captured in the Ardennes in 1944 and is seen on display after the war at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, next to a Red Army KV-1 heavy tank.
One of the most widely encountered German armored vehicles in 1944 was the Sturmgeschutz III (StuG III) assault gun. This consisted of the Pz.Kpfw. III chassis with a fixed casemate and a long 75mm gun. These were primarily used by the assault-gun companies of the infantry divisions, which nominally had fourteen of these. They were used both for direct-fire support of the infantry as well as antitank defense.
The most potent of the German tank destroyers was the Jagdpanzer IV/70, sometimes called "Guderian's Duck" after the famous German panzer commander. This was the Pz.Kpfw. IV chassis fitted with a fixed superstructure and the excellent 75mm gun used on the Panther tank. Although this vehicle had the frontal armor and firepower of the Panther, it was tactically less flexible because of the lack of the turret and was prone to mishaps because of the awkward mounting of the long gun tube.
German infantry divisions nominally had an assault-gun company with StuG I I I and another Panzerjager (tank destroyer) company with various types of vehicles. One of the more common types of Panzerjager encountered in Normandy was the Marder III, which consisted of the 75mm PaK 40 antitank gun mounted on the chassis of the obsolete Czechoslovakian Pz. Kpfw. 38(t) light tank. Although too lightly armored for a tank duel, these weapons were quite deadly when used from ambush and could easily penetrate the Sherman's armor. This Panzerjager 38(t) Ausf. M Marder I I I of Panzerjager Abteilung 61 of the 11th Panzer Division was knocked out in the fighting with the U.S. 6th Armored Division on 22 November 1944 near St. Jean Rohrbach.
The most effective German tank destroyer was the Jagdpanther, combining the long 88mm gun of the King Tiger on the Panther tank chassis. These were rarely encountered by the U.S. Army in 1944 until the Ardennes fighting in December 1944. They were deployed in special heavy tank destroyer battalions, not in divisional antitank companies.
The Jagdpanzer 38(t), sometimes called the Hetzer, is mistaken for a tank hunter because of its designation. In fact, it was deployed most often as a low-cost alternative to the StuG I I I in the assaultgun role. Although sleek and modern looking, it was lightly armored and very cramped. It was not encountered in large numbers by the U.S. Army until late in 1944.
The Sd.Kfz. 250 light half-track was roughly the equivalent of the U.S. Army's M2 half-track car. It was significantly smaller than the Sd.Kfz. 251 and intended for use in reconnaissance units and a variety of other specialized tasks.
The German equivalent of the U.S. Army's M3 half-track was the Sonderkraftfahrzeuge (Sd.Kfz.) 251 medium half-track. This was used as an armored infantry carrier and also served as the basis for a variety of specialized subvariants.
The German army used a variety of armored cars, of which the best was the Sd.Kfz. 234/2 Puma. It was armed with a 50mm gun and had a very advanced suspension. It was built in several other versions with different armament, but none of the type was widely encountered by the U.S. Army in 1944.
While much of the attention on tank losses focuses on enemy tanks, the Sherman's most dangerous adversary was probably the 75mm PaK 40, the standard German antitank gun in 1944, which was widely deployed in infantry and panzer divisions. Not only could it penetrate the Sherman from any angle, but its small size made it easy to conceal and ideal for ambush. While American accounts repeatedly speak about receiving 88mm fire, 88mm guns were exceedingly rare, and on most occasions, the fire was coming from one of the ubiquitous PaK 40.
Although the 88mm flak gun was a legendary tank killer, it was not a particularly common opponent of American tanks in 1944. These weapons were quite expensive, cumbersome to deploy, and vulnerable to fire. Although sometimes used in an antitank role, more often than not they were used in their intended role in rear areas for antiaircraft defense.
The best German antitank gun in service in 1944 was the 88mm PaK 43. Unlike the 88mm flak gun, these were specifically designed for tank fighting with a carriage optimized for quick deployment. Although very powerful, they were not particularly common and were issued to special corps-level, not divisional, antitank units. This captured example is seen here being used by American troops for field artillery until captured ammunition stocks were exhausted.
The Panzerschreck ("tank terror") was a crew-served antitank rocket launcher that was more accurate than the Panzerfaust at longer ranges. Inspired by the U.S. Army's 2.36-inch bazooka, it was larger and used an 88mm rocket projectile. Here, a Panzerschreck is compared to a bazooka in front of a Tiger tank captured in Tunisia in 1943.
The advent of cheap antitank rockets made the 1944 battlefield much deadlier for tanks. The Panzerfaust ("tank fist") was a disposable rocket-powered antitank projectile that was very deadly when used properly, but effective only from short ranges.
TRAINING IN BRITAIN
American tank units first began to arrive in Britain in 1942. This is an exercise on Perham Downs by an M3 medium tank battalion in December 1942. The M3 medium tank, known by the British as the General Lee, was obsolete by the time of D-Day and was replaced by the M4 medium tank series before D-Day.
U.S. tank units continued their training in England in the months leading up to D-Day. This M5A1 light tank taking part in war games has white crosses applied in temporary paint to mark it as a member of the "opposing forces."
An M5 light tank of the 102nd Cavalry during training at Chiseldon Camp in 1943. This particular version of the Stuart tank was largely replaced by 1944 with the M5A1 version, which had an improved turret with a rear bustle to accommodate the tank radio.
An M2 half-track of the 827th Engineer Aviation Battalion on training in England on 26 March 1943. This was one of a number of segregated African-American engineer units that served in the ETO.
Engineers in England experiment with ways to float an M2A1 half-track across a stream using inflatable pontoons in April 1943.
Eisenhower and Montgomery paid a visit to the 3rd Armored Division during training at Warminister, England, on February 25, 1944. SHAEF deputy commander Arthur Tedder is immediately behind Ike, and to the left is Maj. Gen. Leroy Watson, the divisional commander.
Besides its extensive training efforts in England, the U.S. Army also helped raise and equip the French First Army, which was deployed in August 1944 in southern France as part of Operation Dragoon. This is a pre-invasion training exercise by an M4A4 medium tank and M8 75mm howitzer motor carriage. The French First Army's 1st and 5th Armored Divisions used the Napoleonic regimental banner on the hull sides as their distinctive marking. These units were raised and trained primarily in French North Africa.
To help prepare troops for the D-Day amphibious landings, the U.S. Army set up a number of coastal exercise sites. Among these was the U.S. Assault Training Center located around the village of Woolacombe in Devon on the western coast of England. This is a tanktraining exercise with an M4 tank being delivered by an LCM (landing craft, mechanized) on 23 October 1943.
Here, the M4 has cleared the ramp of the LCM. This provides a good look at the two wading trunks that were used to prevent the engine from being flooded if the tank was dropped in shallow water. The tank could "deep wade" in water up to the top of its turret if necessary.
A trio of M4 medium tanks leaves the beach at the U.S. Assault Training Center during the 23 October 1943 exercise.
Another view of the 23 October 1943 exercise. Although the LCM was commonly used in the early exercises, this landing option was rejected for use on D-Day because of the limited capacity of the LCM to operate in the English Channel due to the weight of the M4 tank.
A close-up of one of the M4 medium tanks at the U.S. Assault Training Center.
An exercise involving an LCT (landing craft, tank) with five M3 medium tanks as its cargo. Although these training exercises often used the small LCMs, plans for the Overlord invasion anticipated the use of the much larger LCTs because of the conditions in the English Channel and the marginal capabilities of the LCM with a load as heavy as a tank.
A pair of M4 tanks fitted with wading trunks engaging in firing exercises along the English coast in 1944. The hills over the beaches closely resemble the terrain conditions at Omaha Beach. The U.S. Army also made extensive use of training facilities at Slapton Sands in England.
Deep-wading trunks were first developed by the Fifth Army Invasion Training Center (5AITC) in Algeria in 1943 for the Operation Husky landings on Sicily in July 1943. The design was refined, and this shows the standardized deepwading trunks manufactured in the U.S. Besides fitting the trunks to the tank, extensive waterproofing had to be done to each tank to prevent water from leaking inside.
A rear view of an M5A1 light tank with the standard deep-wading kit fitted.
An M5A1 light tank prepared for deep wading. The tank battalions used in the assault waves on D-Day did not deploy their light tank companies during the initial assault, but the light tanks had to be waterproofed for their eventual landing.
The most controversial tank used on D-Day was the Duplex-Drive Sherman, also known as the DD or Donald Duck tank. This British invention consisted of a canvas screen erected by pneumatic tubes inside the screen to provide buoyancy and a pair of propellers in the rear driven off the drive sprockets. These tanks were so secret that few photos were taken prior to D-Day. This photo shows a DD tank during the Rhine operations in 1945.
The DD tank screen gave the Sherman reasonable buoyancy when the tank was empty as seen here during training, but when fully loaded, there was far less freeboard.
Once the DD tank landed, the air was drained from the pressure tubes inside the canvas skirt, which collapsed the skirt down to allow the gun to be used. This is a training exercise in 1945. A total of 350 of these M4A1 tanks were converted in the United States in 1944 for use in the D-Day operation by American, British, and Canadian units.
The original U.S. Army scheme to deal with German antitank fortifications in Normandy was to demolish them with the Mark 5 "Cowcatcher" 7.2-inch rocket launcher. While the 7.2-inch rockets proved to be quite effective against concrete, the awkward location of the launcher was quickly rejected in favor of a launcher mounted over the roof.
To deal with the German coastal bunkers and antitank walls on the D-Day beaches, the U.S. Army planned to use the engineer armored vehicle armed with an overhead Mark 6 (T2) rocket launcher instead of the British Churchill AVRE (Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers) armed with a Petard spigot mortar. Because of delays in the engineer armored vehicle program, the U.S. Army decided instead to use the demolition rocket launcher on normal M4 tanks in the separate tank battalions rather than in dedicated engineer units.
The T40 Whiz-Bang demolition rocket launcher fired 7.2-inch high-explosive rockets. Here, at trials at Fort Knox, is one of the prototypes mounted on a M4A2 medium tank.
This rear view provides details of the T40 Whiz-Bang launcher on an M4A2 pilot. The launcher had twenty launch cells, and the rockets could be fired singly or ripple fired. As can be seen, the clearance between the launcher rack and the turret roof made it impossible to use the turret hatches, and this caused so much concern from the crews that the project was abandoned shortly before D-Day, even after some M4 tanks of the 70th Tank Battalion had been fitted with the launcher.
Another way to deal with German bunkers on the Normandy beaches was the flamethrower tank. The U.S. ordered fifty Sherman Crocodiles from Britain in February 1944, but none was delivered until after the invasion. The Sherman Crocodile used the same fuel trailer as the original Churchill Crocodile, but had a small turreted flamethrower added on the right front hull corner. This is the pilot during trials.
This demonstration in England in May 1944 before D-Day illustrates the limitations of using the T1 E3 Aunt Jemima on soft sand beaches. As a result of this and other trials, the U.S. Army decided against using mineclearing tanks on D-Day. However, the T1 E3 mine exploders were later used in the campaigns along the German frontier in the autumn of 1944.
To deal with the threat of mines on the invasion beaches, a number of mineexploding devices were tested. This is a demonstration of two T1 E3 mine exploders in England in May 1944 to familiarize armored units with its capability.
The most useful engineer tank deployed on D-Day was the dozer tank, which was a normal Sherman fitted with a bulldozer blade. To help destroy German antitank walls, these vehicles were supposed to carry a large high-explosive pack on the front of their blades which could be deposited at the base of the wall before being detonated. The units viewed this idea as far too dangerous, and it was not widely used on D-Day. Instead, the dozer tanks were used mainly to clear obstructions with their blades.
One of the more peculiar mistakes in D-Day planning was the failure to use the LVT amphibious tractors to assist in the initial landing waves. These had proven to be invaluable in the Pacific campaign starting at Tarawa in 1943. There were 300 of these LVTs available in England, and this is a view of a park containing LVT-1 and LVT-2 amtracs in England in March 1944. A handful of LVTs participated in the D-Day landings to carry supplies, but the vast majority remained in England.
A rare glimpse of one of the ultra-secret Leaflet tanks of the 736th Tank Battalion (Special) on an M26 Dragon Wagon in England prior to D-Day, based on the cast-hull M3A1 medium tank.
A close-up of the turret of a Leaflet tank of the 736th Tank Battalion (Special) in England prior to D-Day. The American version of the Canal Defence Light had several differences from the British version, including the use of a Browning .30-caliber machine gun in the turret next to the searchlight aperture.
Another innovation by the 41st Armored Infantry was a rearrangement of the M4 mortar motor carriage. These vehicles normally had the 81 mm mortar pointed over the rear of the vehicle. In the 2nd Armored Division, this was reversed, and the mortar pointed forward, which the unit felt was a more useful configuration.
The 2nd Armored Division during its training operations in England made some changes to its half-tracks. With the arrival of new M10 3-inch tank destroyers, the 41st Armored Infantry took the 37mm gun mountings off the retired M6 gun motor carriages and mounted them onto an M2 half-track car to provide them with added firepower. This photo was taken in England in April 1944 before the Normandy landings.
A close-up view of the interior of the M4 mortar motor carriage of 41st Armored Infantry showing the revised interior layout. The original configuration with the rear-facing mortar resulted from concern over the muzzle blast of the mortar, but the troops preferred the convenience of a forward-facing mortar since the half-track could be brought into action more quickly in this revised configuration.
A column of M2A1 half-tracks of the 18th Infantry, 1st Infantry Division, on exercise in Devonshire on 7 May. Some units kept the old weapons to supplement divisional firepower. The 1st Infantry Division landed on Omaha Beach on D-Day.
A group of M4 tanks of the 6th Armored Division on exercise on the Salisbury plains prior to D-Day. The nearest tank, named Assam Dragon, is fitted with a large reel of field telephone wire, an occasional modification conducted in the United Kingdom, mainly on headquarter tanks.
A column of M26 Dragon Wagon tank transporters moves vehicles near Bristol on 20 March. The M15A1 semi-trailer used with the M26 tractor was designed to accommodate an M4 medium tank, but as seen here, it is carrying two M5A1 light tanks.
An M10 3-inch gun motor carriage sets off for exercises in England in March. The M10 was the standard U.S. Army tank destroyer in 1944.
An M10 3-inch gun motor carriage (named Bouncing TNT) and its crew from Company B, 803rd Tank Destroyer Battalion, 2nd Armored Division, in Cornwall, England, in April. This unit has added a set of large pipes on the four corners of the hull, presumably intended to support camouflage nets. This provides a good example of full official stowage patterns, including the tripod for the .50-caliber machine gun on the hull side and the turret rain tarp on the turret roof forward of the opening.
A view from above the turret of an M10 tank destroyer looking toward the turret floor during crew training while the commander explains the use of the breech block crank held in his right hand. Unlike the Sherman, the turret roof of the tank destroyers was completely open since they were not intended to be used for close combat against enemy infantry.
An M15A1 combination gun motor carriage of the 474th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalion takes part in a practice landing at Slapton Sands in England on 27 April during the D-Day preparations. The M15A1 antiaircraft vehicle was armed with a 37mm cannon flanked on either side by .50-caliber heavy machine guns. Slapton Sands was the scene of a major disaster during the preparations for the Normandy landing when some German torpedo boats torpedoed a troop ship taking part in landing exercises in the predawn hours of 28 April. The 474th landed at Normandy on D-Day.
A pair of M10 3-inch gun motor carriages comes ashore during training exercises in Britain prior to the D-Day landings, with an LCT and LST in the background.
The M18 76mm gun motor carriage was a new tank destroyer on a newer and faster chassis than the old M 10 tank destroyer. This is the 603rd Tank Destroyer Battalion of the 6th Armored Division training in England in May. This was one of the first M18 battalions committed to combat in July during Operation Cobra.
The other antiaircraft half-track used by the U.S. Army in 1944 was the M16, which was armed with four .50-caliber heavy machine guns in a power-operated Maxson turret. This M16 is seen coming ashore off an LCT during training exercises in England on 6 May.
An panoramic view of an armored regiment of the 2nd Armored Division at their staging location in southern England in May prior to the Normandy invasion. As can be seen to the lower right, several of the M4 medium tanks have already been fitted with wading trunks.
An M29 Weasel tracked utility vehicle named Snookie is prepared for loading at a British port prior to the D-Day landings in Normandy. These small tracked vehicles were widely used in engineer units in the Normandy campaign.
A number of M29 Weasels and jeeps congregate on a dock in England prior to being embarked on an LST for D-Day.
M4 high-speed tractors towing 90mm antiaircraft guns move their vehicles into an LST (landing ship, tank) in southern England in the build-up prior to D-Day.
A battery of 155mm howitzers towed by M5 high-speed tractors of a field artillery battalion prepares to load aboard landing ships at a port in southern England prior to the D-Day landings.
The M4 high-speed tractors of the 110th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Gun Battalion (Mobile) move its weapons into the hold of LST-506 prior to embarking to Normandy.
A final view of the preparations of the 110th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Gun Battalion (Mobile) during embarkation in England. This battalion landed in France on D+1, 7 June.
An M16 antiaircraft half-track (named Der Fuehrer's Express) loads onto an LST in Portsmouth Harbor on 1 June 1944.
An M4 fitted with deep-wading trunks is loaded aboard a transport ship in Britain in June.
The crew of an M4 medium tank prepares to load its tank at a port in southern England prior to the D-Day landings.
A line-up of M7 105mm howitzer motor carriages of Battery B, 14th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, 2nd Armored Division, already waterproofed and ready to be shipped to France. The 2nd Armored Division added stowage racks on the hull side, like those on half-tracks.
An M7 105mm howitzer motor carriage (named Big Chief fff) of Battery B, 42nd Armored Field Artillery Battalion, is prepared for the D-Day landings at Portsmouth on 1 June. The vehicle has had a fording screen erected around the fighting compartment and a set of wading trunks fitted at the rear to enable it to be driven to shore through the surf to a depth of about ten feet.
The D-Day plans intended to land towed 105mm howitzers for fire support of the infantry regiments using DUKW amphibious trucks as seen here. However, most foundered at sea after the crews had overburdened the vehicles with sand bags and extra ammunition, not anticipating the rough seas off Normandy.
A captain signals another M7 105mm howitzer motor carriage while loading an LCT in Britain prior to the D-Day landings. The howitzer motor carriages are fitted for deep wading, and both have large camouflage nets rolled up and stowed on their bows.
An M7 105mm howitzer motor carriage crew prepares for loading onto an LCT in an English harbor in June. Canvas wading skirts have been fitted around the gun to prevent flooding the fighting compartment. The front of the hull is stowed with the usual kit, including a large artillery camouflage net on the right fender.
A number of M7 105mm howitzer motor carriages on an LCT in an English harbor prior to D-Day. This shows the extensive waterproofing on the vehicles prior to debarkation, including wading stacks for the engine and a wading curtain around the fighting compartment to minimize flooding.
Troops in England prepare their M3A1 half-track for D-Day. The tube seen on the far left is a wading tube connected to the engine to feed air in the event that the half-track was partially submerged when wading ashore. The large Allied star marking on the hood has the hollow sections painted in gas-detection paint, which changed color from green to orange in the presence of chemical agents. There was still considerable concern before D-Day that the Germans would use chemical warfare in their defense of Normandy.
An LCT loads at a port in Devonshire on the southern English coast on 4 June 1944 prior to the Normandy landings. This LCT is carrying M4 tanks of the 70th Tank Battalion, and one of the unit's T2 tank recovery vehicles is backing up the access ramp at the front. These vehicles are fitted with deep-wading trunks, and they were landed on D-Day at Utah Beach.
