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World War I Respirators and Equipment

First Methods of Protection

The attack at Ypres on 22 April 1915 was a watershed for the Allied troops, in particular the British, who at this point were totally unequipped to deal with such a threat. Just days after the attack, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) headquarters issued an order stating that the gas was suspected to be chlorine. A further order, released on 26 April 1915, stated that handkerchiefs were to be soaked in bicarbonate of soda solution, an alkaline, to neutralize the hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid formed when the chlorine gas reacts with the moisture in the air and in the lungs of the victim. This measure was temporary until a more permanent form of protection could be devised.

The two gentlemen tasked with solving this were Professor John Scott Haldane and Professor Herbert Brereton Baker. Both were called upon by Lord Kitchener to leave for France immediately. Their despatch is reported as being so hasty that there was not enough time to take photographs for their passports, so the issuing authority had to use their fingerprints instead. Both had specialized in the study of the effects of gas, in particular those found when coal mining. Haldane was the same man who, in the 1890s, had introduced taking small animals (with more sensitive respiratory systems) down the mines to warn of the presence of carbon monoxide.

A French professor called André Kling confirmed that it was in fact chlorine that had been used in the gas attack at Ypres, so Haldane and Baker quickly set about finding ways to protect against it. Haldane recommended that cloths or handkerchiefs soaked in urine would help if bicarbonate of soda solution was unavailable. Urine, although slightly acidic, is abundant in urea, and it is this that reacts with the chlorine gas to produce dichloro urea. This harmlessly crystallizes on the outside of the shell dressing, supposedly affording the wearer some rudimentary protection. Other methods, such as using bottles (with their bottoms removed) filled with earth and urine-soaked cloths stuffed in the end, were also suggested. As well as this, soldiers were instructed to urinate on shell dressings, which could then be tied around the mouth. So as not to deplete the shell dressing supply, many units arranged for dressing ‘pads’ to be made locally by townsfolk or dressing stations.

Shortly after, the Daily Mail newspaper famously launched a campaign to get the women of Britain to make 1,000,000 homemade cotton-wool respirator pads in one day, printing details of where they could be dropped off for collection. This was a somewhat knee-jerk reaction, one meant with good intentionsbut which had not really been thought through. These masks were totally inadequate for the job. If it was left to dry out, the pad would offer no protection to the wearer at all. When soaked in the bicarbonate of soda solution or urine as recommended, the close-knit fibres of the pad swelled, creating an airtight seal that was impossible to breathe through. A telegram sent on 5 May ordered troops to abandon the homemade pads. Estimates suggest that nearly 30,000 of these crude masks were issued to the front-line troops before the problems were realized.

These troops are digging trenches whilst wearing homemade respirators. Unfortunately, the wet cotton wool was virtually impossible to breathe through.

The Black Veil Respirator

This morbid-sounding piece of kit was essentially the first official respirator issued en masse to the British Army. Haldane was quick to realize that the problem with the lint pads first used by troops was due to the closely bound fibres. A more loosely woven material such as cotton waste (a by-product of the cotton spinning mills) or horse hair would not only offer better absorption of a protective solution, but would also enable the wearer to breathe with greater ease. Haldane and Baker worked alongside Colonel Cummins of the Royal Army Medical Corps in order to design a respirator made from gauze veiling that would do the job. Its name comes from the black mourning veils used to make it, the material having specifically been chosen as it was easy to source in large volumes. The respirator was a pad of cotton waste that was soaked in a solution of hyposulphate, a salt derived from hyposulphuric acid that would neutralize and protect against chlorine. The solution was found to have been used on a German mouth-pad respirator, confiscated from a prisoner of war and quickly sent back for testing.

To give an idea of the size, the veiling was cut into lengths measuring roughly 40in long by 10in wide (1,016mm long by 254mm wide). It was then folded in half along its length. The cotton-waste pad, which measured roughly 4 × 6in (102 × 152mm) was then placed between the fold at the veil’s centre and stitched in place. Upon hearing the call ‘GAS!’, the veil would quickly be tied around the back of the head, pulling the cotton-waste pad tightly around the mouth. It is estimated that the respirator would provide five to ten minutes of protection in a moderately concentrated area of chlorine gas. Before the issue of gas goggles to troops, the excess material of the pad could be pulled up so as to cover the eyes, meaning it also offered protection against tear gases.

Here, the Black Veil respirator is shown with its waterproof wallet. The wallet was made from waterproofed canvas, allowing the cotton waste to stay moist after being dipped in the hyposulphate solution. Note the white loop in the corner, used to secure the wallet to the soldier’s tunic button when the respirator was in use. This particular example is a reproduction copied from an original, as today these respirators are extremely scarce.

This private from the Leicestershire Regiment is wearing the Black Veil respirator, goggles and equipment typical of a British soldier in 1915. Tying the veiling behind the head was a very awkward practice, especially when a soldier became panicked during a gas attack. Drills were carried out regularly to ensure that each soldier was well practised in fitting it. Prior to the issue of any form of eye protection, instructions were given for troops to pull the excess margin of the respirator pad up over the eyes. Later months saw the acquisition of rubber driver’s goggles (such as those shown) and later the introduction of official, purpose-made anti-gas goggles. Note the waterproof wallet hanging from the tunic button.

The problem of the mask drying out had also been solved by simply providing a waterproofed wallet so that the veil could be stored wet in the soldier’s kit. Buckets of sodium hyposulphate mixed with sodium carbonate, glycerine and water were also stationed in each trench. Should the pad start to dry, they were soaked in the concoction and placed back in the wallet.

Just a month after the order for the first homemade pads had been issued, most front-line soldiers had been issued with a Black Veil respirator. By now, the respirator was being professionally manufactured by two main companies. The first factory, Messrs Spicer & Sons, would cut pieces of butter muslin into appropriately sized sections and then sew them to form a pocket. Messrs Bell, Hills & Lucas Ltd (a pharmaceutical company) would then take these pockets, fill them with cotton waste, sew them up and dip them in the hyposulphate solution. The treated pads were then wrapped in the black veiling and packed in waterproof crates for shipping to France. Official records state that 2,500,000 were manufactured between May and July 1915, with all the work apart from the treatment of the pads being carried out by women. The Black Veil respirator saved the lives of many soldiers during the remainder of the second Ypres campaign.

This comical print was featured in Punch magazine on 30 June 1915 showing men wearing the Black Veil respirator. It just goes to show that even a subject as horrific as gas warfare was not beyond the humour of the humble Tommy.

The Smoke Helmet was a great improvement on the underdeveloped Black Veil and would save many lives during 1915. The original example pictured here is made from khaki Viyella, a less common colour than the grey flannel versions usually seen. The khaki material offered a more camouflaged appearance in the field and its colour is identical to that of the 1902 pattern tunics issued to the British Army during World War I. The alternative grey flannel was similar to the ‘greyback’ shirts issued to soldiers and was used in tangent, with khaki presumably used to alleviate supply issues.

The helmet’s shape was designed to allow soldiers to tuck the lower edge into the collar of their tunic to help keep gas out. The design was very basic, meaning that many thousands could be produced every week.

Needless to say, Black Veil respirators are extremely hard to come by nowadays and the few originals that still remain belong to museum collections. Although so many were made, most were discarded later in the war, with very few making it back home. With the centenary of World War I, a few reproductions are starting to emerge from various re-enactment kit suppliers.

The Hypo or Smoke Helmet

After the introduction of the Black Veil, it was not long before an improved respirator was introduced. The idea came from Dr Cluny MacPherson, a medical officer from the Newfoundland Regiment. MacPherson had enlisted in 1914 and was appointed to the rank of captain within the Regiment’s Ambulance Unit because of his experience. After studying the effects of gas on troops, it was clear to MacPherson that a more substantial form of protection was needed. It is believed (although cannot be confirmed) that MacPherson’s inspiration for a ‘Smoke Hood’ came to him after he had met a soldier who had pulled a wet canvas bag over his head during a gas attack, which had helped save his life. His idea was therefore to create a hood that could be worn over the head to enclose it and protect fully from breathing in gas. With this idea in mind, he quickly started developing the idea by making a hood using the materials at his disposal.

Building upon the basic idea of the Black Veil respirator, MacPherson’s cloth hood (later to be officially titled the ‘Smoke Helmet’) would be dipped in the same chemical solution of sodium hyposulphate mixed with sodium carbonate, glycerine and water (known as the ‘hypo’ solution for short). The ‘helmet’ could be tucked into the collar of the soldier’s tunic, forming a seal around the head. As the soldier breathed, air would be drawn through the chemical-soaked cloth around the head, thus removing traces of the war gas. There was no inlet/outlet valve, so the construction was very basic, meaning thousands could be made quickly. The simple addition of a single-piece window made from clear mica would also allow the soldier to see.

MacPherson presented his idea to the newly formed Anti-Gas Department Laboratory in England and on 10 May 1915, the first prototype was officially tested. The test consisted of placing the helmet over an earthenware jar that was roughly the same size as a human head and sealing it under a large glass bell jar. Gas was then piped into the apparatus, which represented the concentration of chlorine anticipated in an attack, along with an air mix expected to be produced by the wearer based on fifteen inspirations per minute. A report by the Anti-Gas Department stated that: ‘[The Smoke Hood] ran triumphantly all that night and marked both the attainment of satisfactory protection against the gas attacks of the time and the establishment of a rigid testing method’. A few modifications were made, such as changing the cloth to a flannel material, in order to improve the ease of breathing and to improve the retention of the hypo solution.

This original example is a later version that uses the triacetyl cellulose viewing window rather than mica. The viewing window was simply stitched into the facepiece and the build-up of condensation in the helmet would often cause dimming.

Rear view of the helmet. Note the soldier’s name written near the lower edge.

Here we can see the remains of a soldier’s name and date of issue written in pen on the back of the Smoke Helmet. This particular example was issued to a B.BINNS of the 6th battalion North Staffordshire Regt (simply marked N.S. in the photograph). The date of issue reads 12/6/15.

This is the basic satchel issued with the Smoke Helmet, consisting of a single shoulder strap and two ties to close the flap.

Close-up showing the inside of the satchel. The outside is made from a tan canvas, whilst the inside is lined with rubber, allowing helmets to be stored wet having been soaked in the hypo solution.

Most of the equipment developed in Britain was then subsequently distributed across the Empire. This photograph shows Indian troops wearing Smoke Helmets under training. Note the mix of grey and khaki helmets and also how some of the Sikh troops are shown wearing turbans with them.

A soldier in Gallipoli c.1915 wears his Smoke Helmet whilst on watch. Smoke Helmets were issued to troops due to the perceived threat that the Ottoman Army would use gas in a similar fashion to their German Allies. Fortunately, poisonous gas was never used in this theatre for a number of reasons, including the terrain, the weather and the enemy’s manufacturing capability.

Preparations began in May and full manufacturing commenced shortly thereafter. The flannel material was sourced by the Royal Army Clothing Depot (RACD) at Pimlico and each roll was carefully inspected before being sent out to various contractors for punching out the basic cloth pieces. After the first production runs, permission was granted to use triacetyl cellulose as an alternative to clear mica, due to the fact that mica was far more brittle and less malleable. Mica had the tendency to crack when the hoods were partially dried after being dipped in the chemicals. These viewing windows were sewn into the front half of the helmet before the front and rear panels were sewn together. Initially, the impregnation of the helmet with the hypo solution was carried out by spraying. However, this method was abandoned in favour of dipping the hoods in large vats. This operation was carried out by Bell, Hills & Lucas Ltd, the same as it was for the Black Veil Respirator. Each helmet was then passed through a wringing machine to remove any excess hypo solution, before finally being inspected, folded and packed.

The helmets were stored within a waterproof satchel before being packed in their hundreds in wooden cases ready to be shipped to the front. A communication on 4 June 1915 from the Army General Head Quarters (GHQ) to the War Office reported that the supply of helmets had increased and was expected to reach nearly 10,000 per day. Between June and August 1915, the various contractors managed to produce just over 2,000,000 helmets and by the end of June most troops had been issued with the Smoke Helmet. The reason for the different names is a little puzzling, but it would appear that the Army GHQ officially termed them ‘Smoke Helmets’, whereas the Anti-Gas Department called them ‘Hypo Helmets’ in reference to the chemical solution used.

The Black Veil respirator was not withdrawn from service with the new helmet’s introduction, but instead became a back-up to be used in emergencies.

Testing of Smoke Helmets continued long after initial production began and a number of ‘chamber tests’ were carried out in controlled environments to test the helmet under extreme conditions. Tests included getting soldiers wearing helmets to double (run) around a track before testing in a gas chamber. As well as this, feedback from the troops at the front revealed three main areas of concern. The first problem was what would later become known as ‘dimming’, a problem that faced all future respirator designs. This is where breathing causes the viewing window to steam up as moisture condenses on the lense’s sur-face. The second was that after periods of physical exertion, the sweat from the wearer’s head would cause the hypo solution to seep from the helmet, not only reducing the protection from gas, but also causing irritation to the soldier’s fore-head and face. The third concern was the build-up of carbon dioxide inside the helmet. Initially, the Anti-Gas Depart-ment Laboratory proposed fitting an exhalation valve to allow the carbon dioxide to be expelled to the outside air. This proposal was dismissed because it was decided that, in the majority of cases, the problem could be lived with and it did not justify the extra amount of production work required in fitting the valves.

Between July 1915 and January 1916, a repair factory, run by the Army Ordnance Depot, was based in Calais. The facility was initially run by conscientious objectors from the Non-Combatant Corps, or those on light duties. However, male numbers were eventually reduced, so 400 French women were later employed. The Depot’s purpose was to refurbish and repair used helmets if they were broken, damaged, or had been used in a gas attack. The used helmets were first washed and inspected, with any broken windows being replaced. Afterwards, the helmet was reimpregnated and the renewed helmet packed and reissued.

Today, it is rare to find original Smoke Helmets, although far more have survived in comparison to the Black Veil Respirator. They do occasionally come up for sale on online auction sites. Once again, the simplicity of its construction does mean that there are many reproductions available to the re-enactor or collector. Many Smoke Helmets were made from grey flannel, almost identical to that used in the soldier’s ‘greyback’ shirts, but khaki-coloured Viyella (like the example shown) was also used, offering a more camouflaged appearance.

P (Phenate) and PH (Phenate Hexamine) Helmets

After the Smoke Helmet, research turned towards investigating what other potential threats might be faced. Although chlorine was used initially by both sides, it was found that its storage presented a number of logistical problems. New gases had been developed, one of which was phosgene. Phosgene was harder to detect than chlorine, being virtually colourless with an odour supposedly similar to that of musty hay. When inhaled, phosgene reacts with moisture in the lungs to create both hydrochloric acid and carbon monoxide, with its effects sometimes only becoming noticeable up to ten hours after an attack.

The Anti-Gas Department, in conjunction with the Royal Army Medical College at Millbank, started to think about how the Smoke Helmet could be improved in order to cater for the probable use of phosgene in the future. Another cause for concern was the possible use of hydrocyanic acid, although this gas was considered too light to be used on the battlefield as it would dissipate too quickly.

The fear that phosgene would be used took precedence, the main concern being that the current Smoke Helmet offered no protection at all from this gas. Various experiments were carried out in the Anti-Gas Department Laboratories until it was discovered that sodium phenate would offer ample protection against both phosgene and hydrogen cyanide. The new helmet was fitted with a rubber outlet valve that had been previously suggested for use with the Smoke Helmet in order to reduce dimming and carbon dioxide levels. The valve tube would need to be held in the mouth, allowing the wearer to breathe in clean air through his nose and expel carbon dioxide directly into the outside atmosphere. Helmets would be dipped in a solution consisting of: sodium phenate (11.75 per cent); caustic soda (15 per cent); glycerine (30 per cent); and an industrial spirit (5.5 per cent), with water making the solution up to 100 per cent. The spirit was added to help improve the drying time of the solution when applied to the helmet, thus reducing manufacturing hours. The solution became known as the ‘phenatic solution’, for short.

Once fitted with the exhalation/outlet valve, the new helmets would become known as ‘Tube Helmets’, or ‘P Helmets’ (the P standing for phenate). As well as this, two eyepieces replaced the single celluloid window. The eyepieces were made of coated glass and were retained in the helmet using screw bezels. The addition of a rubber gasket between the glass and bezel improved sealing, thus helping to ensure they were gas-tight. The eyepieces were introduced not only to improve the field of vision, but also to improve durability, as the celluloid windows previously used damaged easily.

Although an improvement, the new P Helmets started to encounter their own problems. Firstly, the introduction of the rubber exhalation valve (sometimes called a ‘flutter valve’) created problems with manufacturing. The valves were fiddly to make and so supply problems started to occur. On 9 August, experiments took place to see whether the original Smoke Helmets could be redipped in the phenatic solution, without the addition of the exhalation valve, in order to expedite production. These would be known as ‘Tubeless P Helmets’.

This is an original PH Helmet that was donated to the Royal Artillery Museum, Woolwich, in 1925. This particular example is in pristine condition for its age, the only minor defect being that the red rubber flutter/outlet valve has perished away. The faint markings ‘PH’ can just be seen near the bottom of the helmet. (Courtesy of the Royal Artillery Library, Woolwich)

Rear view of the PH Helmet.

Here, the remnants of the flutter valve can be seen where the breather tube leaves the PH Helmet. These valves were manufactured mainly in a red-coloured rubber and are often found missing on original examples due to the rubber perishing with age. The dimensional distance between the breather tube and the centre of the eyepieces was determined by studying a random number of soldiers to try to determine a single-size helmet that would fit all.

The eyepieces used in the PH Helmet were better than the simple mica window used in the Smoke Helmet. The new eyepieces were manufactured from thin pressed steel and would sandwich the treated helmet material between them when screwed in place, creating a gas-tight seal and reducing the risk of leakage. The coated glass on this particular example is in immaculate condition, with only the steel suffering from a small amount of light surface corrosion.

Looking at the opening of the helmet, it is possible to see the multiple layers of treated cloth used in the helmet’s construction. Later experiments involved tripling the number of flannelette layers to try to offer better protection against phosgene, but unfortunately yielded little result. Many soldiers also developed sores and burns as a result of wet weather, or sweat causing the chemical to run out of the fabric.

This view shows the inside of the helmet. Here, we can clearly see the outlet pipe protruding from the treated cloth. The end of this thin walled tube is tapered to give a controlled outlet flow and to make it easier to grip between the teeth. The idea of an outlet valve helped to reduce the build-up of carbon dioxide inside of the helmet and also reduced dimming. However, the valve design did lead to many production delays and was initially frowned upon by high-ranking officers, who thought it unrealistic for a soldier to remember to breathe in only through the nose and out through the mouth in the heat of battle.

The odd appearance of the PH Helmet made it the source of many jokes amongst the troops. This postcard is from c.1916.

It was around this time that another problem was discovered, resulting from the new solution being used. The mix was very strong and upon dipping the helmet in the phenatic solution, the chemicals quickly began to break down the wool flannel. The decision was made to move instead to cotton flannelette, which was far more resistant. Further to this, the helmet would also be made of two layers of flannelette to help improve its protection against phosgene.

ANZAC soldiers pose for a photograph during anti-gas drills wearing the PH Helmet. Here, the haversack, designed to protect the respirator when not in use, can clearly be seen. If left exposed to the elements, the rain would cause the phenate-hexamine solution to seep from the helmet, rendering it ineffective.

The manufacturing process was similar to that of the Smoke Helmet. First, two blank panels of flannelette were cut out, sewn together and impregnated in the solution. After wringing through a mangle, the helmets were dried in hot air cupboards and, once dry, would have the holes for the eyepieces and breather tubes punched out. The breather tube and eyepieces were then fitted and the helmet completed.

On 28 July 1915, an order by GHQ announced that the priority of P Helmet issue was to be given to officers and machine-gun teams, with the intention of equipping everyone else as stores arrived. On 5 August, troops also started to be issued with satchels in which to store their new P Helmets. These were of a very basic design for the sole purpose of preventing the helmet from becoming damaged or dirtied when not in use. In many cases, the P Helmet would be worn rolled up on the top of the head in readiness for a gas attack. Upon hearing the gas alarm, the soldiers simply unfurled the helmet and tucked it into the collar of their tunics, as with the Smoke Helmet. The previously issued Smoke Helmet was still retained and would be held in reserve for use in emergencies. In total, just over 9,000,000 P Helmets would be manufactured.

Machine-gun teams maintained static positions that were vital to holding key strategic positions. As such, priority of issue was given to them as well as the artillery. Officers were also issued PH Helmets before the rank and file, who continued with the Smoke Helmets until sufficient stores arrived. This is an original photograph published by the Daily Mail in 1916, showing a Vickers machine-gun crew wearing their PH Helmets.

Photograph of a soldier wearing the new ‘P Helmet’, or ‘Tube Helmet’, showing how a reasonable seal could be achieved by tucking the hood into the collar of the tunic. Unfortunately, this made it very claustrophobic to wear. Accounts from war diaries often talk of injuries being caused by men removing their helmets during a gas attack simply because their natural reaction was to get a breath of fresh air.

Unfortunately, the P Helmet proved unreliable against high concentrations of phosgene. Experiments involving tripling the flannelette layers still did not improve results. As with its predecessor, many soldiers also developed sores as a result of wet weather, or sweat causing the chemical to run out of the fabric. On 31 October 1915, a message sent from the Russian High Command to the British reported that hexamine was effective in protecting against phosgene. Hexamine has a white crystal-like appearance and is the same chemical as used in the cooker fuel tabs used by the Army today. After successful trials, an order was issued on 20 January 1916 to carry out the reimpregnation of the previously issued P helmets with the new solution. The newly treated helmets would now be known as the PH (phenate hexamine) Helmet. By this time, Bell, Hills & Lucas Ltd had scaled up production across three factories. PH Helmet numbers would reach just under 14,000,000 by the time production ceased in February 1918.

Anti-Gas Goggles

One problem that needed addressing with respirators at the time was the matter of being able to see during a lachrymator gas attack. Although the Black Veil respirator could be pulled over the eyes to offer some protection, the soldier would not be able to see, leading to panic and confusion. Rubber drivers’ goggles had been used in the interim, but lachrymator gas had caused a lot of trouble and disorganization along the Menin Road and at Sanctuary Wood during May 1915. Even the new ‘helmet’ respirators did not protect too well against such gases.

The French Army had already come up with an idea for protecting the eyes, using a mask made from impermeable cloth that was lined with flannel and containing two celluloid windows to see through. The British seized upon this idea and started to produce their own version in July 1915. They were of identical style, with a piece of wire fitted in the bottom of the mask that allowed the goggles to be closely moulded around the bridge of the nose. Vaseline, or petroleum jelly, would also be applied around the goggles to create an airtight seal. These were commonly referred to as the ‘French Pattern’ or ‘Spicer Goggles’, as they were manufactured by Messrs Jas. Spicer & Sons. The goggles were supplied and stored in a brown paper envelope, upon which was printed the following instructions:

Apply the Goggles placing the eye pieces as near the centre of the eyes as possible. Then cross the tape at the back of the neck and bring around over the forehead. Tie off over the edge of the material so as to press it firmly. Mould the wire in the lower edge by pressing with fingers so as to make it fit tight round the tip of the nose. Protection against Irritant Gases is improved by smearing Vaseline between the edges of the Goggles and the skin.

It should be noted that the advantage of having anti-gas goggles, rather than further improving respirator design, is that chemicals such as the aforementioned xylyl bromide (depending on concentration) only affected the eyes and not the respiratory system. Therefore, anti-gas goggles could be worn as a form of protection in their own right, as well as in combination with a helmet respirator.

Although good against low-concentration tear gases, the Spicer/French Pattern Goggles failed to provide a sufficient seal in high-concentration attacks. Experiments took place using rubber sponge in order to create a better airtight seal. Sponge had the advantage of being better at moulding itself to the wearer’s face, regardless of its profile. A first trial pattern was made by halving a rubber bath sponge, then cutting out a window for the eyes that measured roughly 6 × 3in (152 × 76mm). The aperture was then covered with a celluloid window. Eventually, a better design was developed that would be known as ‘Sponge Goggles’. These were similar in style to the goggles used by motorists/despatch riders at the time, but fitted with a rubber sponge surround that provided a much better seal around the face.

The Spicer (or French Pattern) goggles were made from tan cotton twill with celluloid viewing windows. Two fabric tapes were passed around the back of the head and tied off to hold the goggles to the eyes. The rear (inboard) side of the goggles was lined with a white flannel to form a crude seal around the face. Petroleum jelly could be applied around the outside of the goggles in order to improve protection from lachrymator gases. (Courtesy of Andy Ball)

The Sponge type goggles were similar in design to the driver’s goggles in use at the time. The rubber sponge surrounding the eyepieces helped to create a reasonable seal around the eyes to protect against tear gases. Sponge type goggles were withdrawn from service not long after the introduction of the Small Box Respirator. (Courtesy of the Staffordshire Regiment Museum)

By 1916, most British soldiers carried two haversacks – one containing the old-issue Smoke Helmet and the other containing a PH Helmet, along with a pair of anti-gas goggles. Sponge Goggles were issued up until 1917, when they were finally withdrawn from service after the Small Box Respirator took over from the PH Helmets. The reason for this was reports from the front line stating that some men had died after putting on their gas goggles instead of their respirators. It is estimated that over 3,000,000 of both types (Spicer/French Pattern and Sponge type) were manufactured until production ceased in 1917.

PHG (Phenate Hexamine Goggle) Helmets

The next gas helmet to be developed was the PHG (Phenate Hexamine Goggle) Helmet. As previously mentioned, gas helmets up until this point did not offer much in the way of protection against lachrymator gases and so relied upon troops to wear gas goggles under their helmets. The PHG Helmet was designed to address this problem.

The Anti-Gas Department simply took the existing PH Helmet and tried to integrate anti-gas goggles into its design. Initial trials used the same rubber sponge window as the goggles and attached it to the inside of the eyepieces of a PH Helmet. An elastic headband was used to hold the rubber sponge seal tightly around the eyes. The eyepieces were then modified to include lugs on the outside, on to which an elastic strap was added and passed around the back of the head. The simple combination of the two resulted in the name Phenate Hexamine Goggle Helmet, or PHG Helmet for short.

The PHG Helmet was an attempt to solve the problem of lachrymator gases making their way into the PH Helmet by integrating the Sponge type goggles into the helmet’s design. However, the idea was to be short-lived, as the introduction of the Large Box Respirator (and soon after that the Small Box Respirator) meant that the PHG Helmet had to give way to the far superior container type respirators. (Courtesy of the Staffordshire Regiment Museum)

Priority of issue for the PHG Helmets was given to those based in relatively static positions, such as artillery batteries (initially twenty-four hoods issued per battery) and machine-gun teams. This commenced on 13 January 1916. The effectiveness of this helmet design was negligible. Only 1,765,000 PHG Helmets were produced in 1916, with production running in parallel to the PH Helmets. Despite being a hybrid of the relatively successful PH Helmet and anti-gas goggles, the PHG Helmet still did not offer an ideal form of protection against phosgene.

Another deadly gas, arsine (a highly toxic gas and basic component of arsenic), had also come to the attention of the Anti-Gas Department Laboratory. This gas could not be stopped by any of the helmet designs in production. The issue of the much more effective Large Box Respirator would lead to a stop in production and withdrawal from service after only a few months. As such, original examples of PHG Helmets are very rare and highly sought after.

Large Box Respirator (LBR)

The PHG Helmet design highlighted that the ‘hood’ design of respirators had indeed reached its limit and a much more sophisticated method of protection was required for high concentrations of phosgene. The idea of a ‘Box Respirator’ had been considered during early 1915 and by the summer, trials were well under way. The main champion of this design was a senior chemistry lecturer from Oxford University by the name of Bertram Lambert. Lambert believed that a Box Respirator would be highly effective if it could be designed to protect against a range of gases. By the early summer of 1915, the British Army had identified nearly eighty gases that the Germans might potentially use.

Information from the Russians revealed that activated charcoal could be used as a way of filtering multiple gases. Activated charcoal is essentially grains of charcoal that have been processed with steam to give their surface thousands of tiny holes, thereby making them extremely porous and thus more efficient at filtering gas. The pollutants are trapped within the thousands of tiny pores when the breathed air is drawn through the charcoal. As the pores of the material start to fill up over time, the filter becomes less effective and needs renewing.

Unfortunately, the manufacturing industry in Britain was not in a position to produce charcoal on such a large scale. The most abundant charcoal available was made from animal bones and used to refine sugar. This charcoal would work, but nowhere near as efficiently as other charcoals made abroad. Lambert therefore set about developing a filter that would use the available bone charcoal in combination with various chemicals housed in a ‘box’ filter to improve performance. He eventually came up with a filter made from a standard Army water bottle, filled with limepermanganate and pumice stone treated with sodium sulphate. This filled about two-fifths of the container and the rest was charcoal. The permanganate granules would later be known as the ‘Boots’ granule, as they would be manufactured by Messrs Boots (the Chemists) of Nottingham.

This well-known photograph of an Australian chaplain is probably one of the clearest images demonstrating how the Large Box Respirator was worn in the field. It shows how the respirator was worn with the haversack to one side and how its size would hinder movement on the battlefield, even more so when worn with the standard issue 1908 Patt Webbing. The Sponge type goggles are also shown being worn to protect against lachrymator tear gas. Despite being cumbersome, the LBR paved the way for the Small Box Respirator, which was issued en masse. (Courtesy of Australian War Memorial)

The filter was connected to the facepiece using a rubber tube, corrugated to help protect against it collapsing. The facepiece was made from different thicknesses of muslin sewn together (about thirty to forty layers) and impregnated with a solution of zinc-hexamine (originally planned for use in upgrading the PH Helmets further). It was developed by Edward Harrison, an officer based at the Royal Army Medical College at Millbank. Another officer involved in its development was John Sadd, who would later become a leading authority on the production of respirators. Sadd was tasked with developing a breather tube that could be easily held in a soldier’s mouth whilst wearing the facepiece. The facepiece was held over the soldier’s mouth using elasticated straps worn around the back of the head. This particular facepiece design meant that only the mouth and nose were covered, as previous experiments with a full facepiece had led to problems with dimming. This meant that the aforementioned Sponge Goggles could be used for eye protection and, being separate from the mask, eliminated the problem of dimming.

The size of the filter was a problem, as it was large and hindered movement. This was reflected by officers who started to call it the ‘Respiratory Tower’, or ‘Harrison Tower’. The introduction of its smaller cousin later on ensured that the respirator would become more widely known as the Large Box Respirator (LBR) in later years. The weight of the filter meant that it had to be carried in a haversack hung over the shoulder. The filter inside the haversack would then hang down by the hip.

Air being both inhaled and exhaled through the same breather tube did lead to problems. The warm exhaled air passing though the cold filter container inevitably meant a build-up of condensation. This meant that moisture would be absorbed by the filtration chemicals and, as a result, the filter’s life would be reduced.

The LBR entered service on 16 February 1916, with priority being given to the Royal Engineers of the Special Gas Companies and men in static positions. This again included machine gun positions and artillery batteries, and later it was issued to the men of the Heavy Branch of the Machine Gun Corp, who operated another new weapon of war, the tank. The LBR’s introduction so soon after the issue of the PHG Helmets explains why so few PHG Helmets were made, as the new box filter was far superior in design. No sooner had the LBR gone into production, than both Harrison and Sadd were engaged in improving it so that a similar, smaller respirator could be issued en masse to the troops. This became known as the Small Box Respirator (SBR) and was ready in the same year. The LBR design was only updated once, in May 1916, when a further fifteen layers of muslin were added to the face mask, soaked in sodium sulphate to eliminate chloropicrin. Only 250,000 LBRs were ever produced and virtually none returned home, making them incredibly scarce.

Small Box Respirator (SBR)

The LBR had proved that filtration of air through a dedicated filter container was far more effective than the previous gas helmet designs. With this, Harrison and Sadd started to develop ideas for a new respirator that could be issued en masse to the troops. The issue was rather urgent, as higher concentrations of phosgene recently used had rendered the PH Helmets virtually useless.

On 29 May 1916, two types of trial pattern respirators arrived in France for testing at the front. The first was a respirator that used a canister suspended from the facepiece, an almost identical design to the respirators being used by the German Army. The second was the Small Box Respirator (SBR), which was of a similar construction to the LBR. The SBR had been optimized to be lighter than the cumbersome LBR and was ergonomically designed to be easier to carry on the battlefield. Not only did it use a much smaller filter container, the SBR also offered better protection against lachrymator gases by employing a full canvas facepiece. The facepiece contained a nose clip and a mouthpiece, thus only allowing breathing through the mouth. These features meant that the actual facepiece did not have to be completely gas-tight around the wearer’s face all the time. Following extensive trialling, the SBR proved the most efficient and so was adopted and put into production. The design underwent revision in 1917 (as detailed next), but overall the mask design would remain relatively unchanged and would see service right through until 1924.

When the SBR entered service, it was one of the most technically advanced military respirators available. The haversack is worn high on the chest in the ‘Alert’ position, allowing the respirator to be fitted easily within a number of seconds.

An original photograph of a soldier demonstrating how the new issue SBR is worn whilst being inspected. c.1917. (Courtesy of Australian War Memorial)

Facepiece Construction

The SBR featured a full facepiece that covered not only the mouth and nose, but also the eyes, offering protection against lachrymator gas and thus removing the need for goggles. The facepiece was manufactured from a khaki cotton fabric, the inside of which was coated with rubber to form the inside of the mask. The combination meant that the mask was flexible, whilst also providing a gas-tight fit around the wearer’s face. The edges were padded with velveteen to improve comfort. Coating the mask’s inside with rubber not only made it easier to produce a face moulding, but also meant that any tears or punctures (as the result of use in the field) could be easily repaired in the same way as a puncture on a bicycle tyre.

Studies were made of the face dimensions of the average soldier. Eventually four sizes (1–4, with 4 being the largest) were decided on to cater for all extremes, with each mask being individually fitted to each soldier. Later years saw the introduction of sizes 0 and 5 for men with abnormally small or large heads, respectively. In all cases, the size number was stamped on the front of the facepiece. The overall design would not change much during the remainder of the war, although the positions of the elastic head straps were changed in 1917 in order to give a more comfortable fit.

Eyepieces

The eyepieces were made initially from celluloid, although this was changed in early 1918 to use splinterless glass, which consisted of glass discs sandwiched between celluloid, thus creating a triplex eyepiece. This reduced risk of injury should the eyepiece become fractured. Making the eyepieces gas-proof was done by painting a rubber solution around the edge of the lenses and applying a rubber washer around it. The edges of the inner face of the lenses (that would be closest to the wearer’s face) were then painted with a black-coloured lacquer in order to make them completely gas-tight. Manfacturing records say that a paper disc was used to keep the lacquer off the lenses when being painted.

As with all respirators at this time, the eyepieces were susceptible to dimming/fogging. An anti-dimming outfit was provided with each SBR containing Glasso Anti-Dimming Paste. The paste was made from sulphonated castor oil, designed to prevent condensation build up on the lenses. Glasso Anti-Dimming Paste came in a tube with an application cloth, all of which was contained in a small cardboard box. The instructions on the outside of the box read:

GLASSO ANTI-DIMMING COMPOSITION. INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE: Wipe the inner surface of the eyepiece of the Box Respirator or Sponge Goggles until clean and dry. Apply a little of the composition from the tube to the cleansed surface, rub it in with the finger and then polish gently with a soft rag until the eyepiece is clear. Do not use the mask material for polishing. WHEN TO USE ANTI-DIMMING COMPOSITION: The composition is to be applied to the eyepieces of the Box Respirator or Sponge Goggles once weekly or after each time that the respirator or goggles have been worn.

Original SBRs are getting harder to find and are extremely delicate. The rubber-lined facepiece often perishes, making the facepiece extremely dry and brittle. The facepiece design was a breakthrough and was very effective at providing a gas-tight seal around the edges of the face. (Courtesy of the Staffordshire Regiment Museum)

A close-up view of the facepiece front shows the size, number 3, stamped clearly. A similar-size number stamp would also be found on the haversack. The other mark in pen is unknown, although it could possibly be the initials of the inspecting officer to indicate that the respirator has successfully passed its quality checks.

The facepiece was held to the face using a simple head harness. This consisted of two black elasticated bands running horizontally around the back of the head and a fabric piece running vertically over the top of the head.

Nose Clip

A nose clip was incorporated into the facepiece to ensure that breathing only took place through the breather tube. Trying to inhale the air inside the facepiece would inevitably mean disrupting the gas-tight seal designed to keep the poisonous gases out. Figuring out the correct position of the nose clip in the facepiece was a decision that could only be taken following trials on different types of soldiers’ faces. A final position was decided upon for each given size of facepiece, which then relied on the manufacturer fixing the clip into position within a narrow tolerance to ensure it would be correct when being worn.

Glasso Anti-Dimming Compound came in a thin lead tube with a plain white cloth, all of which was contained in this small cardboard box. The box was kept either in the haversack, or in the pockets of the soldier. The instructions can be seen here written on the outside of the cardboard box. (Courtesy of the Staffordshire Regiment Museum)

This view shows the inside of the respirator’s facepiece. Here the rubber lining can be clearly seen.

The nose clip was the main source of discomfort whilst wearing the SBR. This detailed view shows the later nose-clip pads, which were covered in muslin to afford a better grip around the nose. The nose clip could also be fiddly to fit in a hurry.

The clip’s design consisted of a coiled wire spring with two arms that would grip the nose, each arm sporting a rubber pad. From the outside of the mask, the nose clip was visible as a circular outline below the eyepiece. Essentially, this meant that the clip could have its position adjusted along the nose while being worn without having to remove the facepiece. The round part of the spring was fixed between two washers, which were initially stuck together using a rubber-solution glue and then stuck using the same glue to the inside of the facepiece. Later on, a single line of stitches placed on the outer side of the circular spring would be added to offer the assembly more strength.

The first production models used plain rubber pads to grip the nose, although it was quickly discovered that bare rubber pads would easily slip off the nose due to sweat or grease during physical exertion. After this, the pads were wrapped in muslin to afford slightly better grip. After extensive use in the field, another problem to become apparent was that the nose clip’s circular spring would begin to work itself loose between the two washers and would rotate round into the wrong position. This was overcome by fitting a second smaller spring that would help to fix the clip assembly more firmly between the washers. The nose clip was the source of a lot of discomfort for soldiers in the field, especially after wearing the respirator for long periods of time.

Mouthpiece

The mouthpiece was officially termed a ‘labiodental’ mouthpiece, as it was held securely in the mouth using a rubber flange mounted halfway along its length, which sat behind the lips and in front of the teeth. The flange not only prevented movement of the mouthpiece in the mouth, but also prevented the tube from being collapsed by the pressure of the teeth. The mouthpiece was manufactured out of rubber around a tube that connected to the brass angle tube (painted black), which connected to the breather tube and exhalation valve. The mouthpiece tube and the brass angle tube were both flanged and held together with a few small screws. The connecting flanges therefore clamped around the fabric and rubber of the facepiece, thus making a gas-tight seal.

Brass Angle Tube, Breather Tube and Exhalation Valve

The brass angle tube itself had two ‘limbs’ coming off it. The inner limb carried the exhalation valve and the outer limb connected to 21 the breather tube (which in turn connected to the filter). This brass tube essentially directed the airflow so that the air being breathed in came from the filter and the exhaled air exited through the exhalation valve. This solved the problem experienced with the LBR, whereby the filter’s life was shortened due to the build-up of moisture in it, caused by breathing in and out through the same breather tube. Not only did this clever system solve this problem, but the angle tube also contained a baffle located between the two limbs, which formed a saliva trap. This would prevent any saliva build-up from flowing back down the breather tube and into the filter. Saliva was instead diverted into the exhalation valve, where it drained. Only a small change was made to the baffle during the 1917 revisions to help improve its ease of manufacture.

The rubber flange mouthpiece was designed to be held between the teeth and the lips, hence it officially being known as a labiodental mouthpiece. This original is in fairly reasonable condition given its age. The faint stampings of ‘L&BR’ can be seen just below the rubber flange, indicating that this item was made by Leyland & Birmingham Rubber Co.

The exhalation valve yet again was the rubber flutter valve that was used on the PH Helmets. Only a slight modification was made for the SBR, which saw a smaller size used to save on material. Following the 1917 amendments, the valve’s size was increased slightly to reduce the air resistance, thus making it easier to breathe out. A small trial run included a thin steel guard around the flutter valve that was attached to the angle tube to protect the valve from being obstructed when moving around the battlefield. Official reports state that this was discontinued ‘as it did not find much favour in the field’.

The breather tube, which connected the filter to the right-angled tube, was made from a corrugated rubber pipe covered by thin stockinet. The corrugated profiles helped not only to improve flexibility, but also to prevent kinks from developing that could restrict the airflow. The breather tube design remained the same for all production models. The breather tube was secured to both the right-angled tube and filter container by twisted wires and fabric tape.

Here we see the brass angled tube in more detail. These assemblies were painted in black and were a revolutionary design, dramatically improving the service life of the filter container. The remains can be seen of the red rubber flutter valve, which has perished with age.

View on the underside of the breather hose showing ‘DUNLOP’ manufacturing stamp.

Filter ‘Box’ Containers

The filter container, which held the chemicals to filter out the traces of war gas, was the aspect of the SBR that made it better than its contemporaries. It was made from corrugated metal tin (for strength), formed into an oval shape and soldered together. In the base of the container was a central inlet hole. The air-inlet valve assembly (basically a rubber disc forming a one-way valve) was pushed into this hole and could be prised out if necessary for inspection or renewal. A brass screw was fitted to retain the rubber disc after it was discovered that it could be blown off by the concussion from heavy artillery barrage.

Inside the bottom of the container (directly behind the valve) was a dome-shaped brass gauze that was soldered in place. The shape was designed so that incoming air would be equally dispersed throughout the container, thus ensuring that all the chemicals would see equal exposure to the incoming air. Not only did this equalize the air pressure and reduce the resistance felt when breathing in (thus making it more comfortable to wear), but it also helped to prolong the life of the canister. In order to log how many hours of filter life remained, each respirator was issued with a record card diary that was filled in after each use. When the card was full, the soldier knew it was time to get the filter changed, meaning that the respirator had to be exchanged for a new one, whilst the old one was sent to repair workshops in Calais.

The chemicals used in the containers over the life of the SBR changed constantly and were the subject of a lot of research. The subject is very complicated to cover but the following types described below are the main ones.

First Pattern container, painted in black lacquer, has ribbed walls designed to give the container greater strength. The breather hose was sealed to the top using fabric tape and a rubber solution.

First Pattern Containers The First Pattern containers were used from August 1916 until August 1917, at which point the SBR underwent its major design revisions. The filter was essentially created using a similar design to that of the LBR, but with a focus on reducing both size and weight. The corrugated tin container was initially coated in a thick black lacquer, both inside and out, to help prevent the formation of rust. The chemicals used in the First Pattern container were similar to those used in the LBR and later became known as ‘Old Formula’ granules in the official reports. This consisted of: sodium manganite; caustic soda; slaked lime; bleaching powder and kieselguhr (a soft, chalky sedimentary rock with good filtration properties). Along with this, the container was also filled with animal charcoal made from old bones, its porous qualities thought to give good filtration.

Overall, the container gave better performance results than the LBR, although its reduced size inevitably meant a shorter life. The combination also failed to give satisfactory protection against arsine gas, which was of growing concern to the Army. After a short period of production, the supply of animal charcoal also started to dwindle and caused supply problems. This meant that most of early 1917 was spent looking for and experimenting with other forms of charcoal as a replacement. Eventually, the Anti-Gas Department decided on a charcoal made from birch wood, which gave satisfactory results. By August 1917, all containers were made using birch wood and over 15,000 tons (1,524,000kg) were produced during the remainder of the war.

New Pattern Container (NC) As the threat from various gases changed, so did the design of the filter. August 1917 saw the introduction of a ‘New Container’ (NC) pattern, which would replace the First Pattern. This new design was developed to offer greater protection against irritant gases, such as stannic chloride. Experiments showed that cotton-wool wadding was the only material that could protect against it whilst still being easy to breathe through. As a stop-gap measure, cotton-wool pads were incorporated into an emergency filter that could be taped to the end of First Pattern containers. The problem with this was that the extension filter (of which nearly 1,000,000 were produced) now made the container a similar size to the LBR. Therefore the NC container was created to incorporate the wadding into its design and return the filter to its original size.

Container filling diagram, showing the typical container filling from October 1917 for the NC design.

Later research revealed that fumes of sulphur trioxide (another poisonous gas) could still penetrate the filter and that doubling the cotton wadding gave no better protection. Later issues of NC filters would therefore use cellulose wadding in different combinations to offer even better protection. The container this time was coated with a translucent ‘burnt orange’-coloured lacquer in order to distinguish it from the black-lacquered old pattern. It appears that NC containers were only coated on the outside (presumably to speed up production), which means that in some cases they will be found to have rusted from the inside out.

A new type of granule, known as the ‘F’ granule, was also introduced. It was made from Portland cement mixed with kieselguhr, lime and sodium permanganate. The ‘F’ granules were less reactive than the ‘Old Formula’ granules; however, they did have a much higher absorption capacity, meaning that they would last longer in the field. During the early months of the ‘F’ granule, the ‘Old Formula’ granules continued to be produced in parallel due to supply problems in producing sodium permanganate in the UK. The supply became so much of a problem that a third type of granule, known as ‘white’ granules, was also developed. White granules were made in the same way as the ‘F’ granule, but were developed to eliminate the need for sodium permanganate. They were only produced in small quantities and used as a substitute when awaiting further supply of ‘F’ granules.

Green Band Containers The final pattern container designed during World War I was the Green Band. Its origins can be traced back to the autumn of 1917, when another potential problem came to light. The Anti-Gas Department Laboratory had discovered that a chemical called diphenylchloroarsine, used as a choking gas, could fully penetrate the SBR’s NC filter if it was vaporized by the heat of a shell exploding, meaning that the SBR would offer no protection to the wearer. In a similar fashion to the transition from First Pattern container to NC, an extension jacket was devised and retrofitted to the base of the NC. The extension jacket contained more cellulose wadding, which was able to stop the vapour from penetrating any further up the breather tube.

The jacket was eventually replaced by the Green Band container, which was called the XY container during its development period. It was later called the Green Band container because the filter was painted black and marked with a green band running vertically down its centre to make clear that it was a new design. The Green Band filter was a great success and attracted a lot of praise from other nations, with both France and Italy wanting to place orders. It finally went into production on 9 September 1918, with a limited number making it to France just a month or so before the Armistice was signed.

Mk I Haversack

The SBR was carried by every soldier with the aid of a haversack that was to become known as the ‘Mk I’. The haversack was made from a tan waterproof canvas and consisted of two compartments. The left-hand compartment (when wearing the haversack mounted on the chest) would store the respirator’s container, which would sit on top of a wire spring platform. This would stand the container off the bottom of the haversack and prevent air access from being blocked to the inlet at the container’s bottom. Trial versions of the haversack were fitted with a strap to hold the container in place, although this was quickly done away with to allow quick inspection in the field. The right-hand compartment (slightly wider) would store the facepiece, with the connecting breather tube being allowed to lie across the top.

Mounting the haversack high on the soldier’s chest would allow the quick deployment of the respirator in a gas attack with minimum fuss. This was to become known as the ‘Alert’ position. In order to mount the haversack this way, the shoulder strap would first be shortened by taking the brass stud positioned at the sling’s centre and attaching it to a leather tab sewn on the left-hand side of the haversack. A pair of brass ‘D’-shaped hoops on the inboard side (worn closest to the chest) of the haversack would then allow a piece of whipcord to be passed around the soldier’s back and tied off, thus securing the haversack tight to the chest. Every soldier within 1mile (1.6km) of the front was required to wear his respirator at the Alert position, with the haversack’s press studs left undone so that the mask could be fitted quickly in an attack. Slight modifications to the haversack would be made later in production to make the respirator easier for cavalry units to carry. The size of the SBR (marked on the facepiece) in some cases was also stamped on the haversack. To complete the respirator kit, a tube of the aforementioned Glasso Anti-Dimming Paste was also issued to each man and carried loose in his pocket. Later, haversack developments would encompass bigger pockets to accommodate anti-gas kit.

View showing the wire spring platform in the base of the left-hand compartment of the haversack. The spring platform helped to ensure that the filter container was adequately suspended off the bottom of the haversack, ensuring an undisrupted flow of air into the respirator.

Production

After its successful trial had been reported, an order was placed on 16 June 1916 for 100,000 SBRs to be produced. Following the tenth large-scale gas attack at Wulverghem (just outside of Ypres), a revised order quantity of 500,000 was placed to allow the various contractors to scale up production. Out of the first production batch, eighty respirators were issued to the newly formed Army Anti-Gas Schools that had been specifically set up to train new recruits in the disciplines of respirator drill and gas identification. Issue of respirators to troops at the front then started with the Second Army on 27 August. By 19 September, roughly 172,600 respirators had been issued. The intention was that every soldier (including officers) would eventually be equipped with the following anti-gas equipment:

•	1 × Small Box Respirator (carried in Mk I Haversack)
•	1 × tube of Glasso Anti-Dimming Paste (applied to the respirator lenses to prevent dimming though condensation)
•	1 × PH Helmet (carried in its waterproof wallet and kept in reserve as a back-up to the SBR)
•	1 × pair of anti-gas goggles (as previously mentioned, anti-gas goggles were withdrawn in 1917 following reports from the front line, when men had died by putting on their gas goggles instead of their respirators).

Following the successful first issue to the Second Army (and with a subsequent increase in production), issue to the First Army began on 25 September, followed by the Third Army on 7 November and the Fifth Army on 30 November. Issue to the Fourth Army was authorized the following year, on 9 January 1917. Issue of the SBR continued until the Armistice in November 1918, at which point over 16,300,000 had been manufactured. Production was divided amongst numerous contractors, which included the previously mentioned Bell, Hills & Lucas Ltd, Spicer & Sons Ltd and also Boots Ltd Nottingham. At its peak, manufacturing reached as high as 50,000 respirators per day and 250,000 per week.

The Mk I haversack was essential in order to keep the respirator in the best possible condition; it laid the foundations of future haversack designs. The bottom left-hand side of the photograph shows the brass quick-release clip, which could be used to adjust the length of the shoulder sling. At the top, the leather tab at the sling’s centre can be seen, used to reduce the length quickly for wearing in the Alert position, high on the soldier’s chest. The haversack flap would be secured using brass press studs.

This particular example of an SBR was issued to an officer in the North Staffordshire Regiment and bears his initials on the front of the haversack.

A contingent of Australian 4th Division troops dug in along the Menin Road posing for a photo. (Courtesy of Australian War Memorial)

Photograph c.1917 of soldiers sheltering in a shell hole wearing SBRs. Shell holes provided great cover for moving troops. However, many gases were heavier than air, meaning that they could linger in holes and dugouts long after an attack was over. Mustard Gas could remain active in a shell hole for days, causing injury to unsuspecting soldiers not aware of its presence. (Courtesy of Australian War Memorial)

Because of the high volumes required, as well as interest from other countries in purchasing SBRs, Major John Sadd was given the task of producing standard manufacturing instructions and factory layouts for what he called ‘the ideal factory’ in 1918. The idea was to streamline the production process to achieve the maximum throughput. The SBR was a breakthrough in respirator design and was to be the most efficient respirator to see service during World War I.

Variants

The success of the SBR attracted a lot of attention from other nations. Besides being used across the British Empire (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, India and so on), other nations also took an interest, such as France, Italy, Portugal and the USA. The USA’s late entry into the war in 1917 meant that it had no respirator designs of its own, so was unequipped to deal with the threat of gas warfare. The US Army therefore decided to hedge its bets and purchased the SBR from Britain and also a number of M2 masks designed by the French.

The SBR was far more advanced than the M2. However, the nose clip and mouthpiece of the SBR were not liked by US troops, who complained of its uncomfortableness. For a brief period, both respirators were issued, until it was discovered that a number of deaths had resulted from soldiers attempting to swap from one respirator to the other during an attack and hence getting gassed in the process. The US Army therefore created its own variant, which would become known as the Corrected English Mask (CEM). Filters were again coloured differently to identify different uses. Black filters were used for training. Yellow filters were called the ‘H’ type filter, which was the most common type to see service with the US Army. This was followed by a green filter called the ‘J’ type, which was an improved version. The CEM only saw a small amount of time on the front line, the first units arriving in France during January 1918.

Photograph of soldiers wearing SBRs in winter 1916. Note that the gentleman on the left displays a pair of Sponge Goggles on his haversack. These were withdrawn from service in early 1917, following a number of casualties who had tried to fit their goggles before fitting their respirators and hence were gassed in the process. The SBR could filter lachrymator gases and the gas-tight facepiece meant that anti-gas goggles became obsolete. (Courtesy of Australian War Memorial)

‘Making the masks that saved men’s lives’ published in The New Illustrated, 1919. It shows the manufacturing process of the SBR.

Other World War I Anti-Gas Equipment

Other British anti-gas equipment used during World War I was limited, mainly because most focus had been on respirator development and the training of troops in respirator drills. Vermorel sprayers had been used with good results in the trenches to help to neutralize chlorine gas. These converted backpack crop sprayers would often be filled with the hypo solution and could be sprayed to neutralize the chlorine gas that would sit in the bottom of the trenches, as the gas was heavier than air. Blister gases presented a more difficult problem, as the liquid spray could sit for days until it was finally washed away by the rain.

The only methods of decontamination used by the British at the time involved washing contaminated kit or clothing with bicarbonate of soda solution to neutralize the chemicals. Clothes could be left to air for a number of days in the hope that moisture or rain would help to wash chemicals away. These methods were very slow and basic and not very efficient on the battlefield. Research and development of anti-gas clothing was carried out, with the Army developing a series of oil-skin suits and oiled leather gloves. Anti-gas covers for pigeon baskets and even respirators for horses were also developed. However, nothing was really produced that could be issued en masse to the troops. By the time anything of any value had been developed, World War I had ended and the research programmes abolished.

One thing the British did learn quickly during the war was that a soldier stood a better chance of surviving a gas attack if he had ample time to fit his respirator properly. To this effect, simple but effective means of warning troops were developed. To begin with, simple gongs or bells were installed along sections of the trench. In the absence of a proper bell, many sections made their own from spent artillery shells. Gas rattles were very basic, but could also be used to warn men of a gas attack.

Later in the war, other devices such as klaxons or Strombos horns were used. These air-powered horns were operated by gas sentries on the lookout for incoming gas attacks. Each Strombos horn set would come complete with two compressed air cylinders, one of which was a spare and normally turned upside-down to prevent the wrong cylinder from being turned on in a panic. Each compressed air cylinder would last for one minute. The horns would be installed at regular intervals along the front line and the sound was capable of travelling a few miles, making these horns very effective at warning of a gas attack. The downside of this, of course, was that men who were not in the threat area of a gas attack would also be forced into donning their respirators if they heard the horns blowing.

The gas rattle was a simple but effective means of warning of a gas attack. Although basic, the rattle could be heard by most in the trench if swung hard. This is a late war example that uses a metal frame. Early types had wooden frames that were easily damaged and were not robust enough for life in the trenches. Clean original examples are getting hard to find, as many were used after the war by children or football supporters and in most cases they have been painted. The effectiveness of the rattle meant that it would also be used during World War II.

Here a soldier mans a gas bell whilst wearing a PH Helmet. Bells were very good for warning of an incoming attack; however, their downfall was that they were very heavy and cumbersome. As a result, many sentries made their own gongs from spent artillery cases.

A more ingenious idea to warn of gas was the deployment of Strombos horns along sections of the front line. The apparatus was basically an air horn that ran from a compressed air supply. The sound of these horns could travel for miles and as a result they were very effective. Here, soldiers can be seen cleaning a Lewis gun next to a Strombos horn deployed at the end section of a front-line trench.