APPENDIX G

SOURCES

Primary Sources

Historians and historical writers are detectives. They seek evidence, they follow clues, they put 2 and 2 together, and hopefully they come up with a reasonably accurate picture of the people we have been and the events that have shaped the people we are.

Those dealing with Rome from the first century B.C. are fortunate to have a wealth of source material to refer to. That material takes two forms. There are inscriptions, most on monuments, slabs of stone that have lasted two thousand years of weather and war, some on slivers of bronze often unearthed in farmers’ fields in recent times. And, more numerous, the surviving writings of men who lived in the period and chronicled it—surely never imagining that two millennia later, people like ourselves would be reading their words.

The inscriptions tell us about the careers of men such as Gaius Mannius, legionary of the 20th Valeria Victrix Legion, from a village just outside Turin. And Tiberius Maximus, the cavalry officer from Philippi who tracked down Decebalus, the fleeing king of Dacia in A.D. 106 just as the Dacian put a knife to his own throat. And Gaius Minicius, the twenty-seven-year-old colonel from Aquileia thrust into the civil war in A.D. 69 in the service of Vespasian and soon to earn Rome’s highest bravery award.

The historical writings available to us are many and varied. Different classical authors writing of the same events often give different and sometimes differing information, so that Plutarch, Suetonius, and Dio, for example, each report the bloody demise of Emperor Vitellius a little differently. None was an eyewitness; each relied on other accounts to create his own. In the same way, no two reporters today will cover the same current event in exactly the same way. Each may choose to use different sources; each approaches the event from his or her own perspective.

Imagine an historian in a future time with the task of writing about a major news event that took place today. He or she will pull together all the different present-day reports and will then write a single account based on those reports. If they are fair-minded, they will endeavor to present the most balanced yet most informative view they can. So it goes for today’s historical writer.

The 10th Legion was probably the most written-about Roman legion of its day. It was certainly the most famous legion in the first centuries B.C. and A.D. In the twenty-eight years of research preceding the two years of writing that went into this book, many contemporary and classical sources were consulted, and they are listed under “Additional Sources.” Some, such as Roman writers Seneca and Livy, provided valuable snippets. But, overall, this book is based on the works of the following, listed in order of relevance.

Julius Caesar. Commentary on the Gallic War and Commentary on the Civil War. Caesar wrote his memoirs, with the first book, dealing with his conquest of Gaul and covering the period 58–51 B.C., being published in his lifetime. He was still working on his account of the civil war, which leaves off after the Battle of Pharsalus, when he was murdered in 44 B.C. At the urging of Caesar’s private secretary, his former chief of staff Lucius Cornelius Balbus, these published and unpublished works were collated by Caesar’s loyal staff officer Aulus Hirtius shortly after the dictator’s death. Hirtius, promoted to general, would himself be dead within another year. Hirtius combined them with additional material, some which he wrote himself, the rest apparently penned by officers who had been on the scene for the last battles of the civil war, before they were published by Balbus.

Caesar’s own writings are in the third person, as if produced by an independent observer, and strive to paint him in the best light possible while denigrating his opponents. Despite the propagandist overtones, they still provide a fascinating insight into one of history’s greatest generals—and engineers—and his campaigns. Most importantly to historians seeking data on the legions of Rome, Caesar regularly identifies the legions involved in his various campaigns and battles.

In the associated material, Hirtius strove to both emulate and praise his master, sometimes distorting the facts to paint Caesar’s adversary Pompey the Great in a bad light. Other authors, such as Plutarch, occasionally give us a truer picture, such as when Pompey loaned Caesar a legion in 52 B.C., without the approval of the Senate, when Caesar was in deep trouble in Gaul. Plutarch tells us Pompey was greatly criticized by the likes of Cato the Younger for helping Caesar like this, but you wouldn’t know it from Hirtius’s narrative.

Often, where there were passages in Caesar’s original text that depicted an error by Caesar, Hirtius—or possibly Balbus—simply cut it out. We know this because there are several instances where Caesar says “as mentioned before” or the like, and the before-mentioned material is missing. Fortunately, sufficient references were overlooked by the editors in their hasty edit for the truth to emerge. In their haste, too, the editors missed passages in the additional material that don’t exactly flatter Caesar, with a picture of an impatient and sometimes petty man emerging.

Another of Caesar’s loyal staff officers, Gaius Asinius Pollio, is quoted by Suetonius as writing that he felt Caesar’s memoirs showed signs of carelessness and inaccuracy. Pollio said that in his experience Caesar didn’t always check the truth of reports that came in and had been either disingenuous or forgetful in describing his own actions. But Cicero, also quoted by Suetonius, said that Caesar wrote admirably, composing his memoirs cleanly, directly, and gracefully. Cicero added that Caesar’s sole intention had been to supply historians with factual material, and that subsequently “several fools have been pleased to primp up his narrative for their own glorification.”

The fools in question would appear to be Hirtius and Balbus, and perhaps, like Cicero, we should be blaming them, not Caesar, for any distortions. As for myself, I have taken the middle view. The editors must certainly come in for criticism, but I suspect that, in addition, Caesar’s ego prevented him from being entirely honest in his writings, with himself as well as with his readers.

For all this, Caesar’s memoirs are still a lively and informative resource.

Among best of many translations: The Commentaries of Caesar, transl. W. Duncan, Dodsley: London (1779); Caesar: Commentaries on the Gallic and Civil Wars, transl. W. A. M’Devitte & W. S. Bohm, Bell: London (1890); Caesar: The Gallic War & The Civil War, transl. T. Rice Holmes, Loeb series: London (1914– 1955); also, Caesar: The Conquest of Gaul, transl. S. A. Handford (1951), rev. J. F. Gardner (1967), Penguin: London; Caesar: The Civil War, transl. J. F. Gardner, Penguin: London (1967).

Plutarch (A.D. 46–c.120). Plutarch was a Greek scholar who wrote in the reigns of Roman emperors Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian. Shakespeare used his Parallel Lives as the basis for his plays Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra. This, Plutarch’s great work, gives short comparative biographies of numerous historical figures and provides background material on key players in the history of the legions—Sulla, Marius, Lucullus, Sertorius, Cato the Younger, Crassus, Pompey the Great, Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, Brutus, Cassius, and emperors Galba and Otho.

Plutarch, who considered himself more biographer than historian, occasionally makes reference to his sources, most of which have not come down to us, such as Emphylus, a rhetorician and colleague of Caesar’s assassin Brutus, who, in Plutarch’s words, produced “a short but well-written history of the death of Caesar” entitled Brutus, an account that may have come from Brutus himself.

The author of hundreds of books and essays, Plutarch was well respected in his own day. Occasionally biased but only once in a while making a demonstrable error, he remains a valuable resource on people and events related to the legions.

Recommended English translations: John Dryden’s The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, publ. London, 1683–86, republ. 1952, Encylopaedia Britannica, Chicago; also J. & W. Lanhome’s 1875 transl., Plutarch’s Lives of Illustrious Men, Chatto & Windus: London; B. Perrin’s Loeb series transl., Plutarch’s Lives, London (1914–26).

Appian. Born in about A.D. 95 at Alexandria, of Greek stock, Appian worked as an advocate in the courts at Rome and later served as a financial administrator in the provinces. In the middle of the second century he wrote a number of books on Roman history, of which his Civil Wars is the most helpful to writers interested in the legions. He is the least well regarded of the Greek historians of the Roman Empire, but for the historical events that took place between 133 and 70 B.C. he is considered the only continuous source of any quality. For the period from the foundation of the 10th Legion in 61 B.C. he is one of several sources. His work is at times disjointed, at others error-strewn. He sometimes also lapsed into what have been described as rhetorical flourishes, or just plain fiction. Despite this, Appian used many well-placed sources and provides a useful basis of comparison, particularly when his account can be considered alongside those of Plutarch, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio.

Recommended English translations: Appian: Roman History, transl. H. White (1889), rev. for Loeb series, I. Robinson: London (1913); Appian: The Civil Wars, transl. J. Carter, Penguin: London (1996).

Suetonius. Biographer Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was born in about A.D. 69, in the middle of the civil war that followed the demise of Nero. At the time, his father was serving in the army of the short-lived emperor Otho as a tribune, and probably second-in-command, with the 13th Gemina Legion. Suetonius went on to join the Roman civil service, rising to be briefly in charge of the government archives at Rome, which were closed to the public. For a year or two he worked at the Palatium as a correspondence secretary to the emperor Hadrian, but was fired for disrespect to the empress Sabina while Hadrian was away.

Suetonius was subsequently denied access to the official records, but it is clear from his collection of pocket biographies, Lives of the Caesars, that he had begun researching a book on Roman leaders while he was running the archives. His biographies of Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Tiberius are filled with detail that could only come from official sources—excerpts from emperors’ private letters, for example—while his later biographies rely on gossip, hearsay, myth, exaggeration, and sensational anecdote in place of hard fact, suggesting that his researches had only reached Tiberius at the time of his dismissal and fall from favor.

Even in territory where he had good material to work with, Suetonius managed some obvious errors, mostly, it seems, from sloppiness. For example, where Caesar describes 30,000 arrows found in the Dyrrhachium fort of the 9th Legion after Pompey’s surprise attack in 48 B.C., Suetonius ups it to 130,000. And he puts the 6th Legion on Caesar’s side, when its surviving cohorts were actually in Pompey’s army at that time—some 900 men of the legion would go over to Caesar after the Battle of Pharsalus several months later.

Suetonius was to write a number of books, including those aimed at capturing a broad market, such as The Lives of Famous Whores, The Physical Defects of Mankind, and Greek Terms of Abuse. But it is his Lives of the Caesars that has proven of most interest down through the ages, despite its errors and imperfections, and in terms of the legions from Caesar up until the end of the first century, his access to official records makes him a source that cannot be ignored.

Recommended among many English translations: Lives of the Twelve Caesars, 1606 transl. P. Holland, republ. New York Limited Editions Club: NY (1963); rev. transl., F. Etchells & H. Macdonald, Haselwood: London (1931); a 1796 transl. by A. Thompson, Robinson: London, republ. Corner House: Williamstown, MA (1978); Loeb series edition, transl. J. C. Rolfe: London (1914); The Twelve Caesars, transl. R. Graves (1957), rev. M. Grant, Penguin: London (1979).

Tacitus. Publius Cornelius Tacitus was the king of Roman historians. His Annals and Histories and, to a lesser extent, his Agricola and Germania are treasure troves of information about Rome and her empire in the first century. Living between about A.D. 55 and 117, Tacitus was a consul in 97 and governor of the province of Asia in 112. With apparently unlimited access to the official archives, his hugely detailed books abound with facts and figures taken directly from the records of the proceedings of the Senate and other sources as varied as back issues of the Acta Diurna. He acknowledges liberal use of the work of other writers, much since lost, men such as Pliny the Elder, whose writings on Germany after serving with the legions on the Rhine undoubtedly helped shape Tacitus’s attitude to Germany, Germanicus, and Arminius, as well as serving soldiers such as Vipstanus Messalla, second-in-command of the 7th Claudia Legion during the crucial civil war battles of A.D. 69, who went on to write his memoirs.

For the period A.D. 14–70, Tacitus can be read as the unrivaled authority on the legions of the first century. He also makes several telling remarks about earlier eras. He identifies the legions taking part in the wars, campaigns, and battles of the time, inclusive of their names, commanders, and frequently the names of individual officers and enlisted men. Almost always resisting gossipy anecdote in favor of documented fact, and making only very occasional errors, it is Tacitus who renders any history of the legions possible, and this particular work is in his great debt.

Recommended English translations: A. J. Church & W. J. Brodribb transl., Annals & Histories, London 1869–72; Republ. Chicago (1952), Encyclopaedia Britannica. Also a Franklin Library edition, Franklin, PA (1982); Loeb series, transl. W. Peterson: London (1914–37); Annals, transl. M. Grant, Penguin: London (1966); Annals, transl. D. R. Dudley, Mentor: New York (1966); History, transl. A. Murphy, Dent: London (1900); The Agricola & The Germania, transl. A. J. Church & W. J. Brodribb: London (1869–72); also, transl. of H. Mattingly & S. A. Handford, Penguin: London (1948); a combined works of Tacitus, including all of the above, transl. C. H. Morre & J. Jackson, Heinemann/Putnam: London (1931).

Cassius Dio. Also referred to as Dio Cassius and Dion Cassius (his father was also a Cassius, his grandfather a Dio), Cassius Dio Cocceianus was a Greek historian born in the Roman province of Bithynia in about A.D. 150. Going to Rome, he joined the Senate under the emperor Commodus. Twice consul, and governor of several provinces during his long career, Dio had considerable military experience and was well versed in the ways of the legions. He wrote a history of the Roman Empire in eighty books in the years leading up to his death in 235. These histories took the form of a year-by-year synopsis of major events, with occasional diversions into anecdote.

Dio worked from existing sources, and clearly based much of his first-century narrative on Tacitus. With the A.D. 37–47 chapters of Tacitus’s Annals lost to us, it is from Dio that we glean the little we know about Claudius’s invasion of Britain. We can also see where Dio borrowed from Suetonius in his books on the first centuries B.C. and A.D., although some of his errors and exaggerations are glaringly original—he has Titus save his father, Vespasian, on a British battlefield in A.D. 47, when the boy was only seven. Dio also assumed that some customs prevalent in his day had been current in earlier times.

Unlike Tacitus, Dio rarely makes reference to individual legions, and when he does, he is sometimes in error—he puts the 3rd Gallica Legion in an A.D. 69 civil war battle, when from Tacitus we ascertain it was the 3rd Augusta. The 3rd Gallica, a new legion, had not even taken the field by that time. But he does tell us how the 12th Legion gained its Fulminata title from Marcus Aurelius in A.D. 174. More importantly, Dio provides a list of all the legions in existence in his day, with brief background information on each, which, although not entirely accurate, provides a proverbial bookend to any history of the legions of the early imperial era.

Most valuable English translations include: Loeb series, Dio’s Roman History: London (1914–27), transl. E. Cary; and Cassius Dio. The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus, transl. I. Scott-Kilvert, Penguin: London (1987).

Josephus. Born in about A.D. 37, Josephus Flavius was a Jew who commanded Jefat during the town’s siege by Vespasian’s army in A.D. 67, where he was captured. He claims he won his freedom and the favor of Vespasian by predicting that both he and his son Titus would become emperor of Rome. Collaborating with the Romans, Josephus several times tried to talk the Jewish partisans holding Jerusalem into surrendering, ultimately witnessing and documenting the city’s destruction. He later wrote extensively about the Jewish peoples, providing a detailed background on Herod the Great. But it is his coverage of the A.D. 67–70 Judean offensives of Vespasian and Titus that is of most use to anyone interested in the legions.

Tacitus wrote of the early stages of these campaigns, identifying units such as the 3rd Augusta and 18th Legion detachments involved, but most of his account of this episode has been lost, so that Josephus is the only continuous source of the events in Judea of A.D. 67–71. Identifying the five main legions involved in the campaigns, including the 10th, Josephus reports the Judean operations in impressive detail, right down to the legions’ order of march. He is not without error, and while he praises individual Jewish fighters, he was at pains to paint the Jewish leaders in a bad light and depict their cause as folly. His intent was to ingratiate himself with the Roman leadership, and he succeeded. Granted his freedom, citizenship, property, and wealth by the Flavian emperors, he wrote for a Roman readership, and his stance is far from objective. But as an eyewitness to one of Rome’s most bitter wars and one of history’s most pivotal events, he is a rare source.

Recommended English translations among many: The Jewish War, transl. H. St. John Thackery, R. Marcus, & L. H. Feldman, Loeb: London (1926); also, transl. of G. A. Williamson, Penguin: London (1959, rev. 1970). A nineteenth-century Complete Works of Josephus, transl. W. Whiston, Winston: PA, republ. by Kregel in United States in twentieth century.

Polybius. This Greek statesman and historian lived between 200 and 118 B.C. At Rome, initially as a hostage, he became a friend of and adviser to Scipio Aemillianus, the Roman consul and general who conquered Carthage. Traveling widely, Polybius wrote hisHistories in forty books after returning to Greece in 150 B.C. Having broad experience of Roman political and military matters, he wrote with intelligence and authority about the Roman army of the mid-second century B.C. Some chapters are so detailed they read like a legion owner’s manual. It is from Polybius that we know so much about legion practices and procedures, many of which seem to have remained unchanged for centuries after, from camp layout to bravery decorations, sentry details to punishments.

Recommended English translations: The Histories of Polybius, transl. E. Shuck-burgh, Macmillan: London (1889). Polybius. Histories, transl. W. R. Paton, Loeb: London (1922–27). Polybius. The Rise of the Roman Empire, transl. I. Scott-Kilvert, Penguin: London (1979).

Pliny the Younger. His full name was Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus. He was a consul in A.D. 100 and governed Bithynia-Pontus between A.D. 111 and 113. His correspondence, in particular his exchange of letters with the emperor Trajan at Rome on matters that came before him for judgment, give a fascinating insight into Roman life of the time. They are especially enlightening about the wisdom of Trajan and the workings of Roman imperial government, from the operations of the Cursus Publicus to how Christians were then tolerated, and how slaves who illegally enrolled for legion service were dealt with.

Recommended English translations: The Letters of Pliny the Consul, transl. W. Melmoth, London (1746), rev. W. M. Hutchinson, Loeb: London (1915). Pliny’s Letters, transl. A.J. Church & W. A. Brodribb, Blackwood: Edinburgh (1872). The Letters of the Younger Pliny, transl. B. Radice, Penguin: London (1963).

Acts of the Apostles. From the Bible, these provide insights into several aspects of legion activity in Judea during the first century. One deals with a centurion who retired from his legion to live in Caesarea and who was converted to Christianity by St. Peter. Indications are that the centurion was of Greek heritage, that he retired from the 1st Legion, then based on the Rhine—confused by the Acts author with the 1st Italica, which had in effect replaced the demobilized 1st Legion by the time Acts was written—and probably entered the army by enrolling with the 3rd Augusta Legion at its Beirut recruiting station.

The other episode of interest, almost certainly written by St. Luke, tells of St. Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem, his trial and detention in Caesarea, and then his conveyance under escort to Rome to have his appeal heard by the emperor, Nero, as was his right as a Roman citizen. From Acts we ascertain that Paul’s escort was made up of a centurion and legionaries from the 3rd Augusta Legion based in Caesarea, and the story Luke tells of the journey he and Paul took to Rome in A.D. 60–61, inclusive of a shipwreck on Malta with their legionary escort, is the only detailed eyewitness account we have of a first-century sea journey, making this a treasure trove for historians.

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