CHAPTER SEVEN

Police Action in Korea

In a similar manner to the other Allied nations, the United States’ armed forces would undergo a period of serious contraction after 1945. The Axis nations, on the other hand, had little left to disperse, as the German and Japanese fleets were almost destroyed, while the Italian Navy was destined to be divided between the victors and scrapped.

As for the US Navy, it too would see a serious contraction of its strength, not only in vessels, but in manpower as well. With the massive reduction of the latter, due to most being ‘hostilities only’ personnel, there were not enough sea and air crews to maintain such a large carrier fleet, nor was there a perceived need for it in the immediate future, although the attitude and expansion plans of the Soviet Union, an erstwhile ally, were giving rise to concern.

Of the remaining hardware, the elderly USS Saratoga was deemed life expired after its war exertions, and the carrier was also struggling to cope with the larger aircraft entering service. As this was before the days of the memorial and preservation societies, the Saratoga was expended as a target at Bikini Atoll atomic bomb test on 25 July 1946. Thus was lost the chance to preserve one of the early steps in American naval aviation. Of the Yorktown class, only the USS Enterprise had survived the war. At close of play the Enterprise was fully equipped with the latest radar sets, including the CXAM-1, SC-2, SP and fire-control set Mk 4. Other modifications had included the lengthening of the flight deck and the fitment of hull bulges to improve protection and improve stability. As with all such vessels subject to kamikaze attacks, the edge of the flight deck fairly bristled with weaponry. The Enterprise had been in the dockyard at the end of the war after a kamikaze hit had blown the forward lift completely out of alignment. Although fully repaired and redesignated as an anti-submarine carrier, CVS-6, the Enterprise would not re-enter service, being placed in the reserve. The carrier entered the New York Naval Shipyard on 18 January 1946 for deactivation, being fully decommissioned on 17 February 1947. In 1946 the Enterprise had been scheduled for handing over to the state of New York as a permanent memorial. However, this plan was suspended in 1949. Although further attempts were made at preserving the ship, fund-raising efforts were unsuccessful, and so the ‘Big E’ was sold in July 1958 to the Lipsett Corporation of New York City for scrapping at Kearny, New Jersey.

The Independence class of light carriers, based on the hulls of Cleveland-class cruisers, would have mixed fortunes after the war. Of the nine vessels commissioned, eight had survived their Pacific experiences, and those destined for post-war operational service were seen purely as fighter carriers, as they were considered too small for the larger types. The intended aircraft complement was forty-eight Grumman F8F Bearcats, although none of the class ever put to sea with this configuration. The USS Independence would be used as a peripheral target at Bikini, after which the carrier was formally decommissioned in August 1946. Over the following five years the Independence was used as a weapons trials ship before being sunk as a target in February 1951. The Cowpens was formally deactivated in January 1947, being redesignated as an auxiliary aircraft transport, AVT-1, in May 1959, although it was removed from the Navy List in November, being sold for scrap two years later. The Monterey was one of the few Independence class to see significant post-war service. Decommissioned in February 1947, the carrier was reactivated in September 1950 for use as a training carrier by NAS Pensacola in support of Korea operations. After five years in this role the Monterey entered the reserve, being redesignated AVT-2 in 1959. The carrier remained swinging at anchor at Philadelphia until sold for scrapping in 1971. It would be the USS Langley that would have an extended second career. Having been decommissioned in January 1947, after completing a refit the carrier was loaned to the French Navy in January 1951 as the Lafayette. The Langley returned to the United States in 1963, being sold immediately for scrap. The USS Cabot would also have a second career with another navy–in this case Spain. Having been decommissioned in February 1947, the Cabot was returned to service in October 1948 for training duties, this continuing until 1955 in support of Korea operations. Withdrawn after this period, the carrier was reclassified as AVT-3 in May 1959, remaining in the reserve until lent to Spain in August 1967 as the Dedalo. The Spanish Navy would purchase the carrier outright in 1972, the vessel remaining in service until withdrawn in 1988. The Bataan was also placed in reserve in 1947, but would be reactivated in mid-1950 for Korean war duties, the only one of this class to take an active part in this conflict. Withdrawn again in 1954, the vessel was reclassified as AVT-4 in May 1959, although it was struck off the Navy List in September, being sold for scrap in 1960. The San Jacinto would see no post-war service, being completely deactivated in January 1947. Although redesignated as AVT-5 in 1959, the carrier was struck from the Navy List in early 1970, being sold for scrap that same year.

The final single-engined fighter that Grumman delivered to the US Navy was the F8F Bearcat.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

It was the escort, or jeep, carriers that disappeared from the service of the US Navy very quickly at the war’s end. The Sangamon class saw the name ship scrapped in 1948, while the Suwannee, Chenango and Santee were placed in reserve in 1946. All three were reclassified as CVHE for helicopter operations in 1955, although they were removed from the Navy List in 1959, being sold for scrap the following year. Of the eleven Bogue class, only the USS Block Island had been lost during war service, while the others had mixed fortunes. Most of the class were placed in reserve by the end of 1946, being redesignated as helicopter escort carriers, CVHE, in 1955, although most were scrapped in 1960, having seen no further usage. Carriers known to have suffered this fate included the Bogue, Copahee, Nassau, Altamaha, Barnes, Breton and Prince William. Of the others, the USS Card also entered the reserve in 1946, although the ship was reactivated in 1958 as an aircraft transport, this being followed by service in a similar role during the Vietnam War. During this period the Card struck a mine in Saigon Harbour in May 1964. The vessel was raised and repaired, returning to the reserve afterwards, although it was struck from the Navy List in 1970 and sold for scrap. The USS Core was also another carrier resurrected for transport use by the Maritime Sea Transportation Service in July 1958, although it is highly unlikely that the carrier was used in this role, as it was sold for scrap in 1970. The USS Breton also entered the reserve in 1946 before being recommissioned again by the MSTS in 1958. After returning to the reserve, the carrier was sold for scrapping in 1970. As with the rest of the Bogue class, the USS Croatan entered the reserve in 1946. The carrier was reactivated in June 1958 and assigned to MSTS in a non-commissioned status, being manned by a civilian crew. In August 1963 the Croatan was used to transport twenty-three F-104 Starfighters on delivery to the Royal Norwegian Air Force. In October 1964 the vessel served as an experimental ship under NASA control until May 1965. The purpose of the NASA deployment was to launch Nike-Cajun and Nike-Apache sounding rockets, these being carried on launchers each side of the deck elevator. The rest of the flight deck was covered by trailers holding telemetry and guidance equipment. The Croatan was struck from the Navy List in September 1970 and sold for scrap in 1971.

One of the largest classes of escort carriers was the Casablanca class, which consisted of fifty vessels. Of this total five were sunk in action, these being the Liscombe Bay, St. Lo, Gambier Bay, Bismark Bay and Ommaney Bay. Of the others, the Wake Island, Solomons, Kalinin Bay, Kitkun Bay, Makin Island, Salamaua, Admiralty Islands, Attu and Roi were all withdrawn from use at the end of the war, being sold for scrap the following year. The remaining vessels were placed in reserve as CVHE for helicopter duties in 1958, although most were struck from the Navy List from 1959 onwards, the last going in 1966. A handful did find other uses, however. The Corregidor was taken over by the MSTS for Korean War transport duties, although the carrier’s career ended in 1958, and it was finally decommissioned in 1960. The Thetis Bay had a much more adventurous post-war career, as it was converted to be the first amphibious assault ship in the US Navy. By now designated CVHA, the Thetis Bay was recommissioned in July 1956, being deployed with both the Atlantic and Pacific fleets. The experience gained from the Thetis Bay led to the development of the Iwo Jima and Tarawa class of assault vessels. The USS Thetis Bay was finally struck from the Navy List and scrapped in 1966. The Makassar Strait also had a post-war career. However, it was destined to be used as a target for Tartar and Terrier missiles to see how well they performed as ship-to-ship weapons. Eventually this mistreatment caused the rather ragged carrier to sink in 1962.

The final escort carrier class was the Commencement Bay class, consisting of nineteen ships. Few of these carriers entered the reserve for any length of time as most had post-war careers. Of those that did retire most were redesignated as helicopter escort carriers in 1955, the ships involved being the class name ship, the Cape Gloucester, Vella Gulf, Puget Sound, Bairoko, Rabaul, Palau and Tinian. Others of the class were employed as anti-submarine carriers, due to the fleet carriers being heavily employed in the Korean War. Carriers employed in this role included the Kula Gulf, Salerno Bay, Siboney, Rendova, Badeong Strait, Sicily, Point Cruz and Mindoro. The Badeong Strait had been utilised as the development ship for the remainder of the class in the ASW role, although all of these vessels had been retired by 1955. It was the USS Gilbert Islands that had the most varied career of the class. Although placed in reserve after the war, the carrier was recommissioned in 1951 for transport duties during the Korean War before retiring again in 1955. After six years awaiting disposal, the carrier was chosen for conversion to become a Major Communications Relay Ship, AGMR-1, being recommissioned in March 1964 as the USS Annapolis. The newly renamed ship remained in service until finally withdrawn at the end of 1969, having served from 1965. The Gilbert Islands/Annapolis was finally removed from the Navy List in October 1976. In contrast, the Kula Gulf, after its period as an ASW vessel, returned to the reserve, although it would return to sea for use a transport during the Vietnam War under MSTS auspices. The Kula Bay was removed from the Navy List in September 1970. The USS Rendova also had a post-war career, being used in the training, transport and ASW role before being sold for scrap in 1971. The Point Cruz was also a busy ship, for not only was it used in the ASW role during the Korean War, but it was reactivated during the Vietnam conflict for use in the transport role. After this final wartime adventure, the carrier was again placed in the reserve, being sold for scrap in 1970.

The retirement of the venerable Saratoga and the decommissioning of the greater part of the escort carrier fleet left the US Navy with the twenty-four ships of the Essex class. The name ship of the class had been commissioned in December 1942, while the last ship, the USS Philippine Sea, joined the fleet in May 1946. Two further ships of this class had also been laid down, these being the USS Reprisal laid down at the New York Navy Yard in July 1944, while the other was the USS Iwo Jima, laid down in January 1945 at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. As the former had been partly completed, it was used as a target after the war, while the barely started latter vessel was broken up on the slips. A further five units designated as the enlarged Essex class were cancelled before construction began.

In the immediate post-war period the entire Essex class was subject to a series of modifications that enabled them to operate the heavier piston aircraft already coming into service and to cope with the jet-powered machines that were on the horizon. Known as SCB-27A, the programme started in 1947 and ended in 1955. The SCB-27 modernisation was extensive, and required at least two years to complete for each vessel. To handle the much heavier, faster aircraft of the early jet era, the original lightweight flight deck support structure was significantly reinforced, enabling it to support aircraft weighing up to 52,000 lb. To complement the reinforced flight deck, stronger elevators, much more powerful catapults, and new Mk 5 arresting gear was installed. The aft elevator was relocated from its original position in the centre of the flight deck to the port deck edge. On the armament side the original four twin 5-inch gun mounts were removed, completely clearing the flight deck of guns. The replacement 5-inch gun battery consisted of eight weapons, two being carried on each quarter of the flight deck. Also added were twin 3-inch gun mounts that replaced the original 40 mm guns, these offering much greater effectiveness through the use of proximity fused ammunition.

The island was completely redesigned, being increased in height, although it was shorter overall due to the removal of its gun mounts. In addition the boiler uptakes were rebuilt and angled aft to accommodate a single radar and communications mast atop the island. To better protect aircrews, their ready rooms were moved from the original gallery deck to below the armoured hangar deck, this being complemented by a large escalator on the starboard side amidships to move flight crews up to the flight deck. Internally the aviation fuel capacity was increased by fifty per cent to 300,000 US gallons, while its pumping pressure was increased to 50 US gallons per minute. Given the problems experienced by the carriers of TF.38 during the war, the ships’ firefighting capabilities were enhanced through the addition of two emergency fire and splinter bulkheads in the hangar deck, the instillation of a fog/foam fire-fighting system, improved water curtains and a cupro-nickel fire main. Also given a much-needed improvement was the electrical generating power system, while weapons stowage and handling facilities were also improved. All of these modifications added considerable weight to each vessel in the class, so that displacement increased by some twenty per cent. Blisters were fitted to the hull sides to compensate for the weight, this widening the waterline beam by eight to ten feet. These changes also meant that the carriers also sat lower in the water, which in turn reduced the top speed to 31 knots.

The McDonnell Aircraft Company would provide the US Navy with one of its earliest jet fighters–the F2H Banshee.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

The prototype for the SCB-27A modification programme was the USS Oriskany, which was still incomplete at the end of the war while a decision was made about the depth of work that would be undertaken. The Oriskany entered the New York Navy Yard in August 1947, being returned to service in September 1950. The class ship USS Essex was decommissioned in January 1947, remaining in reserve until moved to the shipyard at Puget Sound in September 1948, finally emerging in September 1951 for recommissioning. The carrier’s new air wing comprised McDonnell F2H Banshees, Grumman F8F Bearcats and Douglas AD Skyraiders. The third vessel to enter the programme was the Wasp which entered the New York Yard in May 1949 from the reserve, with work being completed in September 1951. The Kearsarge had remained in active service until entering the Puget Sound Yard in February 1950, being ready for recommissioning two years later. The Lake Champlain was another newly completed carrier that entered the reserve quickly after the war in March 1946. Norfolk Navy Yard would be the venue for this ship’s modernisation, this beginning in August 1950, being ready for commissioning again in September 1952. The next vessel put through the conversion process was the USS Bennington, which had undertaken a period of war service in the Pacific. The carrier was withdrawn to the Norfolk Navy Yard and to the reserve in November 1946, entering that dockyard in December 1950 for SCB-27A modifications. This work was completed by November 1952, when the carrier was recommissioned. Another veteran of the Pacific campaign was the Yorktown, which entered the reserve in January 1947. Four years later the carrier entered the Puget Sound Yard, being ready for recommissioning in February 1953. The USS Randolph was also a Pacific veteran, although it would remain in the training role until being placed in reserve in June 1947. The Randolph entered Newport News Yard in June 1951, the modification programme being completed in July 1953. Following the Randolph into the conversion programme was the USS Hornet, which was placed in reserve in January 1947 before entering the New York Yard in July 1951, returning to service in September 1953. The Hancock would enter Puget Sound Yard in December 1951, having been in reserve in May 1947. Unlike the earlier carriers, the Hancock was subject to the SBC-27C modification programme, which introduced Type C11 steam-powered catapults, a British innovation, jet blast deflectors, deck cooling, a fuel-blending system, an emergency barrier and storage and handling for nuclear weapons. The fuel-blending system would enable the carrier to operate both piston and jet-powered aircraft.

The extended modifications further increased the aircraft carrier’s beam and weight. As these modifications were more extensive, the Hancock was not -ecommissioned until February 1954. The Intrepid was also subject to the SBC-27C programme, having been in the reserve since 1947. The carrier entered the Newport News Yard in April 1952, being recommissioned in June 1954. In a similar manner to the other vessels of the class, the USS Ticonderoga was placed in reserve in January 1947 before entering the New York Yard in April 1952 for SBC-27C modifications. These were completed in September 1954, the carrier being recommissioned soon afterwards. The final three vessels to undergo modification were the Shangri La, Lexington and Bon Homme Richard. Unlike the earlier Essex carriers, these ships were further modified under programme SBC-125. These changes were even more radical as they included an angled flight deck, another British innovation, a hurricane weather bow that improved the weather security of the ship, and also a space for an auxiliary bridge and steering position. The Shangri La entered Puget Sound Yard in October 1952, where it underwent the combined SBC-27C and SBC-125 modifications, which kept the carrier out of service until January 1955. The Lexington would enter the same dockyard a year later, although its conversion was completed by August 1955. Mare Island Yard was the location for the Bon Homme Richard modification, which started in May 1953, being completed by September 1955. It was the USS Antietam that was entered straight into the SBC-125 modernisation programme instead of being subject to any of the earlier SBC programmes. The Antietam had been commissioned too late to take part in Pacific operations although it would spend some time in the Far East after hostilities had ended. Unlike its sister vessels, the Antietam was not placed in reserve until June 1949, although its time laid up was short, as the vessel resumed active service in January 1951 for Korean War service. This was completed in April 1952, the carrier entering the New York Yard some five months later. Utilised very much as the prototype for the SBC-125 angled deck, the carrier received few of the other modifications, and so its 10.5-degree offset deck was the only indication of its partly modified state. The Antietam was recommissioned in April 1953, being subject to much trials work to prove the angled deck. Although the Antietam was utilised in front-line operations, the carrier was relegated to the training role in 1957, remaining as such until struck from the Navy List in May 1963. After ten years in the reserve fleet the carrier was sold for scrapping in 1973.

The USS Ticonderoga, a member of the Essex class, would also serve off Korea during the fighting.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

After Korea had ended, the US Navy carriers and the aircraft carried were updated. This is the USS Saratoga, complete with all modifications, while the flight deck has McDonnell Demons, Vought Crusaders and Douglas Skyraiders sitting on it.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

Deck tractors scurry around the deck of the USS Valley Forge. Once relocated, the F4U Corsairs will be fuelled and armed before their next missions.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

But not all of the Essex class underwent the upgrade process. This batch included the Hancock, which entered the reserve in 1947; although it was reclassified during this period the carrier never re-entered service, being taken off the Navy List in 1966. The Bunker Hill would suffer a similar postwar career, although a period with the Naval Electronics Laboratory in San Diego delayed its scrapping until 1973. In contrast, the USS Boxer had a second career, remaining in constant service throughout the 1940s and 1950s. Eventually no longer able to operate modern aircraft, the Boxer would be reclassified as an amphibious assault ship, LPH-4, for use by the USMC, for which purpose a range of helicopters was carried. The Boxer was finally removed from the Navy List in December 1969, going for breaking two years later. The USS Princeton was another of the class to be converted for amphibious operations, being redesignated as LPH-5 in May 1959. Prior to that the ship had operated in the Far East between 1945 and 1949. At the conclusion of this commission the Princeton was placed in reserve. However, this was short, as the carrier was recommissioned in 1950 for Korean War operations, these continuing until 1953, when the ship was laid up for conversion to ASW standard. A change of role to helicopter carrier followed, the Princeton remaining as such until 1962, when the vessel was entered into the Fleet Requirements And Modification Programme, FRAM II, also known as SBC-144. This programme saw the installation of an SQS-23 bow-mounted sonar, installation of a stem hawse pipe and bow anchor and modifications to the combat information centre. The Princeton resumed operational service from 1964 off Vietnam, which came to an end in 1968 when the carrier entered the reserve. The USS Princeton was struck off the Navy List in January 1970, being sold for scrap in 1973.

The USS Tarawa was commissioned in December 1945, too late to take part in Pacific operations. The role found for the Tarawa was to act as a training carrier, a role it fulfilled until October 1948. By June 1949 the carrier was in reserve, being reactivated in February 1951, initially as a training carrier, although the ship was later used in the attack role. The Tarawa underwent conversion to ASW standard during the first half of 1955, resuming its antisubmarine duties soon afterwards. In May 1960 the Tarawa was placed in reserve, being redesignated as an aircraft transport, AVT-12, soon afterwards. Never to sail again, the Tarawa was struck off the Navy List in January 1967, going for scrap the following year. The USS Valley Forge was the last Essex carrier to be launched in November 1945, being commissioned for service in November 1946. The Valley Forge was the first carrier to operate off Korea, from June 1950. Four tours of duty followed, although there was a gap between April and December 1952 when the Valley Forge was in the Puget Sound Yard for a much-needed refit, which resulted in the ship being reclassified as an attack carrier. Although the Valley Forge spent some time operating as an ASW carrier, she did not enter the FRAM II- SBC-144 programme until 1964, although by 1965 she was operating helicopters as LPH-8 off the coast of Vietnam. The Valley Forge was withdrawn and decommissioned in January 1970, being sold for scrap soon afterwards. The final ship of the Essex class was the USS Philippine Sea, which was commissioned in May 1946. War service off Korea started in 1950 and continued until the cease-fire in July 1953. In 1955 the Philippine Sea was reclassified as an ASW carrier, although she was placed in reserve during 1958. The Philippine Sea was struck from the Navy List in 1969, being sold for breaking up soon afterwards.

The NAA AJ Savage was originally delivered for nuclear weapons, but at a later date the remaining aircraft were converted to tankers for aerial refuelling.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

One of the most usual aircraft operated by the US Navy was the Vought F7U Cutlass. It took a lot of development for the type to become a viable proposition. This F7U-3 is pictured undertaking trials aboard the USS Hancock.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

Even as the last of the Essex-class carriers was completing, a further three ships were being built–the Midway class of carriers. The decision to build these vessels had been as a result of the performance of the British carriers in the Far East, which had shaken off hits by 500 lb and 1,000 lb bombs, in contrast to their American contemporaries, which had suffered losses or extensive damage when struck by weapons of the same size. Originally it was decided by the Navy Board that they would be built within the lapsed limitations of the Washington Treaty, although eventually common sense prevailed and a better ship resulted. The need to incorporate extensive armour on the flight deck and the aircraft hangars meant that these were the biggest carriers built to date, with an overall length of 968 feet and a flight deck that was 113 feet across. The increased size of the class saw an increase in the number of aircraft carried, so that the air wing on paper could consist of a mix of seventy-three Grumman F6F Hellcats and Vought F4U Corsairs, together with sixty-four Curtiss SB2C Helldivers. To service the hungry beasts, the aircraft fuel bunkerage was increased to 350,000 US gallons, while the increased aircraft complement saw an increase in aircrew that brought the total ship’s crew close to 4,000 personnel. Much of the hull design and propulsion was based on the cancelled class of Montana battleships, and so the machinery was placed en echelon, while the compartments were subdivided as much as possible in the machinery spaces to reduce the possible areas of flooding. The armoured flight deck was equipped with two hydraulic catapults forward and three lifts, two inset in the main deck, with the third mounted on the port side. Although extensive armament was specified, it is highly unlikely that any of the class was ever fully equipped. Originally the class was to have numbered six vessels. However, the end of the war saw the last three cancelled. The name ship of the class, the USS Midway, was constructed at the Newport News Yard, the carrier being commissioned in September 1945. The Midway was followed down the slips by the third vessel, the USS Coral Sea, which was commissioned in October 1947. The second ship of the class, the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt, was built at the New York Naval Yard and commissioned in October 1945.

Not long after the Midway class had been launched, they were back in the hands of the shipyards for strengthening of the flight decks, so that the North American AJ Savage bomber could be operated. The opportunity was also taken to rearrange the armament slightly. Added to the ship’s arsenal at the same time was the Chance Vought Regulus I missile. The SSM-N-8A Regulus was the weapon deployed by the Navy from 1955 to 1964. Ten aircraft carriers were configured to carry and launch Regulus missiles, although only six ever actually launched one. The USS Princeton (CV-37) did not deploy operationally with the missile. However, it did conduct the first launch of a Regulus from a warship, while the USS Saratoga (CVA-60) also did not deploy this weapon but was involved in two demonstration launches. The USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CVA-42) and the USS Lexington (CV-16) each conducted one test launch. During a deployment, the USS Randolph (CV-15) deployed to the Mediterranean carrying three Regulus missiles, while the USS Hancock (CV-19) deployed to the Western Pacific with four missiles in 1955. The Lexington, Hancock, Shangri-La (CV-38) and USS Ticonderoga (CV-14) were involved in the development of the Regulus Assault Mission (RAM) concept. RAM converted the Regulus cruise missiles into an unmanned aerial vehicle, UAV, so that they could be launched from cruisers or submarines, and once in flight, guided to their targets by carrier-based pilots using remote-control equipment.

Photographed prior to modernisation is the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt, a member of the Midway class. None of this class of carriers would undertake operations during the Korean War.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

A further modification programme was instituted during the 1950s when all three vessels underwent SCB-110 modernisation, this adding angled decks, three C11 steam catapults, mirror landing systems, and other modifications that would allow them to operate the forthcoming heavier naval jets. The flight deck lifts were also reconfigured, the aft deck lift was removed and relocated to the starboard side and the fore deck was considerably enlarged to handle larger aircraft. In addition the original open bow was replaced by a hurricane bow that sealed the area off from foul weather. The island was also extended to improve accommodation, while the ships’ masts were altered: that of the Roosevelt, and later the Coral Sea, was a tapered pole, while that of the Midway was a lattice assembly. Mounted on these masts were the scanners for the latest suite of electronics, including the SPS-12, SPS-8A and SC-2 on the Roosevelt, while the Midway sported the SPS-43, SPS-12 and SPS-8A. All of these replaced the wartime and immediate post-war systems fitted initially. The internal aircraft fuel capacity was also increased, although to allow for all of these modifications much of the hull armour was removed, while the defensive armament was also reduced. Even with these weight reduction measures in place, the Roosevelt now displaced 51,000 tons standard and 63,400 tons deep load, the Midway being of a similar displacement.

The Coral Sea was also subject to modernisation, although this did not take place until November 1957. This programme was designated SCB-110A and was a far more extensive upgrade than that applied to the other two vessels. As well as the angled deck and hurricane bow, the Coral Sea had completely rearranged lifts, as the forward deck lift was deleted completely, being relocated on the starboard deck edge forward of the island. Another deck edge lift was located on the port side, far aft, to completely clear the flight deck. This change meant that Coral Sea had no centre-line lifts, two being to starboard with the other to port. As in the other ships of the class, three C11 steam catapults replaced the original hydraulic units, two mounted on the bow and the third on the forward edge of the landing deck. To cope with the increasing weight of naval aircraft, the arrester gear was upgraded to Mk 7 standard. To restore the carrier’s stability, bulges were added to the hull, although to compensate for this extra weight the hull armour was removed. The island was also modified, while the pole mast carried the scanners for the SPS-12, SPS-37 and SPS-8A radars. In common with the other two ships, further weight saving was needed to compensate, and so much of the defensive armament was removed. All of these periods in dock for modernisation meant that the Midway class missed the Korean War.

Only two other carrier vessels entered service in the immediate post-war period, these being two light carriers that were loosely based on the preceding Independence class. The hull was based on that of the Baltimore-class cruisers, upon which was mounted a hangar deck, above which was the flight deck, stressed to accommodate aircraft weighing up to nine tons. This deck was longer and wider than that of the Independence class, having a wider section aft to allow for easier aircraft movement. Two lifts were fitted, one each fore and aft, although they were more widely spaced than those of the earlier Independences. Two catapults were fitted at the bow end, these being staggered instead of the diverging ones in previous escort carrier designs. Forward of the island was a heavy-duty crane that could be used for the transfer of stores. It was also capable of dipping into the forward lift area. The island design was borrowed from the Commencement Bay class, having a

The USS Wright was the second vessel of the Saipan class. They were an attempt to improve upon the earlier Independence class.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

heavy mast above, while a second mast was located aft of the island. Mounted on these masts were the initial radar fit scanners, which included the SP and SK-2 fitted to the Saipan, and the SR-2 installed on the USS Wright. Both vessels were fitted with Mk 29 fire-control radar sets, while the projected air group was intended to be twelve Grumman Avengers plus two full squadrons of fighters, either Grumman F6F Hellcats or Chance Vought F4U Corsairs.

Only two ships of the Saipan class were ordered, the name ship and the USS Wright. The former was commissioned in July 1946, while the latter was accepted in February 1947. After the initial shake-down cruise, the Saipan undertook eight months of pilot training, later joining the Operational Development Force based at Norfolk, Virginia, in December 1947. The purpose of this force was to gain experience in operating jet aircraft from aircraft carriers. In May 1948 the Saipan undertook the first operational deployment of jet aircraft, in this case the McDonnell FH-1 Phantom. This deployment ended in the early 1950s as the Saipan was redeployed for training duties, although the carrier was placed in the reserve in October 1957. In May 1959 the Saipan was redesignated as an aircraft transport, remaining as such until 1963, when it was slated for conversion to a command ship, being designated CC-3. By 1966 the vessel had left the Alabama Dry Dock and Shipbuilding Company at Mobile, and was ready for service, although by this time it had been redesignated as the AGMR-2 USS Arlington. The greater majority of the conversion work was hidden from sight, and so the only visible signs were the high aerials mounted along the flight deck. The Arlington undertook communication and relay duties during the Vietnam conflict, being deactivated in 1967 and sold for scrap three years later. The USS Wright followed a similar operating pattern to the Saipan during its early years, being mainly engaged in training pilots. In June 1952 the carrier was reconfigured for ASW duties operating with hunter killer forces in the Atlantic, although she returned to training duties soon afterwards. In May 1955 the Wright was assigned to TG.7.3, which was tasked with undertaking nuclear tests in the Pacific under the codename Operation Wigwam. The Wright was decommissioned into the reserve in March 1956 at Puget Sound. As with the Saipan, the carrier was redesignated as an aircraft transport in May 1959, although it was moved into Puget Sound Dockyard in March 1962 for conversion to command ship status.

The USS Saipan was the class leader of this small class of carriers. Both would eventually have another role in the field of communications.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

Redesignated CC-2, the conversion included extensive alterations to enable the ship to function as a fully equipped mobile command post for top-echelon commands and their staff that would enable them to act on the strategic direction of area or world-wide military operations. Facilities were built into the ship for global communications and rapid, automatic exchange, processing, storage and the display of command data. A portion of the former hangar deck space was utilised for special-command spaces and the extensive electronics equipment needed, while a major portion of the flight deck was utilised for the mounting of specially designed communications antenna arrays. In addition, facilities were provided to enable the vessel to operate three helicopters. In its new guise, the Wright was recommissioned in May 1963 and undertook duties across the world. The ship remained in commission until deactivated in May 1970, although it remained on the Navy List until December 1977, being sold for scrap in 1980.

While the US Navy was trying to retain its two ocean carrier fleets plus the manpower and aircraft to operate them, changes were taking place half a world away that would bring the carrier forces to the fore once again. In a move that would have been noticed by the United States government in quieter times, the leadership of Russia officially declared war on Japan on 9 August 1945, close to the war’s end, even though America and Russia had signed an agreement to that effect earlier that year. What the rest of the Allies had failed to notice was that the Russian influence had spread across Eastern Europe, courtesy of the Soviet invasion of Germany. It would be this startling spread of communism, a great theory but ruined by people, that would alarm the nations of the West. By 10 August the Red Army had occupied the northern part of the Korean peninsula, and on 26 August halted at the 38th Parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of US forces from the south. Even as the Russians were moving into their positions, the Americans were having doubts that the Soviets would honour their part of the Joint Commission agreement, the American-sponsored Korean occupation agreement. The dividing line across Korea had been decided in July when two of the American Commission officers, Colonel Dean Rusk and Colonel Charles H. Bonesteel III, had split the peninsula at the 38th Parallel after concluding that the US Korean Zone of Occupation had to have a minimum of two ports, and that the capital of Korea should be in the area of responsibility of the American forces.

At the Potsdam Conference held during July and August 1945, the Allies had decided to divide Korea, without consulting the Korean people, in contravention of the Cairo Conference, which had stated that Korea would become a free and independent country, free from outside control. On 8 September 1945, Lieutenant-General John R. Hodge arrived in Inchon to accept the surrender of Japanese forces south of the 38th Parallel. Appointed as military governor, General Hodge controlled South Korea via the United States Army Military Government in Korea between 1945 and 1948. As governor, General Hodge established control by restoring to power the key Japanese colonial administrators and their Korean and police collaborators, as the USAMGIK refused to recognise the provisional government of the short-lived People’s Republic of Korea (PRK), since he suspected it was a communist organisation. These policies contradicted the notion of Korean sovereignty, and so they provoked civil insurrections and guerrilla warfare.

From December 1945 Korea was administered by a Joint American and Russian Commission, as had been agreed at the 1945 Moscow Conference, although the Koreans were excluded from these talks. The commission decided that the country would become independent after a five-year trusteeship. This news was not received well by the population, which openly revolted. In the south of the country some protested, while others armed themselves with weapons liberated from the Japanese occupation forces. In order to take the sting out of these actions, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December 1945, this being followed by the outlawing of the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People’s Committees four days later. Continued unrest saw a strike by railway workers in Pusan on 23 September 1946, this being followed by civil disorder that spread throughout the country. On 1 October 1946, Korean police shot three students in the Daegu Uprising, and as a result of this action protesters made a counter-attack, during which thirty-eight policemen were killed. This was followed on 3 October when approximately 10,000 protesters attacked the Yeongcheon police station, killing three policemen and injuring a further forty. Elsewhere in Korea some twenty landlords and pro-Japanese South Korean officials were killed, in the light of which the USAMGIK was left with no option but to declare martial law.

In response to all this civil unrest, the Representative Democratic Council, led by the nationalist Syngman Rhee, would make clear its opposition to the Soviet-American trusteeship of Korea, rightly arguing that after thirty-five years of Japanese colonial rule most Koreans opposed further foreign occupation. To stop the country descending into a civil war, the USAMGIK decided to scrap the five-year trusteeship agreed upon in Moscow, and to invoke the 31 March 1948 United Nations election deadline that was intended to achieve an anti-communist civil government in the American Zone of Occupation. The proposed national general elections were first opposed and then boycotted by the Russians, who insisted that the Americans should honour the trusteeship agreed to during the Moscow Conference. The resultant anti-communist South Korean government would issue a national political constitution on 17 July 1948, elect a president, the American-educated Syngman Rhee, three days later, and establish the Republic of South Korea on 15 August 1948. In the Russian Korean Zone of Occupation, the USSR established a communist North Korean government led by Kim Il-Sung. In reply, President Rhee’s regime expelled all communists from southern national politics. As nationalists, albeit of different hues, both Syngman Rhee and Kim Il-Sung were intent upon reunifying Korea under their own preferred political mantle.

As they were better armed, courtesy of the USSR, the North Koreans could and did escalate the continual border skirmishes and raids, and then looked to invade South Korea with proper provocation. During this period the American government assumed that all communists globally were controlled or directly influenced by Moscow, and so the US portrayed the border infractions in Korea as Soviet inspired. American troops were withdrawn from Korea in 1949, leaving behind an ill-equipped South Korean army. The Soviet Union had already left Korea in 1948, although its sponsored regime was well equipped. Under the guise of rebuffing a South Korean provocation raid, the North Korean Army (KPA) crossed the 38th Parallel behind an intensive artillery barrage on Sunday 25 June 1950. The KPA stated that the Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) troops had crossed the border first, and that they would arrest and execute Rhee. Both Korean armies had continually harassed each other with skirmishes, and each had continually mounted raids across the 38th Parallel border. The United Nations Security Council immediately condemned the North Korean invasion of the Republic of South Korea, issuing UN Resolution 82, which called for an immediate withdrawal. The USSR had boycotted the UN Security Council meetings since January 1950, protesting that the Republic of China, Taiwan, and not the People’s Republic of China, had a permanent seat on the Council. In response, on 27 June, President Truman ordered American air and sea forces to assist the South Korean regime.

After debating Korea, the Security Council published Resolution 83 on 27 June 1950, recommending that member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 4 July the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister accused the Americans of starting armed intervention on behalf of the South Koreans. The Russians challenged the legitimacy of external intervention for several reasons, in that the ROK Army intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based was based on US Intelligence, that North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32, and that the Korean conflict was beyond the United Nations Charter remit, as the initial north–south border fighting was classed as civil war. The North Korean Army had launched the liberation war with a comprehensive air and land invasion utilising 231,000 soldiers, who captured their scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu, and Ongjin. Their forces included more than 200 Soviet T-34 tanks, over 150 Yak fighters, 110 IL-2 Stormovik attack aircraft, 200 artillery weapons and thirty-five reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North Korean KPA had retained 114 fighters, a further seventy-eight bombers, 105 T-34 tanks and some 30,000 soldiers in reserve in North Korea. In contrast, the ROK Army defenders were unprepared, having 98,000 soldiers, no tanks, and twenty-two aircraft, comprising twelve liaison types and ten North American AT-6 Texan trainers.

Although there were no large foreign military garrisons in Korea when the invasion started, there were large American garrisons and air forces in Japan. Within days of the invasion, large numbers of ROK Army soldiers were either retreating southwards or were defecting en masse to the north to join the KPA. However, despite the rapid post-1945 Allied demobilisations, there were still substantial US forces stationed in Japan under the command of General Douglas MacArthur that could be made ready to fight the North Koreans. On Saturday 24 June 1950, the US Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, informed President Harry S. Truman by telephone that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea. Truman and Acheson discussed their response with senior Defense Department officials, who agreed that the United States was obliged to repel military aggression and to stem the onward flow of communism. President Truman announced that America would counter this aggression and support the efforts of the United Nations Security Council to terminate this attack. In Congress the Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman, General Omar Bradley, warned against appeasement, saying that Korea was the place to stop the expansion of communism. Following much discussion in August 1950, the President and the Secretary of State obtained the consent of Congress to appropriate $12 billion to cover the military expenses of the Korean police action.

In line with Secretary of State Acheson’s recommendation, President Truman ordered General MacArthur to transfer armaments to the Army of the Republic of Korea, while giving air cover to the evacuation of US nationals. The President disagreed with his advisers recommending unilateral American bombing of the North Korean forces. However, he did order the US 7th Fleet to protect Taiwan, whose Nationalist government had asked to fight in Korea. The Americans denied the Nationalist Chinese request to join the fray lest it provoke a Communist Chinese retaliation. In a move that was almost certain to upset the Navy, the Joint Chiefs ordered that the US 7th Fleet be placed under the direct control of General Douglas MacArthur on 29 June 1950. This was in direct contrast to the situation in the Second World War when both Admiral Ernest J. King, the Commander-in-Chief US Fleet, and Admiral Chester W. Nimitz the Commander-in-Chief Pacific Areas, had refused point-blank to hand over any assets to General MacArthur’s direct control, as both Admirals thought that the Army viewed the aircraft carriers and their crews as expendable. This command decision almost never happened, as General MacArthur had departed from his headquarters in Japan to fly to South Korea to assess the situation in the country personally. As the General’s transport was on approach to the airfield at Suwon, twenty miles south of Seoul, it was attacked by a flight of North Korean Yak-9 fighters. Fortunately there was a combat air patrol of NAA P-51 Mustangs in the vicinity, their intervention saving the inbound transport aircraft.

A Grumman F9F Panther of VF-71 flies over Task Force 77 in 1952.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

The USS Valley Forge was the first American carrier deployed to the Far East for exercises, having departed the west coast on 1 May 1950. The carrier was anchored in Hong Kong harbour for a visit by 25 June, when the news was received that North Korean forces had crossed the 38th Parallel into South Korea’s territory. Ordered to depart Hong Kong the next day, the carrier steamed south to Subic Bay in the Philippines, where she was provisioned and refuelled, and then she set course for Korea as part of Task Force 77. On board the carrier were the Grumman F9F Panthers of VF-51 and 52, the Vought F4U Corsairs of VF-53 and 54, Douglas AD-4 Skyraiders of VA-55, Vought F4U-5Ns of VC-3 for night-fighter duties, Douglas AD-3W Skyraiders of VC-11 for airborne early warning coverage, and a small detachment of helicopters for air-sea rescue duties.

The first carrier air strike of the Korean conflict was launched from the Valley Forge on 3 July 1950 in support of the South Korean troops who, under equipped as they were, battled desperately against the tide of Communist troops and tanks. In concert with aircraft from HMS Triumph, waves of Douglas AD Skyraiders and Vought F4U Corsairs attacked the North Korean airfield at Pyongyang, south-west of Seoul, while Grumman F9F-2 Panthers flew fighter cover. Tons of bombs from the attacking American aircraft hit hangars, fuel storage dumps, parked aircraft and railway marshalling yards. While the attack aircraft were hitting the ground targets, a pair of escorting Grumman Panthers from VF-51 flown by Lieutenant (jg) Plog and Ensign Brown downed two Yak-9s and damaged another. In spite of the attempts by United Nations forces led by America and Britain to stop the steady flow of Communist infantry and armour, the North Korean forces steadily pushed the defending South Koreans back into a defensive perimeter around Pusan. After this initial strike the Douglas Skyraiders from the Valley Forge attacked and destroyed the North Korean oil refinery at Wonsan. Six days later a reconnaissance flight from the Valley Forge reported that a large force of North Korean troops was massing for a further push into South Korea. In order to counter this, since such a move would completely overwhelm the remaining South Korean forces, the 7th Fleet and the aircraft of TF.77 were tasked to use all means necessary to destroy these forces.

After these opening attacks, the commanders of the USAF forces and their Navy counterparts held a conference to determine their depth of co-oper-ation. The deal thrashed out saw the US Navy maintaining direct control of its assets when taking part in Navy-sponsored attacks, although when operating in the zone of USAF responsibility the Navy’s air assets came under Air Force control so that strikes could be better co-ordinated.

On 19 July the Valley Forge launched another strike mission, although only piston-powered machines were used. At the completion of these sorties the carrier was placed on Condition 1 alert in the face of the incoming Typhoon Bill that was due to hit the ships of the 7th Fleet later that day, although 7th Fleet Command ordered the ships to pull back to the Sea of Japan, where they remained until 21 July. On the following day the Valley Forge restarted operations, launching a combat group consisting of Douglas AD Skyraiders and Vought F4U Corsairs in support of ground forces, while the carrier’s jet aircraft were tasked to attack targets north of Seoul. Missions were launched during both the morning and afternoon while the Valley Forge cruised about a hundred miles off the Korean coast. During the period of the combat operations a standing patrol of four F4U Corsairs was maintained, while a single AEW Skyraider and a single AD attack Skyraider maintained an anti-subma-rine patrol. At the conclusion of these missions the Valley Forge withdrew for refuelling and restoring near Danjo-Gunto before the carrier and her escorts returned to Okinawa, Japan, for rearming. Unlike the previous conflict in the Pacific, the US Navy did not operate a large fleet train for carrier support.

A scene of frenzied activity aboard the USS Boxer as armourers move bombs towards the F4Us on the flight deck.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

While the Valley Forge was involved in attacking the enemy, another carrier from the Essex class, the USS Boxer, was undertaking another important task –that of aircraft transport. Arriving at Yokosuka on 21 July, the handling teams unloaded 145 P-51 Mustangs for USAF and ROK use, six L-5 liaison aircraft and nineteen naval aircraft. Also on board were over 1,000 passengers destined to join various units in theatre. During the crossing from Alameda, California, to Japan the USS Boxer set a trans-Pacific record for such a journey, of eight days and sixteen hours. After unloading her cargo, the Boxer departed Japan for the return trip to the United States, as no air group was available for operational use, although this would change at a later date.

With its wings folded, a Vought F4U Corsair aboard the USS Philippine Sea is ready for its next mission. In front of this aircraft an armourer pushes some more bombs on a cart to the aircraft behind.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

During the Korean War the port at Sasebo was a crowded place. In this view can be seen HMS Unicorn, behind which is the USS Valley Forge.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

The Valley Forge group departed Japan on 4 August, undertaking exercises with Douglas JD Invaders supplied by UTRON 7, after which the carrier and her escorts arrived off the Korean coast the following day. By this time the USS Philippine Sea, of which more later, had joined the 7th Fleet carrier force, so that two carriers were available to support the efforts of the UN-sponsored forces. The Valley Forge aircraft were deployed in support of ground forces operating in south-eastern Korea, while those from the Philippine Sea were tasked with destroying targets in the south-west. At the completion of these missions both carrier groups withdrew to the Yellow Sea to conduct attacks against targets on the west coast over the following two days. By 10 August both carrier groups had withdrawn for refuelling, returning to the Yellow Sea two days later. Over the next two days the carrier air groups conducted operations along the west coast above the 38th Parallel before withdrawing to Sasebo on 14 August for refuelling and rearming. This break was short, as both groups were back on station off the east coast in the Sea of Japan, launching air strikes against targets and troop concentrations in central Korea. Only a few of these were completed, as the 5th Air Force, USAF, put in an emergency request for naval air assistance to support the evacuation of the ROK 3rd Division from Yondok when this force was in danger of being overrun. At the completion of this mission the carrier groups moved further north to undertake strikes against targets north of the 42nd Parallel, withdrawing south on completion. A refuel took place on 18 August before the carriers moved round to the west coast to undertake attacks against targets on 20 August, these being located north of the 38th Parallel. At the conclusion of these operations the carrier groups again withdrew to Sasebo.

The break in Sasebo was slightly longer this time, the task force not departing until 25 August. As before, both carriers were deployed under the aegis of Operations Order 10-50. The following day the carriers were cruising off the east coast of Korea, where strikes were launched in support of ground forces, while other aircraft were flown against hard targets such as railways and armour in the east of the country. At the completion of these missions the carrier groups steamed northwards, where they would be in a position to launch missions on 27 August 1950 against designated targets in the Wonsan–Chongjin area. After the air groups had returned, the carriers turned south, refuelling en route before entering the Yellow Sea in the night hours of 28 August. As the North Korean forces were again pushing south, strikes were launched by both carriers against enemy forces operating near Seoul and Inchon. The following day the carriers, still cruising in the same location, dispatched aircraft to attack targets in the vicinity of Chinampo–Pongyeng. The beginning of September saw further strikes carried out against targets in the same region, although there was a rapid switch of targets at midday as emergency orders were received from Commander Navy Forces Far East (ComNavFE), to switch all missions to support the 25th Division of the 8th Army, which was under pressure from the North Korean forces. These sorties started in the early afternoon and would continue until dusk. The carrier groups remained in the area overnight, restarting support missions against specific targets and continuing throughout the day. The carriers withdrew at dusk for refuelling on 3 September, although this was curtailed in early afternoon after an emergency request from Headquarters 8th Army. The task groups were in a position to begin operations in late afternoon against targets in south-east Korea. The following day the carrier groups were off the west coast, although these were quickly curtailed after yet another request from the 8th Army, which was then annulled by ComNavFE. On 5 September the carrier group was on its way to Sasebo as the weather forecast for the next few days was not conducive to air operations.

Jockeying for position aboard the USS Philippine Sea are these Vought F4U Corsairs of VF-113. Once airborne these aircraft will provide support for UN forces.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

Six days later TF.77 with its two carrier groups departed Sasebo and headed towards the area of Inchon where the carriers’ aircraft were prepared for the Korean D-Day on 15 September. These would be the landings at Inchon and Wolmi-Do. The air support element undertook attacks against hard and soft targets. Not only were short, close-support missions flown, some of the aircraft were sent on long-range, deep-support missions. Over the next six days the carriers flew missions every day, although on refuelling days only defensive flight operations were conducted. During this period, on 18 September, the carrier force was increased by the arrival of the carrier USS Boxer with Carrier Air Group Two aboard.

The arrival of the USS Boxer would allow the Valley Forge to withdraw for a much-needed refit at Puget Sound before she returned to the fray in November 1951. She departed Sasebo on 5 November, but the transit to Korea was delayed by heavy seas and high winds, and so strikes were not launched until the following day. The designated targets were located in the Manchurian border area, where strikes, close air support and jet fighter sweeps were undertaken. Three days later the task force was joined by the USS Philippine Sea. With two carriers available, the air groups were tasked with destroying the bridges across the Yula river on the border of Korea and Manchuria. The first target was the Changtion-ho-kou road bridge, which suffered some damage that was quickly repaired. A day spent refuelling on 10 November followed before the carrier returned to action. Again her designated targets were the bridges across the Yula, during which a span of the Sinuiju bridge was downed by aircraft from the Valley Forge and the newly arrived USS Leyte. A change of targets on 13 November saw both carriers launching strikes against military installations in the Hyosonjin area. After a quick refuel on 14 November both carriers were back in action the following day, undertaking close air support missions as the strike against the Sinuiju bridge were cancelled due to limited visibility. The bridge was finally attacked again on 18 November, and this was followed by a combined strike by aircraft from the USS Leyte and the Philippine Sea, which dropped the bridges at Hyosonjin. The Valley Forge would leave the combat zone on 19 November, proceeding to Yokosuka to destore prior to returning to the United States and Puget Sound for a much-needed refit.

A typical winter scene aboard a US Navy carrier operating off Korea. It would be the weather over the land that would curtail operations, although any bad weather over the task force also had a detrimental effect.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

The Valley Forge refit was quickly completed and the carrier returned to Yokosuka with Carrier Air Group 2 aboard. The units assigned to the CAG included VF-24, VF-63 and VF-64 flying Vought F4U Corsairs, VA-65 flying Douglas AD Skyraiders, VC-35 with AD4Q Skyraiders, VC-3 flying night-fighter Corsairs, VC-11 equipped with AEW Skyraiders, VC-61 flying reconnaissance Corsairs, and HU-1 flying Sikorsky HO3S Dragonfly helicopters for planeguard duties. Also aboard the carrier were eight helicopters that were launched off Itami, in Japan, for onward transition to the USMC unit VMO-6.

By 23 December 1950 the carrier launched close air support missions against targets near Hamhung which included troops on roads and villages, as these were advancing on UN forces that were awaiting evacuation. The carrier’s aircraft were directed by US Army and USAF Forward Air Controllers (FACs). During these attacks the Vought F4U piloted by Ensign J.R. Brinkley was shot down, the pilot being lost in his blazing aircraft. Strikes were also carried out against Kolori, Tongdong, the Chosin Reservoir, Wangpung-ni, Songburi, Changhungni, Toejo and Oro-ri, during which fifty-six sorties were flown. By 28 December the Hamhung evacuation had been completed, and the carriers of TF.77 undertook close air support missions against North Korean troops while other aircraft were directed by FACs against specific targets in Kalchon, Papori, Kuun-ni, Chigyong-di, Hwachon and Songdongi, during which thirty-two sorties were flown. Further sorties for close air support were flown on 29 December, during which villages, troops and vehicles were attacked, a total of seventy-six missions being flown during this period. The following day twelve sorties were flown, with hits being made against troops, villages and a bridge, considerable damage being inflicted.

A refuel break took place on the last day of the year, with combat sorties restarting on 1 January 1951, when close air support and reconnaissance missions were undertaken. During the ensuing air strikes damage was inflicted on warehouses, buildings, trucks and bridges. Further close air support missions were undertaken over the following two days before the carriers joined up with TG.79.1 for refuelling, after which the Valley Forge resumed operations, launching attacks against targets in the Kosong area, during which heavy casualties were inflicted on the enemy. As bad weather stopped flying operations, the carrier departed from the combat zone to undertake refuelling throughout 7 January. The bad weather continued until 11 January, when close air support missions were undertaken against various ground targets at Kangnong, Suwon and Pyongyong-ni, during which various buildings and railway trucks were destroyed; this involved sixty missions in total. At the completion of this day’s flying the task group joined up with TG.79.1 for refuelling.

Between 12 and 19 January over 250 sorties were flown, during which buildings, railway vehicles and marshalling yards and small coastal vessels were attacked and destroyed, after which the carrier and her escorts returned to Sasebo for refuelling and restoring. The Valley Forge remained in harbour until the end of the month, when she departed in company with the Philippine Sea and the rest of TF.77, arriving off the east coast of Korea the following day. As before, the carriers undertook attacks against the usual range of targets, these being augmented by night heckler sorties flown by the night-fighter Corsairs. During this period over 300 sorties were flown, although not without loss, as a Corsair launching from the Valley Forge ended up in the sea, the pilot not being found. The second casualty concerned another Corsair, which was lost the same day, 7 February 1951, when landing on the carrier, although in this case the pilot was recovered by the ship’s rescue helicopter. After this period of frenetic activity, the two carrier groups departed the area on 27 February and headed for Yokosuka for refuelling and other replenishments. On 11 March the carrier groups departed from Japan, being joined en route by the battleship USS Missouri. Three days later the carriers were back off the coast of Korea. As before, the carrier groups launched missions against a full range of targets, during which locomotives, bridges, vehicles, troop concentrations and vehicles on the roads were attacked and destroyed. During this period the carriers also added the role of early-morning hecklers to their list of missions, as well as that of bombardment spotting. During this period the carrier would lose two aircraft, although fortunately both pilots were rescued. After nearly 700 sorties the carrier groups returned to Yokosuka on 26 March, a day earlier than planned, as the weather had deteriorated below operating minima. In the operating report issued by the Valley Forge command staff, one of their main comments was that trying to operate five squadrons from an Essex-class carrier was extremely difficult, even when the complement was reduced to four units, as on its last cruise there was difficulty in coping with the aircraft and crews. The report then stated that the ideal number of squadrons would be three, with the remainder being made up of specialised flights.

The Douglas AD Skyraider played a significant part in the Korean War. This example was operated by VC-5.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

The Valley Forge departed from Yokosuka and headed for Puget Sound Naval Yard, where she underwent a much-needed refit between April and November 1951. When the carrier departed San Diego she had aboard four complete squadrons and some specialist flights. The assigned flying units included VF-52 with Grumman F9F Panthers, VF-111 also with Panthers, VF-194 flying Douglas AD Skyraiders, and VF-653 with Vought F4U Corsairs. Also aboard were flights from VC-3 with night-fighter Corsairs, VC-11 with AEW Skyraiders, VC-35 with night-operations Skyraiders, VC-61 flying reconnaissance Panthers, and HU-1 operating rescue helicopters.

Having arrived at Yokosuka at the beginning of December, the carrier underwent final preparations for Korean operations. These completed, the Valley Forge left port on 7 December, and in transit the air group undertook various combat exercises, during which two VF-653 Corsair pilots were killed when their aircraft collided. On 14 December the carrier air groups started their operations against targets on the north-eastern railway network in Korea. During these missions the air group had a Corsair and Skyraider divert to the airfield at K-18. Between 14 and 24 December the carrier groups undertook their usual range of attacks against shipping, building and troop concentrations among other targets, during which more than 300 sorties were mounted.

On Christmas Day the carrier group withdrew for refuelling and to celebrate the season, resuming full operations three days later, once the weather had cleared. On 28 December eighty-four sorties were launched, the primary targets being the railway network infrastructure and any traffic thereon. Losses during this early period of operations included an F9F whose engine flamed out on approach to the carrier, the pilot being recovered successfully. On 3 January 1952 a total of sixty-seven missions were launched, during which seventy-eight tonnes of bombs were dropped. During one of these attacks the Skyraider of Ensign Riemers was hit by anti-aircraft fire that caused severe damage to the aircraft’s starboard wing. As the AD became harder to control, the pilot was left with no other option that to ditch in Songjin harbour, having flown over sixty miles to get there. After ditching, the pilot was rescued within eight minutes, suffering from shock and dampness. Inclement weather and refuelling kept the air group grounded until 6 January, when operations resumed against bridges, with over 140 missions being flown. Refuelling occupied 7 January, with operations resuming next day, and over the next three days missions were flown against numerous targets. In the eighty-one sorties flown two aircraft were lost, although one pilot was rescued.

Flight operations resumed on 12 January, having been delayed by rough weather, during which a Grumman F9F slid over the side after a severe roll. The missions launched on 12 January were in support of Operation Moonlight Sonata, during which the heckler aircraft took full advantage of the full moon to attack the railways. During this period seventy-six sorties were flown, and a number of locomotives and railway vehicles were completely destroyed. The Moonlight Sonata missions continued until 17 January before the Valley Forge returned to Japan for ten days’ rest and recuperation. At the end of January she departed Yokosuka in company with the USS Antietam and Essex and the rest of TF.77. On 2 February air operations began, during which eighty sorties were flown. However, the air group did suffer some losses when two F4U Corsairs from VF-653 were lost at sea, although both pilots were recovered safely. The following day a further eighty-three sorties were launched, during which a Skyraider of VF-194 was shot down, the pilot being rescued. Although there were a few losses, the missions were successful, with a great number of railway targets being completely destroyed. After a period refuelling, combat operations resumed on 14 January, although they were then curtailed until 17 January due to bad weather. Over the next two days attacks were undertaken against railway infrastructure and vehicles, troop concentrations and numerous buildings. These missions were conducted in concert with the USS Philippine Sea, and were deemed successful even though a Grumman F9F was lost. On 20 February the Valley Forge and the Philippine Sea were relieved by the Essex and Antietam, and headed towards Yokosuka.

Undergoing a refuel from an oiler is the USS Essex, and behind the Essex is another of the class undertaking the same operation.

(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)

The Valley Forge departed her Japanese rest stop on 3 March and headed towards the east coast of Korea in the vicinity of the 38th Parallel, where she joined up with the rest of TF.77, which already included the Essex and Antietam. The Valley Forge undertook her first air operations two days later, when two locomotives and other rolling stock were destroyed. Over the next two days similar missions were undertaken, during which much of the railway infrastructure was damaged. Overall 180 sorties were flown in these three days. On 8 March only a few sorties were flown due to bad weather, although the Valley Forge aircraft did mount thirty missions that garnered some success. A replenishment period followed, with operations resuming on 11 March. As before, the subsequent days were occupied with attacks against railways, although during these sorties some of the carrier’s aircraft were damaged by anti-aircraft fire. Again the carrier withdrew from the zone for refuelling on 14 March before resuming operations the following day. Railway infrastructure and rolling stock were the targets, although the aircrew were getting a bit annoyed about having to attack targets more than once, since the North Koreans inconveniently repaired them with commendable speed. During the next few days air operations were hampered by bad weather, but even so the railways were attacked again. Unfortunately for the Valley Forge pilots, the North Koreans were becoming aware of their interest in the railways, and so defensive anti-aircraft weapons abounded. These extra weapons caused damage to half a dozen aircraft, while two others were shot down, with one pilot being killed. By 29 March over 600 sorties had been completed, with the US Navy having the upper hand, as the railways were being hammered almost daily, with minimal damage and losses to the carriers. The final days of flying before departing for Yokosuka were undertaken on 31 March and 1 April, the Valley Forge leaving the area after flying and recovery was completed.

The carrier remained in port for nearly two weeks, departing on 14 April to rejoin TF.77, the other carriers in the force being the USS Boxer and Philippine Sea. Combat operations began on 17 April, when the Douglas Skyraider of Commander Crabill, Commander Air Group, was hit by antiaircraft fire, the pilot ditching his aircraft, although he was successfully rescued. Further operations were carried out over the next three days, during which the Skyraider of Lieutenant Workman of VF-194 was struck by defensive fire. Although the pilot managed to bale out, his parachute failed to open properly and he was killed. Between 22 April and 15 May the Valley Forge air group continued its sorties against the Korean railways, although eight aircraft were lost and two pilots were killed. After the last of these losses, the Valley Forge departed for Yokosuka on 15 May, arriving there the following day.

The Valley Forge departed from Japan on 24 May, arriving on station off the east coast of Korea. This operational period was marred on the first day when the aircraft of Ensign Sterrett was shot down, although he managed to escape his doomed aircraft. A large rescue effort was mounted, during which two pilots lost their lives when their aircraft crashed into the surrounding hills. All of this effort was in vain, as Ensign Sterrett was not recovered. Combat operations were conducted as before against the railways, this spell lasting from 31 May to 10 June 1952, before the carrier withdrew for refuelling. She undertook a single day’s operations before departing for Yokosuka on 12 June.

The Valley Forge returned to Puget Sound during June for a major refit, this being completed in December 1952. The carrier then returned to Japan, where she entered Yokosuka to prepare for further combat operations. The Valley Forge departed from Japan to join TF.77, where she joined up with the Essex, Kearsarge and Oriskany. On 2 January the Valley Forge began the operational part of her fourth Korean tour. The first attack wave was launched in late morning, with Lieutenant (jg) Kramer being the first to depart. Overall a total of seventy-two sorties were dispatched, with a range of targets being destroyed for no losses. The following day saw ninety-six missions being launched, the targets being power stations and any identified sub-stations. During this day’s flying an F4U Corsair was forced to ditch after engine failure, while an F9F of VF-51 was forced to ditch after an engine exploded, but both pilots were recovered successfully. After a replenishment period the carrier air group resumed flying on 5 January, although bad weather curtailed operations over the following two days. When the weather cleared the Valley Forge aircraft resumed their attacks, this time the targets being along the North Korean front line, where they destroyed trenches, pill boxes and ammunition dumps. The following day followed a similar pattern, although flying started earlier as hecklers were launched against the front line. No flying was undertaken between 10 and 19 January as the task force was either refuelling or was unable to fly due to bad weather. Combat flying resumed on 20 January and continued until 22 January, after which the Valley Forge returned to Yokosuka.

Departing from Yokosuka on 8 February, the Valley Forge headed towards Korea to rejoin TF.77, where she joined the Kearsarge, Philippine Sea and Oriskany. Upon her arrival, Rear Admiral Soucek relieved Rear Admiral Hickey as TF.77 commander. Once the Valley Forge had arrived, the entire force refuelled on 11 February, resuming combat operations the following day. The carrier launched eighty-four sorties, during which the air group destroyed four lorries and caused extensive damage to a range of buildings and various items of railway rolling stock. While the propeller aircraft were destroying various scheduled targets, the F9Fs of VF-51 were undertaking armed reconnaissance sorties that allowed them some freedom to roam, during which they destroyed at least seven troop shelters and cratered some roads. The following day’s operations were hampered by bad weather, although the early-morning heckler flights did manage to depart. Fortunately the weather was better on 14 February, and so the hecklers departed to cause early-morning mayhem, being followed by the propeller strike force. These two groups of aircraft struck at the usual range of road traffic, troops and buildings, while the jet flights concentrated on the railways. Over the next three weeks the Valley Forge and the other carriers of TF.77 continued their assaults on their usual range of targets before the ship departed the zone on 15 March, heading for Sasebo, although this was only a short stop, since the Valley Forge had been ordered to proceed to Hong Kong, where she arrived on 18 March for a visit. The Valley Forge was back at Yokosuka by 20 March, rejoining TF.77 two days later, where she was in company with the USS Oriskany.

Combat operations would resume on 23 March, when in the early hours of the morning the heckler flights were launched, hitting targets at Sinpo, Kowon and Tanchon, where buildings, lorries and railway stock were attacked and destroyed. The propeller strike force launched around dawn to undertake missions in support of IX and X Army Corps, some of which were within yards of the American front line. The jet fighters were tasked to hit a supply area at Pukchong, and then a truck park at Hamhung. Altogether the air wing flew 118 sorties during the day. The following day presented a similar pattern to the previous one, after which the task force withdrew for refuelling. Operations resumed the following day, most of which was in support of the two army corps. Air operations over 28 and 29 April were reduced due to bad weather, and then a refuel break followed.

The opening day of May continued in much the same vein as the previous month, although they would be hampered again by bad weather on 11 May, after which there was a refuel break. Although TF.77 had returned to active duty the following day, bad weather again hampered operations, so that only 14 May was available for attacks, these being similar to those carried out before. At the conclusion of operations the Valley Forge departed Korea for Yokosuka, arriving there on 17 May. She returned to Korea for her final dose of combat on 27 May, when she joined the USS Boxer and Philippine Sea. Combat operations resumed in the early hours of 2 June when the hecklers were launched. The following propeller and jet forces supported the I, IX and X Army Corps and the II Corps ROK. Over the following three days the air group undertook a similar range of missions. However, on 6 June it was time for the Valley Forge to return to the United States. The carrier departed Korean waters on 7 June, heading for Yokosuka, although en route medals and other commendations were presented to the ship’s personnel by Vice-Admiral Clark, Commander of the 7th Fleet. At the completion of this ceremony most of the ship’s aircraft were transferred to the USS Boxer. During the transit to Japan, Typhoon Judy was forecast to arrive across the normal transit route, and so the carrier was forced to divert to miss it. On 9 June the carrier launched the remainder of her aircraft to join those at NAS Atsugi, and she reached port later that day. After destoring, the USS Valley Forge headed for America, where she would later be converted for the anti-submarine role.

The USS Ticonderoga was assigned to ASW duties when photographed, here Grumman S-2 Trackers from the carrier provide a flypast.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

CVA-62 USS Independence was assigned to the Atlantic fleet when photographed, note the forward section of the landing deck lowered to act as a hangar side lift.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

The pilot of an MDD F-4S Phantom II of VF-161 kicks in the afterburners as it launches from the waist catapult of the USS Midway.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

Grumman provided the carrier onboard delivery aircraft to the US Navy for many years. The original type was the C-1 Trader although this was replaced by the far more capable C-2 Greyhound as seen here.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

The USS Nimitz was the first of the current class of nuclear powered aircraft carriers. When photographed the air wing was using the F/A-18 Hornet as its attack and fighter aircraft as the remaining Grumman F-14 Tomcats had finally been withdrawn.

With the retirements of the Crusader and Vigilante the navy was reliant of RF-4B Phantoms of the USMC for reconnaissance purposes. Here an RF-4B of VMFP-3 prepares to launch from the USS Midway.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

With its bomb racks clean the A-6E prepares to depart from the USS Nimitz. The centreline pylon carries a refuelling pod to supplement the air wings KA-6D Intruder tankers.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

Seen tied up its home base of Maryport, Florida, is the USS Saratoga complete with F-14 Tomcats, A-7 Corsairs, A-6 Intruders, S-3 Vikings, SH-3 Seakings, E-2 Hawkeyes and a solitary EKA-3B Skywarrior.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

The crew of the USS America celebrate the 75th year of US Naval aviation in a graphic manner.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

A Crumman F-14D Tomcat of VF-213 Black Lions turns towards its home carrier, the nuclear powered USS Theodore Roosevelt. After a period of austerity the aircraft of the US Navy began to sport some colour as shown here.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

Currently awaiting its fate is the USS John F Kennedy, CVA-67, that was decommissioned in 2007. Seen in happier days the JFK has a full range of modern aircraft aboard as it cruises in the Atlantic.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

An LTV A-7E Corsair of VA-56 aboard the USS Midway taxies towards the catapult, in the background are a range of F-4 Phantoms sporting air defence weapons fits.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

Electronic support is a vital part of naval tactical warfare as it can be used to jam enemy radars. Originally the EA-3B Skyraider was utilised in this role being replaced later by the EA-6A converted from standard Intruders. This is an EA-6B Prowler operating from the USS Enterprise, this model has now been replaced by specially configured Boeing Hornets.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

Pictured while en route to the Arabian Gulf is the USS Dwight D Eisenhower with its air wing on deck. Waiting to launch are an EA-6B Prowler and an E-2C Hawkeye on the bow catapults while the waist catapult has an F/A-18 Hornet waiting to go while others form a queue.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

With its flight deck quiet the USS Carl Vinson heads towards its station in the Indian Ocean prior to launching combat sorties against Taliban forces fighting in Afghanistan.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

In 1992 the USS Ranger hosted a pair of B-25 Mitchell’s that were launched to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the Doolittle Raid

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

CVN-71 USS Theodore Roosevelt is seen here cruising in the Arabian Gulf as part of Southern Watch and Enduring Freedom. This carrier had also taken part in Operation Desert Storm in 1991.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

The USS Abraham Lincoln would take part in Operation Iraqi Freedom, the toppling of Saddam Hussein. After taking part in Enduring Freedom the carrier entered Puget Sound for maintenance which was completed in 2010.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

The current general fleet fighter is the F/A-18 Hornet. This aircraft is assigned to VFA-32 and is configured as a tanker as it sports a centreline refuelling pod plus fuel tanks on all four underwing pylons.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

This F-14D of VF-213 is seen here operating in Bombcat mode complete with bombs on the under fuselage mounts plus the LANTIRN guidance pod under the right hand glove pylon. At the time the aircraft was operating from the USS Theodore Roosevelt.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

The Lockheed S-3 Viking undertook numerous role aboard the carriers of the US Navy. Originally delivered for the ASW role the aircraft later undertook electronic warfare duties and as tankers as shown here.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

This overhead view is of Task Force 155 underway to the Arabian Gulf to take part in Operation Desert Storm.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

The nuclear powered aircraft carrier USS George Washingto is currently home ported in Japan, the only one of its class to be based outside of the United States.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

A sight to cheer up any commander and to dismay any enemy, three nuclear carriers with the USS Ronald Reagan closest to the camera head towards their next tour of duty.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

CVN-74 USS John C Stennis was named after the Senator and strong supporter of the US Navy. The Stennis was commissioned December 1995.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

Named after President Harry S Truman CVN-75 that was commissioned in July 1998. Note the Seahawk anti submarine helicopter on approach.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

This rear end shot of the USS Ronald Reagan reveals the enormous size of the latest US Navy aircraft carriers, something that dry dimensions cannot portray.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins

The find member of the Nimitz class of aircraft carrier is the CVN-77 USS George HW Bush seen here undertaking its sea trials.

US Navy/NARA via Dennis R Jenkins