CHAPTER NINE
When the Korean conflict ended on 27 July 1953, the American Administration was fairly sure that it would not be involved in another conflict for a few years. But by 24 April 1954, this situation had changed completely, as it was asked to help out the French forces embattled at Dien Bien Phu, a position that they had been in since 13 March. The proposed intervention was codenamed Operation Vatour. This saw the heavy bombers of Strategic Air Command being escorted by fighters launched from carriers of the 7th Fleet cruising in the Gulf of Tonkin. To add spice to the plan, the Joint Chiefs of Staff had proposed the use of three tactical nuclear weapons to emphasise their seriousness to the North Vietnamese. But the plan was not implemented, as the French capitulated by 3 May. The surrender was followed by the signing of the Geneva Accords that divided the country at the 17th Parallel.
The 7th Fleet was called into action again on 4 September after a Chinese bombardment of the Quemoy Islands near Formosa. The 7th Fleet dispatched three carriers from Manila to defend the Nationalist Chinese stronghold. This move confirmed the pledge made by President Truman, later affirmed by President Eisenhower, that the United States would use its forces to defend Formosa. By 16 October the number of carriers in the Formosa Strait had been increased to four, at which time Secretary of State Dulles warned China that American forces in the Pacific would be used if needed. The Chinese response was to send a force of a hundred aircraft to attack the Nationalist-held Tachen Islands north of Taiwan on 10 January 1955. The Americans responded to this attack by transferring the USS Midway to the Pacific, where she joined up with Task Force 77. Already on station were the carriers Yorktown, Kearsarge and Princeton, and all four provided air cover for the evacuation of the islands, which involved the removal of 18,000 civilians and 20,000 military personnel. The China–Taiwan crisis flared up again on 23 August 1958 when Communist forces started to bombard the islands of Matsu and Quemoy. The President authorised the 7th Fleet to provide support for the garrison at Quemoy, and so six carriers were placed on station and remained there until the crisis cooled again in December.
The USS Midway was assigned to Yankee Station in the Tonkin Gulf on numerous occasions, and took part in various operations, including Iron Hand missions against SAM sites.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
The US Navy found itself involved in the Middle East in July 1958 when President Camille Chamoun of the Lebanon requested help from the Americans. The help that was forthcoming were the carriers of the 6th Fleet, the Essex, Saratoga and Wasp, while land support was supplied by the US Marine Corps. This show of strength allowed the American negotiators to bring the civil war to an end and allow an election to be held. At the same time that the Americans landed in the Lebanon they were reinforced by British troops who were flown into Jordan, as that country was also under the threat of civil war.
It was South-East Asia that would become the biggest thorn in the side of the Americans. In September 1951 President Truman authorised the setting up of the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Vietnam to supervise the use of the $10 million of US military aid that had been supplied to the French forces engaged in fighting the Vietnamese Communists. However, the French commanders were more concerned in re-establishing themselves as a colonial power. But as events proved, the French approach could not contain the Communist forces, and their decision to fully accept American help was too late.
After the division of Vietnam and the withdrawal of the French there was a conference in Washington DC on 5 December 1955 that decided that all future American aid would be directly supplied to the forces of South Vietnam. The first commander of the MAAG was Lieutenant-General O’Daniel, whose command consisted of a few personnel. However, this had grown to 740 troops by June 1956, as the Americans had to fill the void left by the departure of the remaining French forces, who departed under the Geneva Accords. Over the next few years South Vietnam was stressed by internal political fighting. This, coupled with President Diem’s reluctance to allow the MAAG to work with Vietnamese Army units in case they gained influence and control, resulted in a weakened ARVN. This state of affairs saw the North Vietnamese mounting strong incursions below the 17th Parallel from 1961. When John F. Kennedy was elected President in 1961 he promised to increase American assistance to Vietnam in exchange for better co-oper-ation by the Vietnamese President. During the period 1961–4 the number of MAAG advisors in Vietnam increased from 746 to 3,400, at which point the organisation was renamed Military Assistance Command–Vietnam (MACV). The first commander of this unit was Lieutenant-General Harkins.
The flight deck of the USS Saratoga has a standard air wing aboard for the 1960s, consisting of F3H Demons, F-8 Crusaders, A-3 Skywarriors, E-1 Tracer and the HUP-1 Retriever for rescue purposes.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
To provide further support for MACV and the South Vietnamese Army, ARVN, President Kennedy authorised the US Navy to deploy aircraft carriers and escorts to the Gulf of Tonkin. By this time the carriers of the US Navy were the most modern in the world, and the American force was the largest at sea, numbering over twenty-five vessels. Some of these were purely antisubmarine vessels, although the majority were classified as attack carriers, including the first nuclear-powered vessel, the USS Enterprise. The first carrier to deploy was the USS Bon Homme Richard, which joined the resurrected Task Force 77 in February 1964 with CVW-19 aboard. Within the air wing were VF-191 and VF-194 flying models of the Vought F-8 Crusader, VA-192 and VA-195 with Douglas A-4s, and VA-196 flying Douglas Skyraiders, while flights were supplied by VAH-4, Douglas A-3 Skywarriors, VFP-63, Vought RF-8s, VAW-11, E-1B, and HU-1, Kaman Seasprites. During this deployment, which lasted until November, the carrier lost only one aircraft, a Vought F-8, due an accident. It was during this period that the Gulf of Tonkin incident occurred on 2 August. The vessel involved was the destroyer USS Maddox, engaged in Operation DeSoto, an intelligence-gathering exercise, that was patrolling in international waters in the Gulf of Tonkin. Also known as Operation Plan 34A, this had begun in February 1964 and was intended to deter North Vietnamese waterborne incursions into the south. Three North Vietnamese gun boats attacked the Maddox at high speed, although no damage was caused to the American ship.
In response, the USS Ticonderoga, which had arrived on Yankee Station on 11 May 1964, launched four F-8s of VF-51 to intercept the attack boats, one of which was sunk. Once the fighters had returned to the carrier, the Maddox resumed its patrol, although by now it had been reinforced by the USS Turner Joy. Over the night 4/5 August both destroyers reported that they were scanning an incoming attack on radar. In support of the destroyers the Ticonderoga launched a further fighter patrol, although the pilots reported that the seas near the destroyers were clear. Although the detected attack failed to materialise, this further provocation allowed President Johnson to authorise Operation Pierce Arrow, a limited strike on military facilities in North Vietnam. Pierce Arrow involved a force of sixty-four aircraft drawn from the carriers Ticonderoga and Constellation, the latter having arrived on Yankee Station on 11 June 1964. The air strike force hit the torpedo boat bases at Hon Gai, Loc Chao, Quang Khe and Ben Thuy and the oil storage facility at Vinh. Only two aircraft were lost, both from the Constellation. The first was a Douglas A-1H Skyraider, part of a group of ten aircraft, that was hit during a dive-bomb attack and was seen to hit the ground without a parachute being oberved. The second concerned the pilot of a Douglas A-4 that was hit by antiaircraft fire, although in this case the pilot managed to escape, becoming a prisoner of war–an experience he managed to survive. Altogether the Constellation launched ten Skyraiders, eight A-4s and two F-4 Phantoms in one wave, while the second wave consisted of five Skyhawks, four A-1s and three F-4s. The Ticonderoga launched a total of thirty-four aircraft, of which eight were F-8 Crusaders. As a result of the Maddox attacks the US Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on 10 August, which handed over much of the control of the forthcoming conflict to the President. This allowed the Joint Chiefs of Staff to increase the number of carriers available on Yankee Station. Therefore by August the carriers on station included the Bon Homme Richard, Ticonderoga, Constellation and Kearsarge, which arrived on 11 August, and the USS Ranger, which arrived on 17 August. Throughout the remainder of 1964 the US Navy carriers undertook routine patrols, and so none of their aircraft were lost to enemy action, although fourteen were lost due to accidents. By the close of the year the Bon Homme Richard had sailed for Japan for rest and recuperation, and she was soon followed by the Ticonderoga and Kearsarge. Remaining on station were the Constellation, Ranger and Hancock, which had joined TF.77 in mid-November.
Airborne early warning became the province of the Grumman E-1 Tracer that replaced the Douglas Skyraiders previously used in the role.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
The USS Ticonderoga was used in both the ASW and attack roles during the Vietnam War. Here flights from the ASW units, Grumman S-2 Trackers, fly past their nautical home base.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
It was 7 February 1965 before the US Navy was back in action again. The original plan had been to involve the carriers from 2 December 1964 in accordance with the intentions previously expressed by President Johnson. However, an attack by the Viet Cong on US facilities in Saigon on 24 December was followed by assaults on Pleiku and Camp Holloway. Both of these attacks saw President Johnson authorise Operation Flaming Dart 1, an attack on targets within North Vietnam. The carriers involved were the Coral Sea, which came on station on 23 January, and the Hancock and Ranger. The targets allocated to the carriers were Dong Hoi and Vit Thu Li. The air strike was led by Commander Sells, Commander Air Group 21 from the Hancock. However, his force was depleted from the outset when the thirty-four aircraft dispatched from the Ranger had to abort due to incoming monsoon weather. The twenty-nine aircraft from the Hancock and the twenty Coral Sea aircraft did get airborne, and concentrated their efforts on attacking the barracks and port facilities at Dong Hoi. Due to cloud cover the attack was conducted below 700 feet in rain and poor visibility. Given these poor conditions it is lucky that only one aircraft was lost, the pilot being killed. Lieutenant Dickson of VA-155 had been a section leader and his aircraft had been hit by antiaircraft fire en route to the target. Even though there were some problems with the Skyhawk’s handling, the pilot continued his run in to the target even though his aircraft was seen to be burning. Dickson successfully dropped his Snakeye bombs on target. With the weapons cleared, the pilot ejected from his blazing aircraft, but unfortunately his parachute failed to open and he was killed.
The Flaming Dart attack on North Vietnam on 7 February failed to have the desired effect, as Viet Cong forces attacked the American base at Qui Nhon on 10 February, causing serious casualties. The following day President Johnson authorised Flaming Dart II. Three carriers were involved, these being the Coral Sea, Hancock and Ranger, which between them launched ninety-nine aircraft against the NVA barracks at Chanh Hoa, close to Dong Hoi. As before, the weather was poor, rain being coupled with low visibility, during which the Coral Sea force lost two aircraft, with one pilot being captured. The first aircraft lost was the Vought F-8D from VF-154 piloted by Lieutenant-Commander Shumaker. It was suspected that his aircraft had been hit by debris from the rockets fired against an anti-aircraft position, and these had struck the rear of the fighter, causing the afterburner to explode and resulted in serious damage to the hydraulic system. With the aircraft becoming uncontrollable, the pilot ejected at low level, the aircraft crashed into the sea, and Shumaker, having ejected at low level, suffered serious back injuries. After eight years in various prison camps, Shumaker would resume his flying career after release. The other aircraft was a Douglas A-4C of VA-153 piloted by Lieutenant Majors. The pilot had dropped his CBU-24 bombs onto his designated target and had climbed his aircraft to height and headed towards the sea. However, during the flight the engine suffered a catastrophic failure that left the pilot with no option but to eject. Majors was quickly recovered from the sea by a USAF rescue helicopter that arrived within minutes. Post-strike assessment of the attack on Chanh Hoa revealed that twenty-three of the seventy-six buildings within the camp boundaries had been damaged or destroyed, although the losses incurred were seen as rather high for this kind of raid.
Although Flaming Dart II had been more successful than the previous effort, the NVA failed to take any notice of the attacks. In response to the continued Viet Cong attacks, President Johnson authorised the USAF and the US Navy to undertake a programme of graduated attacks against North Vietnam, This was named Operation Rolling Thunder, which started on 2 March 1965 and continued until October 1968. The carriers involved in the opening rounds of this campaign were the Coral Sea, Hancock and Ranger, these being replaced during 1965 by the Yorktown, Midway, Oriskany, Bon Homme Richard, Independence and Bennington. While the USAF undertook the initial strikes, the US Navy launched its first assault on 15 March. The Navy had been allocated targets to the east of Hanoi and close to the coast. The first target was the ammunition dump near Phu Qui, with no aircraft being destroyed during the attack, although an A-1H Skyraider of VA-95 from the USS Ranger was lost when it flew into the sea, killing the pilot.
The second carrier Rolling Thunder mission was launched on 26 March, utilising seventy aircraft, of which three were lost. The chosen targets were radar installations that were suspected of warning the North Vietnamese air defence system of incoming raids. The chosen sites were located at Bach Long Vi, Cap Mui Ron, Ha Tinh and Vinh Son. The first-named site was on a small island that was strategically located in the Gulf of Tonkin, seventy miles south of Haiphong, being located between the Red River mouth and the Chinese island of Hainan. On this raid three aircraft were lost. Two were from the USS Hancock, one being an A-1H Skyraider of VA-215, and the other an A-4E Skyhawk from VA-212. Both pilots survived the experience of ejecting and were successfully rescued. The final loss was of an F-8D from VA-154 on the USS Coral Sea, and the pilot of this aircraft was also rescued successfully. Three days later the carriers of TF.77 launched another attack against Bach Long Vi. The planning for this attack had been undertaken in Washington and was one of the worst features of the early Rolling Thunder campaign, as the planners insisted on attacking targets until they were destroyed or losses were too high. In response, the NVA commanders soon recognised this repetitive behaviour, and quickly reinforced the anti-aircraft weaponry at these targets. The result of this third attack was another three lost aircraft, two of which were squadron commanders from the USS Coral Sea. Seventy aircraft were launched for this attack, including six Douglas A-3B Skywarrior bombers of VAH-2. The first aircraft lost was that of Commander Harris, commanding officer of VA-155 from the Coral Sea, although he was quickly picked up from the sea after ejecting from his ailing Skyhawk. The second squadron commander from the Coral Sea to be shot down was Commander Donnelly of VF-154, whose Crusader was damaged during his first attack run, and again the pilot managed to escape, being rescued soon afterwards. The third loss was that of Lieutenant-Commander Hume of VA-154, whose Crusader was damaged during an attack run. The pilot headed his damaged fighter towards Da Nang, although it was seen to dive towards the sea. The canopy was seen to clear the airframe, but no further escape action was undertaken, and so the pilot was recorded as killed in action.
On 31 March the Coral Sea and the Hancock continued their war against the NVA radar system, and this time it was the sites at Vinh Son and Cap Mui Ron that gained the attentions of the ninety navy aircraft. During this attack the Coral Sea lost an A-1H Skyraider of VA-215, the pilot being killed. The Coral Sea lost another Skyraider from VA-215 the following day, although this time the target was the Triple A sites along the Ho Chi Minh trail, this being the main arms conduit between North and South Vietnam via Laos.
When not engaged in specific missions the carriers launched armed reconnaissance sorties on a seek-and-destroy basis. One such mission was dispatched from the Coral Sea on 7 April consisting of a flight of A-4C Skyhawks from VA-153. During this patrol one of the Skyhawks was shot down while attacking a Triple A site near Dong Cao. It was the Ranger that suffered the next loss, on 9 April, when a flight of F-4 Phantoms was launched to relieve a similar patrol flying in the northern sector of the Gulf of Tonkin. En route the two replacement Phantoms were intercepted by a flight of four MiG 17s wearing the markings of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army. While preparing to deal with the incoming fighters, the F-4 crews broadcast their predicament. The actual combat took place at altitude near the island of Hainan. During the entanglement one of the Phantoms was shot down, although the crew managed to down one of the MiG 17s before crashing.
During the remainder of April the carriers continued to launch armed reconnaissance missions. However, on 8 May TF.77 was briefed to attack the VNAF airfield at Vinh. The carrier Midway launched this attack, during which the strike force lost an F-8 Crusader to ground fire–a problem that was increasing on a weekly basis. The Midway launched another strike package against the airfield and city of Vinh on 27 May, and yet again the defending ground fire took its toll when the commanding officer of VF-111 was shot down attacking a Triple A site. Vinh continued to be the Midway’s bugbear, as the carrier lost an RF-8 Crusader on 1 June while undertaking a reconnaissance mission on 1 June.
With its wing pylons hung with bombs, a Grumman A-6 Intruder from the USS Enterprise heads towards a target in Vietnam. The start of the Intruder’s service in Vietnam was marred by problems with the navigation systems, and premature bomb explosions that damaged the airframe.
. (US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
Also on 1 June, the USS Independence arrived in the South China Sea to join TF.77, bringing with her a new aircraft to the conflict, the Grumman A-6A Intruder. A two-seat attack aircraft, the Intruder was capable of toting a heavy bomb load and delivering it accurately when the Digital Integrated Attack and Navigation Equipment (DIANE) was working correctly. The Independence, normally allocated to the Atlantic Fleet, finally joined TF.77 on 27 June, beginning operations soon afterwards. The first A-6 was lost on 14 July when a bomb failed to clear its ejector and exploded on the pylon, badly damaging the starboard engine and causing disruption to the hydraulics, and eventual failure of the port engine, leaving the crew with no option but to eject. On 18 July the Independence A-6 Intruders mounted an attack on Ham Rong harbour near the Dragons Jaw bridge at Thanh Hoa. During an attack run one of the Intruders was hit by Triple A, leaving the crew with no option but to eject, and they became prisoners for the next eight years. The Independence suffered a third Intruder loss on 24 July when another VA-75 aircraft suffered a premature bomb explosion, although in this case the crew survived their ejections and were rescued later. The Intruder was also garnering a reputation as a bit of a lemon due to the unreliability of the attack avionics, whose reliability was rated at thirty-five per cent. Fortunately the A-6 would eventually have all its problems solved and would have a proud career with the Navy.
In August the US Navy aircraft encountered SA-2 surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), when an A-4 Skyhawk was shot down near Thanh Hoa. The following day the US Navy began its own SAM suppression campaign, aimed at destroying the sites before they were completed. In support of this policy the first Iron Hand mission was launched from the Coral Sea on 12 August. At this time none of the US forces had the means to detect and destroy SAM sites, and so each one had to be detected using low-level armed reconnaissance, a very risky business. This was illustrated when an A-4E of VA-155 was shot down by Triple A while searching unsuccessfully for the star-shaped sites. Fortunately the remaining seventy-five aircraft from the Midway and Coral Sea returned home safely. The following day, on what became known as ‘Black Friday’, the Coral Sea and Midway launched further strikes. During these attacks two Skyhawks and an RF-8 Crusader were shot down, but fortunately two of the pilots survived.
The Independence mounted another major strike on 20 September on the bridge at Dao Nung that carried the railway from Hanoi into China, which was a vital link for the NVA war effort, as supplies for North Vietnam arrived by this route. This target was also the deepest penetration raid in North Vietnam to date by the Navy. Fortunately only one aircraft was lost on this mission, this being an A-4E of VA-72, and the pilot survived the experience to fly again. It was the turn of the Coral Sea to lose an aircraft while undertaking an Iron Hand mission in support of an attack mission on the Lien Qui barracks. The SAM suppression mission was undertaken by a flight of A-4 Skyhawks from VA-155. During an attack on one of these sites the aircraft of Lieutenant-Commander Moore was hit in the engine. Although the A-4 managed to keep going, it was obvious that the failing engine and associated fuel leaks would soon see it downed. Fortunately an KA-3B tanker was in the area and refuelled the Skyhawk, which got the pilot close to an SAR destroyer, and after ejection the pilot was quickly recovered, while the bantam bomber crashed into the sea. The Independence suffered another run of casualties on 17 October when three Phantoms were lost. The carrier launched an Alpha Strike against the Thai Nguyen road bridge due north of Hanoi. Altogether fifteen aircraft were launched to strike the target, and the losses occurred to and from the bridge, two coming from VF-84 and the other from VF-41. The run of bad luck that had dogged the Independence continued when another Phantom from VF-84 was lost on 26 October while attacking the radar site at Bach Long Vi, which was replaced every time the Navy knocked it out.
The threat of SAMs was becoming such a worry to all of the air forces that the USAF and the Navy decided to co-operate on missions to destroy the sites. On the last day of October a detachment of A-4E Skyhawks from VA-164 was deployed to the USAF base at Korat, Thailand, to act as pathfinders for the based F-105 Thunderchiefs which were briefed to destroy the targets when found. The A-4 and the Thunderchiefs were launched to suppress these sites as a large force of USAF and USN aircraft attacked the bridge at Kep. Unfortunately for the A-4 pilot, he was shot down while dropping his marker bombs. A further attack on SAM sites was made on 7 November by aircraft of VA-163 from the Oriskany. The target was a new base at Nam Dinh, against which the carrier launched its Skyhawks. During the raid one of the attacking aircraft was damaged, but fortunately the limping A-4 managed to get its pilot over the sea, where he ejected, being rescued soon after.
The Oriskany and the Bon Homme Richard launched a strike against the Hai Duong bridge on 17 November. As this bridge had been attacked before, the NVA had increased the Triple A around the target, this increase having its benefits when four aircraft were shot down in the space of thirty minutes, three from the Oriskany and one from the Bon Homme Richard. Of the pilots, two were killed, while the others managed to survive, being rescued later. The Bon Homme Richard attacked another bridge on 18 November, the target being the Phong Bai bridge north of Vinh. This saw only one aircraft being lost, despite heavy defensive fire. After Phong Bai, the Oriskany air wing turned its attention to the Phuong Dinh bridge close to Thanh Hoa on 28 November when two F-8 Crusaders were lost; one pilot was rescued while the other became a prisoner.
The first day of December saw the air wing of the USS Ticonderoga lose its first aircraft in combat. This was a remarkable record, as the carrier had undertaken two tours on Yankee Station totalling eighty-six days. The target for the carrier’s air wing was the bridge at Hai Duong, which had been attacked previously and had since been reinforced by the NVA. Therefore, as the strike wing attacked, the Triple A opened up with a vengeance that resulted in the loss of an A-4 and pilot from VA-144. December saw the combat debut of the nuclear-powered carrier USS Enterprise, which had arrived in the South China Sea in late November. The carrier had arrived at her combat location, Dixie Station, on 2 December, starting her missions soon afterwards. One of the first sorties was undertaken by VF-92, a pair of whose Phantoms were dispatched to support troops in action near An Loc, not far from the Cambodian border. During a bombing run one of the Mk 82 bombs dropped from one of the F-4s exploded upon release, causing extensive damage that caused the crew to eject, but fortunately both survived and were rescued soon afterwards. The Enterprise lost a further pair of aircraft on 22 December during an attack on the Uong Bi power station. Over a hundred aircraft had been launched by the ‘Big E’, Kitty Hawk and Ticonderoga, and the attack was successful as the power station was extensively damaged, taking some time to repair, even though two A-4s from VA-36 and VA-76 were shot down.
Two days later on Christmas Eve President Johnson announced a halt to the bombing of North Vietnam under the impression that it was having a significant effect upon the North Vietnamese and would force Ho Chi Minh to negotiate a peace settlement. The carriers Oriskany (27 April to 6 December 1965), Bon Homme Richard (12 May 1965 to 4 Jan 1966), Independence (5 June to 21 November 1965), Bennington (29 July to 9 September 1965), Hornet (11 October 1965 to 8 February 1966), Ticonderoga (25 October 1965 to 7 May 1966), Kitty Hawk (15 November 1965 to 6 June 1966), Enterprise (21 November 1965 to 14 June 1966) and Hancock (6 December 1965 to 21 July 1966) had all served on Dixie and Yankee stations.
Although there was a bombing halt to operations over North Vietnam, the same did not apply to the south of the country, and so the Navy carrier air wings concentrated their efforts there. The two carriers involved were the Enterprise and the Ticonderoga, both operating in the Steel Tiger area of Laos. These attacks continued until the end of January, when the bombing ban over the north was lifted. Reconnaissance efforts were stepped up from the beginning of February to observe any changes in the Navy target areas. This was not without cost, as on 3 February an RA-5C Vigilante assigned to RVAH-13 from the Kitty Hawk was hit by Triple A as it crossed the coast near the island of Hon Me. As the Vigilante reached the coast the aircraft started to malfunction, the hydraulics failing completely and leaving the crew with no other option but to eject. As they departed their stricken machine it exploded, and unfortunately only one of the crew survived to become a prisoner for the remainder of the war. Following on from the reconnaissance missions, the Ticonderoga began launching air strikes against targets in the Vinh–Thanh Hoa area. As before, the NVA had reinforced its Triple A in the area, and so these missions resulted in losses for VA-56 and VA-144. By 18 February Washington had decided to extend the bombing range for the carriers further up the country. It was the USS Enterprise and the Kitty Hawk that undertook the first missions to targets seventy miles north of Hanoi. Some of the Enterprise aircraft, F-4s from VF-92, were allocated as escorts to a Lockheed EC-121 Big Look aircraft that was being used to monitor SA-2 SAM launches. Somewhere along the line the system possibly failed, as one of the escorting Phantoms was hit by one such missile, which destroyed the aircraft, although one of the crew survived.
An F-4 Phantom of VF-96 aboard the USS Independence lets loose a salvo of Zuni rockets against a target in North Vietnam.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
For a short period the US Navy tried various camouflage schemes on its aircraft. Here a Douglas Skyraider of VA-115 in a tatty coat of green paint taxies down the flight deck with a load of bombs under the wings.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
With its forward lift in the down position, waiting to receive aircraft from the hangar of the USS Constellation. Soon the flight deck will be full of armed aircraft waiting to head towards Vietnam.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
Rolling Thunder missions occupied the latter part of March, with targets being located in the Vinh area. Missions were launched from the Enterprise from 17 March onwards, although not without losses, as the SA-2 SAMs began to make their presence strongly felt when VA-36, VA-94 and VA-144 all lost aircraft to the missile menace. April 1966 continued in the same vein, although it was the Hancock and Ticonderoga that were operating on Yankee Station, attacking targets in the Thanh Hoa area. Again strong defences and SAMs took their toll, the exception being a KA-3B that was shot down by Chinese MiG 21s while passing the Luichow Peninsula while en route to the Kitty Hawk. The Kitty Hawk had another bad day on 17 April when it lost an A-6A of VA-85, an A-1H of VA-115 and a VA-113 Skyhawk. Over the next few days both the Kitty Hawk and the Ticonderoga lost aircraft in the Vinh area as the Triple A and SAM defences were further increased. During one of these missions on 27 April an A-6A of VA-85 from the Kitty Hawk was hit by a single rifle round that struck the pilot, Lieutenant Westerman. As the pilot was slipping in and out of consciousness the navigator managed to fly the aircraft to reach the sea, where the pilot was ejected. The navigator, Lieutenant (jg) Westin, flew the aircraft for a few more miles before he too ejected. Recovered quickly by the rescue services, he directed the helicopter to his pilot’s position. Going down on the hoist, Westin stayed with his pilot in the shark-infested sea while another rescue helicopter was called. Both aircrew were then picked up, and Westin was awarded the Navy Cross for bravery.
Vinh was again the target area for the Navy carriers when the Hancock and Ranger undertook these missions in the first week of May. The Hancock air wing had a really bad time during this month, as it lost six aircraft during strike missions. Not every mission saw aircraft shot down, however, and on 12 June the US Navy scored its first aerial victory when Commander Marr of VF-111, flying from the USS Hancock, shot down a MiG 19 over North Vietnam using a Sidewinder missile. During June both the Hancock and the Ticonderoga continued to fly missions against targets in North Vietnam. However, the spread of SAM sites across the country increased the chances of aircraft being lost, a situation that was causing dismay to both the USAF and the US Navy, which were desperately trying to develop systems to counter this threat.
When the Enterprise came off the line it was replaced by the USS Constellation, which had arrived in the South China Sea on 29 May, moving to Yankee Station on 14 June. The ‘Connie’ began combat missions almost immediately, with losses to gunfire and missiles starting on Day One. Petrol, oil and lubricant (POL) sites continued to be a favourite for the carrier air wings, with the Constellation picking up the first missions while the Hancock concentrated upon bridges. July 1966 also saw the deployment of the first dedicated Wild Weasel anti-SAM aircraft. The first effort was based on the two-seat F-100 Super Sabre, although it was decided that the two-seat Thunderchief would make a better platform, and so the F-105G became the main missile-site killer for the remainder of the conflict.
Yankee Station saw the arrival of the USS Oriskany on 12 July, this being the carrier’s second tour of duty. During this period the carrier stayed on active duty for eighty-seven days, during which it lost sixteen aircraft in action. Also on the line was the USS Ranger, which was tasked with undertaking anti-SAM attacks against sites near the Red River, although the first such mission on 15 July saw at least one of the attacking A-4Es shot down by the very missiles they were sent to attack. The Oriskany launched her first major strike of the tour on 23 July against a primary POL dump near Vinh, which was effective, although one aircraft from VA-163 was hit by ground fire. This was Commander Foster, the commanding officer of VA-163, who managed to reach the rescue area before ejecting. Although the commander lost part of his right arm, it was replaced by a prosthetic one that allowed him to return to duty. Iron Hand was the focus of the Oriskany during the latter part of July, although this time the A-4s were carrying a mix of bombs and Shrike antiradar missiles. Although they had some success, the air wing still lost aircraft to SAMs. On the last day of the month the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt, another carrier normally assigned to the Atlantic Fleet, joined TF.77, where it replaced the USS Ranger.
To help ease the burden on the Pacific Fleet strike carriers, the Essex-class carrier USS Intrepid entered the war at the beginning of August. Having served for a few years as an anti-submarine carrier, she replaced her ASW wing with CVW-10, which was purely an attack wing, consisting of two squadrons of A-4 Skyhawks and a similar number of A-1 Skyraider units. The Intrepid lost her first aircraft on 7 August soon after arrival. Over the next few days the carriers on station, the Constellation, Oriskany and Franklin D. Roosevelt, mounted strikes against sampans near Haiphong, attacks on Vinh and targets in the Thanh Hoa, continuing these until the end of the month. It was the Oriskany that started off the month badly when a flight of F-8E Crusaders from VF-111 were bounced by MiG 17s near Ninh Bin on 5 September. In the ensuing dogfight a Crusader piloted by a USAF exchange officer was shot down, the pilot being captured. On 12 September the USS Coral Sea returned to Yankee Station for her second tour of duty, and lost her first aircraft two days later due to a SAM hit that blew the aircraft to pieces, killing the pilot. The Coral Sea had a run of bad luck over the next few days, when the air wing lost four Phantoms, some of these courtesy of SA-2 missiles.
The Grumman Tracker was used for a variety of tasks, including delivering items to aircraft carriers, although this task was normally carried out by another Tracker derivative, the C-1A Trader.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
The Coral Sea came off station at the beginning of October for a few days’ rest and recuperation at Subic Bay in the Philippines before returning to the fray a few days later. The run of bad luck that had dogged the Coral Sea during September continued during October. Within the first ten days of the month the air wing lost four aircraft, one of which was an F-4B Phantom of VF-154 that had been assigned to anti-aircraft suppression duties while aircraft from all of the carriers undertook a major strike against the railway bridge at Phu Ly, thirty miles south of Hanoi. Over the next two weeks both the Constellation and the Franklin D. Roosevelt continued their attacks on various targets in North Vietnam, with railway bridges being a favourite, even though they were heavily defended and caused losses to the air wings of both carriers. During two of these strikes the Constellation lost three aircraft and four aircrew, a heavy price to pay.
November saw the carriers on Yankee Station launching aircraft on SAM site strikes and armed reconnaissance missions. Skyhawks were preferred for the former while Phantoms undertook the latter. By the middle of the month the monsoon rains had arrived at full strength, and so many missions were scrubbed, while some were aborted en route. As the landing of aircraft with live bombs onto carriers was not allowed, the normal practice was to either jettison the load in level flight or to practise a loft manoeuvre. Some missions did go ahead, however, one being an Iron Hand launched from the Ticonderoga on 23 November, the carrier having returned to Yankee Station ten days earlier to undertake its third tour of duty. During this mission the commanding officer of VA-192 had his A-4E shot down, but the pilot survived, being rescued soon afterwards. December saw further SAM hits on naval aircraft, the first two being a pair of A-4 Skyhawks of VA-172 from the Franklin D. Roosevelt. This section had been ordered to undertake a night armed reconnaissance near Phuc Nhac, and both were shot down by SAMs. The Ticonderoga also lost a pair of Skyhawks on 13 December during an Iron Hand mission near the Xuan Mai bridge, both of these also falling to SA-2s. As the year drew to a close, the Franklin D. Roosevelt completed her only tour of duty on 27 December.
The ceasefire ended on 2 January 1967, this being marked by the USAF launching one of the largest strikes against the SAM sites around the Red River area. In order for this to succeed, Operation Bolo was also launched. This saw a large force of USAF Phantoms taking on many of the NVA MiG 21s in air-to-air combat over Hanoi, shooting down seven of them, which left the NVA with only nine serviceable fighters. The carriers on Yankee Station resumed their air war on 4 January when the Coral Sea launched a strike against a vital road bridge at Thu Diem near Haiphong. Ten days later the Enterprise dispatched a night combat mission over Laos, although this was very unsuccessful as the aircraft collided en route, with one pilot being killed.
Further changes to the carriers on Yankee Station took place on 5 February when the USS Hancock arrived to undertake its third combat tour. Unlike the two previous occasions, the carrier had Air Wing 5 aboard instead of its usual unit, Air Wing 21. During February combat missions were mounted by the Enterprise, Hancock and Ticonderoga, but none of these were carried out without loss, as all the air wings lost aircraft to both SAMs and Triple A. March saw another role added to those already practised by the Navy. Originally the Pentagon was very wary of mining ports and rivers due to the risk of sinking a foreign-registered vessel, even though these were blatantly bringing in military supplies to North Vietnam. An even greater risk was that of sinking a Soviet Bloc ship, as this would bring the superpowers into a face-to-face confrontation, with all the attendant risks. Although it was not until 1972 that the ports such as Haiphong were mined, the rivers were not seen as exempt. And so the Pentagon war planners gave their consent to this course of action. One of the first missions was undertaken on 8 March by a Douglas A-3 Skywarrior from VAH-4 aboard the USS Kitty Hawk. This was the second such mission, as the first had been flown on 26 February by seven A-6As from VA-65, which mined the estuaries of the Song Ca and Song Giang rivers. The A-3B was ordered to mine the estuary of the Kien Giang river during the night of 8 February, but the bomber went off radar as it approached the coast near Dong Hoi, and it was suspected that the aircraft had been shot down by Triple A.
The Douglas A-3 Skywarrior was originally delivered to the Navy as a bomber, although they later became tankers and electronic warfare aircraft. This example, still a bomber, was assigned to VAH-9.
(John Ryan Collection)
With examples of its air wing on the flight deck, the USS Bon Homme Richard heads towards its launch point on Yankee Station.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
Iron Hand missions still exercised the carrier air wings, and so on 11 March the Ticonderoga sent a strike to a suspected SAM site near Hanoi. As the Skyhawks of VA-192 reached the site they discovered that it was a storage location where missile components were assembled, the completed units being moved to the actual SAM sites when needed. Although not a primary target, any interruption in the supply of missiles would be welcomed, and so the Skyhawks began their attack. Although the raid was measured as a success, it was not without loss, as the squadron lost a very experienced pilot to a SAM, although fortunately he survived, becoming a prisoner until 1973. Further reinforcements arrived on Yankee Station when the USS Bon Homme Richard returned to the Gulf of Tonkin on 26 February for her third tour of duty. One of the earliest missions undertaken by this carrier was an Operation Sea Dragon patrol along the coasts and rivers of Vietnam, the intention being to stop the use of small vessels to move supplies from north to south for the NVA.
The catapults on the USS Ranger are occupied by a pair of Douglas A-4 Skyhawks, with others of the breed lining up behind.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
Although much of April was concerned with normal patrols and missions, this all changed on 24 April when permission was finally given to attack the MiG bases at Kep and Hoa Lac airfields. The Kitty Hawk dispatched a large strike force to attack these bases. However, the NVA decided to launch its own aircraft in an effort to destroy the bomb carriers. It was the job of the Phantom escorts to keep the MiGs away. During the ensuing dogfight an F-4 crewed by Lieutenant Wisely and Lieutenant (jg) Anderson shot down a MiG 17. As the Kitty Hawk strike force was engaging with the NVA fighters, aircraft from the Bon Homme Richard were attacking the railway yard at Hon Gay, using eight Skyhawks to carry the bombs while being escorted by F-8 Crusaders, one of which was unfortunately lost. On 26 April the Ticonderoga undertook a raid on a POL site near Haiphong. During this raid one of the A-4s from VA-192 was engaged in an Iron Hand suppression mission. Piloted by Lieutenant-Commander Estocin, the Skyhawk was in a position to fire at a SAM launcher. However, an approaching missile exploded close to the A-4, causing extensive damage to the aircraft’s systems. The pilot managed to regain control even though flames were streaming from the rear of the aircraft. Escorted by an F-8 Crusader, the Skyhawk limped towards the coast. Just as the coast was reached the A-4 rolled over and crashed into the sea, killing the pilot. As a result of the pilot’s action and dedication to duty, he was awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously.
The largest reconnaissance aircraft carried aboard aircraft carriers was the NAA- Rockwell RA-5C Vigilante, converted from the earlier nuclear bomber. This example was assigned to RVAH-5 aboard the USS America.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
May saw a continuation of attacks on the usual range of targets, although those that took place on 19 May were from the carriers Enterprise, Bon Homme Richard and Kitty Hawk. The first Alpha strike was aimed at the Vin Dien vehicle and missile transport park. As this date was also the birthday of Ho Chi Minh, the defences seemed to be even more ferocious than usual. This was the target for the Enterprise air wing, after which those launched by the Bon Homme Richard and Kitty Hawk took over as each air wing completed its task. The Bon Homme Richard also featured in the raid launched against the Hanoi thermal power plant and the Van Dien transport depot on 21 May, although while the raid was fairly successful one of the escorting F-8s was shot down, the pilot being safely recovered.
June saw the resumption of raids against the Hanoi thermal plant and the Van Dien vehicle depot on 10 June. The defences were again aggressive, bringing down an A-4 and F-8 from the Enterprise and Bon Homme Richard respectively. June closed with a raid launched by the Intrepid against the thermal power plant on the Song Ca river. As this was a vital target it was heavily defended, but even so the Skyhawks of VA-15 rolled into the attack, one being lost in the process. On 14 July the USS Oriskany returned to the Gulf of Tonkin for her third tour of duty. During this first month of deployment the carrier was unfortunate enough to lose ten aircraft in combat. Three of these occurred on 18 July when Skyhawks from VA-164 were shot down during a raid on the Co Trai road and rail bridge, two pilots being recovered, while the last would die when a prisoner. It was the Forrestal that suffered the greatest tragedy, on 29 July. During the morning, as aircraft were being launched, an uncommanded voltage leak launched a Zuni rocket from an F-4 Phantom. The stray rocket hit a parked Skyhawk, which immediately burst into flame and exploded, scattering flaming debris far and wide. The resultant conflagration saw eleven A-4s, seven F-4s and four RA-5C Vigilantes destroyed. Major structural damage was caused to the armoured deck and hangar below, while the losses to personnel were horrendous, consisting of 134 killed and sixty-two suffering various degrees of injury. Given the extent of the damage and loss, it was obvious that the Forrestal could not continue, and so she was withdrawn and returned to the United States for a full refit.
With bombs on the outboard wing pylons, this LTV A-7A Corsair II of VA-146 is guided to the catapults aboard the USS Constellation.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
The Oriskany also continued her run of bad luck during August, losing her first aircraft on 4 August when an A-4 was shot down during a raid on Luc Nong POL depot. The Constellation also had a bad day on 21 August when the air wing lost three A-6 Intruders from VA-196 while attacking the Duc Noi railway yards. Unfortunately only three of the six aircrew survived, becoming prisoners.
Haiphong was the primary target on the last two days of August 1967. The intention of this campaign was to isolate the city port from the rest of North Vietnam, as this was the primary port of entry for weapons and supplies, and direct action was forbidden. The first day of attacks had concentrated upon the roads and some of the railway bridges. It was the turn of the Oriskany to launch a ten-strong Skyhawk package against the railway bridge at Vat Cach Thuong. The aircraft came from VA-163 and VA-164, and were unfortunate to run into a hail of SAMs and Triple A that would chop three of the A-4s out of the sky, leaving one pilot dead and the other two in captivity until 1973. Haiphong and its transport links continued to be the focus of attention for September, although as the attacks continued the NVA increased the defensive ring. As could be expected, such an improvement made the entire area a dangerous place to be, as Lieutenant-Commander Hawkins found out on 18 September. Flying a VA-34 Skyhawk as part of a formation of six aircraft, the pilot was bracketed by a pair of SAMs that exploded just below the aircraft. Fortunately it remained flyable, even though the radio, oxygen and ailerons were inoperable. Careful flying saw the A-4 come within sight of the coast before the pilot was forced to eject, being picked up by a Navy SAR helicopter. October followed a similar pattern to the previous month, with Haiphong being the centre of attention. However, other missions were flown in support of these attacks, concentrating upon the Fan Song radars used as part of the SAM air defence network. While these missions, part of the Iron Hand programme, were vital to protect normal sorties, they too were dangerous, as the NVA was determined to protect this most vital part of the defence chain.
A Douglas A-1 Skyraider from VA-145 from the USS Intrepid taxies past the revetments at Da Nang air base in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
Beginning on 22 October, the Oriskany launched a series of attacks on the Haiphong railway yard. The primary unit involved was VA-163, which lost two aircraft and a pilot over the three days of attacks. While the Oriskany was attacking Haiphong, the air wing from the Coral Sea was concentrating upon the major air base at Phuc Yen, having already pounded the base at Kep. As both were major bases they were heavily defended, and so both raids lost aircraft to SAMs. A further attack was mounted by VA-163 from the Oriskany on 25 October against the air base at Phuc Yen. As the Skyhawks and escorts approached the airfield, a wall of cannon shells rose to meet them, interspersed with SAMs, one of which cut one of the A-4s out of the sky, killing the pilot. The following day both the Oriskany and the Coral Sea attacked the air base, and as before, aircraft from both carriers were lost to a hail of Triple A and SAMs. November saw the Coral Sea air wing switch from its previous mission to Rolling Thunder attacks, its target being the Hai Duong railway bridge, during which the attacking Phantoms were met by a swarm of SAMs that brought down one of the attackers.
The aftermath of the fire aboard the nuclear-powered carrier USS Enterprise on 14 January 1969, with the destroyer USS Rogers alongside, helping to damp down the fires.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
On 3 December the carrier USS Ranger returned to active duty in the Gulf of Tonkin, beginning its combat tour thirteen days later. The Ranger also introduced another new aircraft to the South-East Asia conflict. This was the LTV A-7A Corsair II that had been developed to replace the Douglas A-4. Bearing a strong resemblance to the F-8 Crusader, the A-7 could carry a maximum bomb load of 15,000 lb, all being managed by a combined weapons and navigation avionics system. The A-7 made its combat debut on 22 December, during which one of them was shot down. The Ranger had dispatched a flight of A-7s to undertake an Iron Hand mission against a Firecan Triple A control radar located south-west of Haiphong. As the A-7 flight approached the target a SAM Fan Song radar painted the aircraft, this being followed by the launch of three SA-2s, one of which badly damaged one of the A-7s so that the pilot was forced to eject.
As the start of 1968 rolled round, it would prove to be a successful year for the NVA and the Viet Cong, with the Tet Offensive, the fall of Khe Sanh and the cessation of the Rolling Thunder programme. For the US Navy the hunt for SAMs continued, with Iron Hand missions being launched from the Kitty Hawk on 3 January. The target of VA-112’s A-4 flight was a SAM site near the Kien An road bridge south of Haiphong. During the approach the SAM radars locked onto the flight, with three SA-2s being launched, one of which downed a Skyhawk, with the pilot becoming a prisoner. The Oriskany continued to lose aircraft, with two A-4s being lost during the remainder of January. The NVA and Viet Cong launched the Tet Offensive against the major US bases in South Vietnam over the night 30/31 January. While the US Navy was not directly involved, the knock-on effect showed the vulnerability of the American bases, this being exacerbated by further Viet Cong attacks.
For TF.77 February and March continued much as usual, although in a change of policy the Grumman A-6 Intruders were being used more for night attacks, as diligent work by the avionics manufacturers and carrier engineers had finally ironed out the bugs in the DIANE system. For the A-6 community it meant that they were the only attack aircraft operating over North Vietnam during this period, so that this was the only type suffering losses. In fact it was the middle of April before the carrier aircraft in general began to attack North Vietnam again. By this time a new version of the Skyhawk had begun to equip the attack units. This was the A-4F, which featured an improved avionics package mounted in a dorsal hump. Many of the missions carried out during late April and May were undertaken at dusk and at night, and so resulted in few losses.
In June 1968 the USS America joined TF.77, having arrived in the combat zone in mid-May. Aboard this carrier was a new Phantom version, the F-4J. A development of the earlier F-4B, the J model featured more powerful engines, improved avionics, strengthened undercarriage and modified wings and tailplane to permit better manoeuvring. Combat missions undertaken during June and July saw both the A-7A and the F-4J feature more heavily in both day and night attacks, with attendant losses to both types. Joining the A-7A family was the USS Constellation, which returned to active duty on 28 June for its fourth war cruise. In common with the America, the ‘Connie’s’ A-7A fleet was used for a mix of day and night missions, leaving the purely day missions in the hands of the Skyhawks, which encompassed the A-4B, A-4C, A-4E and A-4F models.
Toting a load of bombs on its centre-line pylon, this Douglas A-4 Skyhawk is guided towards the catapults aboard the USS Enterprise prior to attacking targets in North Vietnam.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
This head-on view of the USS Saratoga shows another strike and fighter package preparing to launch against targets in North Vietnam.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
August saw the introduction of the A-6B version of the Intruder aboard the Constellation. This was a modified version of the basic A-6 that was optimised for the Iron Hand mission. Its primary weapon for this task was the huge AGM-78 Standard ARM missile with extra avionics to match. One of the first A-6B missions was launched on 28 August against a known SAM site north-west of Vinh, during which one A-6B was shot down, this being the last of this version to be lost in the war. September saw a continuation of the standard mission packages, together with those aimed at suppressing the SAM menace. The A-7s of the Constellation continued Iron Hand missions during October, as the type had proved an excellent platform for the mission using Shrike missiles. October was also the month when the Rolling Thunder missions ceased on the last day of the month, as public opinion in the United States and the failure of the attacks to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table meant that they were not having the desired effect. Not aiding the military were the restrictions placed on it by the politicians, which hampered mission planning. With the cessation of the Rolling Thunder campaign, the carriers in the Gulf of Tonkin turned their attentions to the Ho Chi Minh trail, the campaign being codenamed Operation Steel Tiger, confined to an area of Laos. The change of emphasis saw a reduction in the number of aircraft lost, this being confined to two A-6As from VA-196 aboard the USS Constellation during December.
Awaiting clearance to launch is this Vought F-8 Crusader aboard the USS Saratoga. Behind the fighter are various other fighter and strike packages, all destined for targets in Vietnam.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
When 1969 opened, Yankee Station hosted the Intrepid, close to the end of its tour, the Hancock, also nearly tourex, Coral Sea, Hornet, Ranger, Kitty Hawk and Ticonderoga. As the emphasis was on operations in Laos, the loss to the carrier wings was limited to a single A-4 Skyhawk assigned to VA-216 aboard the USS Coral Sea. Fortunately the pilot was rescued. January proved unlucky for the Enterprise. On the morning of 14 January a MK 32 Zuni rocket loaded on a parked F-4 Phantom exploded due to being overheated by an aircraft start unit mounted to a towing tractor. The resultant explosion set off fires and further explosions across the flight deck. The fires were brought under control fairly quickly. However, the cost was twenty-seven killed and an additional 314 personnel suffering injuries. The fire destroyed fifteen aircraft, and the resulting damage to the ship’s structure required the Enterprise to put in for repairs, primarily to the flight deck armour plating. By early March 1969 repairs to the vessel were undertaken at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, after which the ship proceeded on her deployment to Vietnam and the Tonkin Gulf.
After a quiet January, the following month saw the Coral Sea suffering quite a few losses. The first occurred on the night of 14 February when a pair of Skyhawks on support duty for an A-6A Intruder operating near Ban Kate on the Ho Chi Minh trail were shot down. While the Intruder was using its radar to search for ground targets, some well-hidden Triple A opened up, delivering strong bursts towards the A-4s. One aircraft crashed almost immediately, while the pilot of the other managed to go ‘feet wet’ before ejecting, being rescued soon afterwards. Four days later the USS Ticonderoga entered the Gulf of Tonkin, rejoining TF.77 soon afterwards, with operations resuming on 4 March. With the Ticonderoga on station it was the turn of the Coral Sea to depart for a break, which it did on 29 March, heading towards Alameda. April was a quiet month in comparison to others, as the carriers concentrated upon the Ho Chi Minh trail. April also saw the creation of Task Force 71 in response to the North Koreans shooting down a Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star aircraft that had been transiting the Sea of Japan. TF.71 comprised the carriers Enterprise, Ticonderoga, Ranger and Hornet plus the battleship New Jersey, being escorted by three cruisers and twenty-two destroyers, all commanded by Rear Admiral Cagle. The task force was authorised on 14 April and remained on station for ten days before the situation cooled down. Once this task was completed, the ships of TF.71 returned to the Gulf of Tonkin to resume duties with TF.77.
The McDonnell F-4 Phantom was the primary fighter-bomber for a long period. Here four aircraft from VF-84 aboard the USS Independence pose for the camera.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
May, June and July were also relatively quiet months for the carriers on Yankee Station, as losses were kept to a minimum while target strikes were rated as a success overall. The remainder of the year was also fairly quiet, although the problems with the A-7 TF33 engine resulted in a handful of aircraft being lost.
Although there was a slight slackening of attacks over the Christmas and New Year period, combat flying resumed on 2 January 1970. The originator of this mission was VA-196 from the USS Ranger, which dispatched a pair of aircraft to attack a POL dump near the Mu Gia pass in response to a USAF FAC request. Unfortunately one of the Intruders was lost when its ordnance blew up just after release, killing both crewmen. The Ranger lost another aircraft on 6 February during a Steel Tiger mission, the aircraft being hit by Triple A. Fortunately the crew managed to eject safely, being rescued later by a USAF helicopter. Steel Tiger also claimed other aircraft during the remainder of February and March, with the Coral Sea and Hancock suffering losses. April also saw the Constellation losing A-7As from VA-97, both on Steel Tiger sorties. Adding to the Constellation’s problems were the A-7s that were lost due to engine failures, at least two aircraft crashing due to this fault.
On 12 April the USS Shangri La arrived on the line to undertake her only tour of duty off Vietnam. Prior to this deployment she had been employed in the anti-submarine role. The Shangri La, in a similar manner to the Intrepid, was employed as an attack carrier, and so she only had Skyraiders and Skyhawks aboard. The carrier lost only one aircraft in combat during this cruise–an A-4C of VA-172 that was shot down while attacking a target at Ban Talan, with the pilot being killed. The middle of May saw the return of the USS America to TF.77, the ship resuming combat missions on 26 May. During the remainder of 1970 the carriers on Dixie and Yankee Stations continued their attacks on the Ho Chi Minh trail, although the number of missions were considerably reduced. At the end of the year President Nixon signed the repeal of the Tonkin Gulf Resolution that had introduced United States forces into Vietnam.
With its unique wingtip airbrakes deployed, an A-6 Intruder prepares to touch down on the carrier USS John F. Kennedy. By this time the fuselage airbrakes had been locked in the closed position, as they were found not to be needed.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
1971 saw the start of the withdrawal of US forces from Vietnam, but even so the carriers Hancock, Kitty Hawk and Ranger continued to launch attacks against targets along the Ho Chi Minh trail. On 10 March the carriers Kitty Hawk and Ranger launched 233 sorties over North Vietnam, a record for a single day of combat. It was 13 March before the Navy lost an aircraft in combat, this being an A-7E assigned to VA-113 aboard the Ranger. The aircraft had been launched on a Steel Tiger strike against traffic using a road near the A Shua valley, during which it was hit by Triple A that caused extensive damage to the airframe. Although the pilot escaped, he was later declared as missing in action.
May saw the return of the USS Midway to the Gulf of Tonkin after an absence of six years while she underwent extensive modernisation. The Midway returned to Yankee Station in June, beginning missions almost immediately. Soon after the Midway resumed her combat career it was joined by the Oriskany, which had returned to South-East Asia from Alameda on 16 June for her sixth operational cruise. When the Midway returned to combat she brought another new aircraft with it, the Grumman KA-6D Intruder tanker. The KA-6D was fitted with a hose-drogue unit in the rear fuselage and was capable of transferring up to 12,000 lb of fuel during one sortie. But while the Midway was bringing a new aircraft to the Navy, the service was also saying goodbye to an old stalwart, the Douglas AD Skyraider, which was formally retired on 7 July 1971. The USS Enterprise returned to South-East Asia on 16 July for her fifth war cruise, resuming combat missions soon afterwards. At the end of 1971 the Navy had the carriers USS Constellation, Coral Sea, Enterprise, Hancock, Kitty Hawk, Midway and Oriskany.
In order to provide electronic warfare support, Grumman came up with the idea of using redundant A-6 Intruders as a basis for a new aircraft. The first type developed for the role was designated the EA-6A, which featured a fintip aerial package, with further equipment being carried in underwing pods and on the leading edges of the pylons. This example was operated by VAQ-33, the fleet electronic support unit.
. (US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
Awaiting clearance to launch is this Vought F-8 Crusader aboard the USS Saratoga. Behind the fighter are various other fighter and strike packages, all destined for targets in Vietnam. (
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
The year 1972 was the last full year of US Navy combat action. During this period the carrier air wings concentrated upon targets in both North Vietnam and along the Ho Chi Minh trail. Their operational emphasis changed on 30 March when the NVA and Viet Cong launched their Easter offensive against South Vietnam, as they perceived quite rightly that the South Vietnamese forces were weak and rife with corruption, and were ripe for conquering. The Communist forces undertook three major thrusts into the south, meeting little real opposition on the way. In fact, such was their progress that the NVA was close to taking the capital, Saigon. In response, President Nixon authorised a massive increase in air power, which for the US Navy meant that the number of carriers immediately available on Yankee Station increased to six. While much of the invasion force consisted of tanks and their support vehicles, some of those in the convoys were SAM carriers and launchers. These missiles wreaked havoc among the Navy aircraft, downing A-7s from the Kitty Hawk and Coral Sea. Further losses were suffered by the Kitty Hawk and Coral Sea as the strike-back continued, with one aircraft, an F-4B from the Coral Sea, lost in combat with a pair of MiG 21s on 27 April. The Iron Hand campaign was also stepped up in a desperate attempt to suppress the missile menace, although some losses were taken by the attacking aircraft.
In order to stop the NVA incursion into South Vietnam, and force the North Vietnam government to the negotiating table, President Nixon authorised the JCS to undertake Operation Linebacker I. Much of the heavy bombing was undertaken by the Boeing B-52s of Strategic Air Command. Linebacker I started on 10 May and continued until 23 October. The US Navy part of the operation was known as Pocket Moon, which utilised the Grumman A-6s and A-7 Corsairs from the Coral Sea air wing to drop mines in the waterways leading to Haiphong harbour, as well as those at Cam Pha, Hon Gay, Vinh and Thanh Hoa. On 10 May the Coral Sea, Constellation and Kitty Hawk launched a ninety-strong strike package against targets around Haiphong. During the period when North Vietnam was not being attacked, the NVA had increased the numbers of fighters available significantly, although to counter this threat the Navy had put in place the Top Gun programme. In concert with the Linebacker I missions, the carriers also restarted the armed reconnaissance missions over North Vietnam, although with the increase in SAMs the casualties also increased. Attacks were also restarted on targets in North Vietnam that had been struck before, including the Nam Dinh thermal power plant and the railway yard at Thieu Giuong.
The aircraft that would replace the F-4 Phantom would be the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, an example of which is seen here aboard the USS America.
(John Ryan Collection)
The carrier force was increased on 18 May when the Atlantic Fleet carrier USS Saratoga arrived on 18 May for its only operational tour. The Saratoga undertook a full range of missions, suffering its first losses within a week of starting sorties on 7 June, a total of four being shot down. Combat losses continued to afflict the carriers during July and August, although in return the air wings did manage to destroy their targets. September saw the carriers lose a lot of aircraft to SAMs, with seventeen being shot down, the aircraft coming from the America, Hancock, Midway, Oriskany and Saratoga. October and November followed a similar pattern to the two previous months, with aircraft being lost on Iron Hand and Linebacker missions–a total of thirteen being downed. Linebacker II started on 18 December, the primary target being Hanoi. Much of the effort was delivered by the Boeing B-52 force, although the carriers did their bit by attacking other targets in an effort to spread the NVA air defence forces thinner. Both Iron Hand and strike missions were launched, as were mining missions against the harbours.
On 3 January 1973 the North Vietnamese agreed to resume peace talks in Paris in exchange for a halt on the bombing above the 20th Parallel. Nine days later an F-4 Phantom from the Midway air wing shot down a MiG 21 over North Vietnam, this being the last US aviator kill in the war. The Midway was the carrier that claimed the first shoot-down in the war in June 1965. While the negotiations in Paris continued, the US Navy carriers continued their missions over Vietnam, with the Midway bearing the brunt of the losses. The ceasefire came into effect on 29 January, although the carriers continued to fly missions against targets in Cambodia and Laos, the vessels involved being the Constellation, Enterprise, Oriskany and Ranger. With the ceasefire in place, the carriers on Yankee and Dixie Stations slowly returned to their normal duties, the last vessel to leave being the USS Hancock, which came off the line on 23 December 1973. South Vietnam finally fell to the forces of North Vietnam in April 1975.
While much of the carrier fleet was employed on Vietnam combat duties, other vessels were engaged in more peaceful duties. One of the most unusual missions involved the nuclear-powered carrier USS Enterprise, the nuclear cruiser Long Beach and the nuclear frigate Bainbridge, all three departing Norfolk, Virginia, on 3 October 1964. Designated Operation Sea Orbit, the cruise lasted sixty-four days, the vessels visiting numerous ports en route. During the cruise the vessels took on no supplies of any kind. Recovery of returning space capsules and their crews also kept the US Navy occupied. The first saw the Intrepid recovering the astronauts from the Gemini capsule ‘Molly Brown’ on 23 March 1965. It was the turn of the USS Wasp to recover astronauts, this being the crew of Gemini 4, who were picked up on 4 June 1965. The next recovery mission involved the Lake Champlain, which collected the Gemini V astronauts on 21 August. On 4 December Gemini 7 was launched, undertaking a fourteen-day mission before being recovered by the Wasp, which also brought home the crew of Gemini 6, which splashed down on 15 December.
The year 1966 saw the start of the Saturn series of space launches, the first capsule being recovered by the USS Boxer on 22 February, although this had been an unmanned launch. The Independence was utilised for the operation of a completely different flying-machine. This was the Hawker Siddeley XV-6A, which undertook ship handling trials from 11 to 18 May and eventually led to the adoption of the Harrier by the USMC. The Bennington was also involved in V/STOL trials, although this was an American-built aircraft, the XC-142A, that was trialled aboard the carrier during the middle of May.
The replacement for the C-1A Trader was another Grumman product, the C-2A Greyhound, a derivative of the E-2 Hawkeye.
(US Navy/NARA via Dennis R. Jenkins)
The Saturn rocket series occupied the US Navy again on 25 August, when the carrier Hornet recovered the capsule from the second unmanned shot. Having undertaken V/STOL trials with the XC-142A, the Bennington was used to recover the unmanned Apollo 4 capsule near Hawaii on 9 November 1967.
In 1968 the manned Apollo 7 was launched on 11 October, and the capsule and its crew were safely recovered on 22 October by the USS Essex near Bermuda. It was the turn of the Yorktown to become involved with the Apollo programme when it was the recovery ship for Apollo 8. Having been launched on 21 December, the spacecraft orbited the moon before returning to earth on 27 December. Apollo 9 undertook its flight during the first week of March 1969, being recovered by the Guadalcanal. The Apollo programme continued to accelerate, with the crew of Apollo 10 being collected by the USS Princeton on 26 May. The next mission was undertaken in November when the rescue ship, the Hornet, collected the crew of Apollo 12. The next mission was the unlucky Apollo 13 that managed to struggle back to earth after a catastrophic failure in flight. The crew were very glad to see the helicopters from the Iwo Jima on 11 April 1970.
The US Navy was deactivating many of its older vessels in 1970, including the USS Shangri La, the orders for this being announced on 17 September, bringing the total of ships retired since January 1969 to 286 vessels. Outside the Vietnam conflict, activity by the remaining aircraft carriers was much reduced, being confined to just one spacecraft recovery. This was the capsule of Apollo 15, whose crew made the first moon landing, returning to earth on 7 August 1971, the recovery carrier being the USS Oriskany. The Ticonderoga had the honour of collecting the crew of Apollo 16 when they returned home on 27 April 1972. They too had landed on the moon to undertake observations. The Ticonderoga was also the recovery ship for Apollo 17, which splashed down in the Pacific on 19 December after yet another successful moon landing. This was the last Apollo mission, as the remainder were cancelled. In 1973 the US Navy carriers resumed their spacecraft collection duties, although these space flights were in support of the Spacelab programme. The Ticonderoga was the first carrier to become involved in recovery work, picking up an all-Navy crew and their capsule on 22 June 1973 after splashing down in the Pacific.
Although Vietnam had fallen to Communist forces in April 1975, the Cambodian Khmer Rouge was becoming a nuisance to shipping in international waters. This came to a head on 12 May when the freighter Mayaguez was seized after being attacked by a Cambodian gun boat. After attempting to negotiate the release of the vessel and its crew, the USS Coral Sea launched its air wing to carry out suppressive attacks against Cambodian air and naval assets while the crew were rescued from an off-shore island. The Mayaguez was recovered by a boarding party from the USS Harold E. Holt. During this operation eighteen US military personnel were killed, with a further fifty being injured.
As the 1970s came to a close, many of the stalwarts of the carrier force were withdrawn. The main class to bear the brunt of the withdrawals was the Essex class, the name ship being decommissioned in mid-1970, the Intrepid following in March 1974. The Hornet left service in June 1970 and was placed in reserve, while the Franklin went in October 1973, with the Antietam and Ticonderoga. The Randolph had been decommissioned in February 1969. The Wasp left service in June 1972, while the Hancock and Oriskany remained in commission until January 1976. The Shangri La was deactivated in July 1971, and the Kearsarge and Princeton had gone by February 1970. The longest-serving member of the class was the USS Lexington, which remained in service until November 1991, having served as a training carrier for twenty-two years. The last pair of Essex carriers, the Valley Forge and Philippine Sea, were retired in 1970 and 1969 respectively. Of the Midway class, the name ship and the Coral Sea remained in service, while the Franklin D. Roosevelt had gone by 1977. The two vessels of the Saipan light carrier class were withdrawn by 1970 after use as communications ships.
Of the newer carriers, the entire Forrestal class, the Forrestal, Saratoga, Ranger and Independence, remained in service, as did the entire Improved Forrestal class, the Kitty Hawk, Constellation, America and John F. Kennedy. Nuclear-powered aircraft carriers in the shape of the first example to enter service, the Enterprise, continued in service, and this was joined by the Nimitz class, which consisted of the class name vessel, together with the Dwight D. Eisenhower, Carl Vinson and Theodore Roosevelt. This group of carriers would be the backbone of the fleet for the remainder of the twentieth century, which would include war in the Middle East.