Introduction
1. G.W.E. Russell, Collections and Recollections, ch.1, London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1898.
2. From Edgar Allan Poe’s 1845 revision of his poem ‘To Helen’. First published as ‘To- - -’ in Union Magazine, November 1948, published as ‘To Helen’ in New York Daily Tribune, 10 October 1849
Chapter 1
1. Homer, Odyssey 19.172–9, trans. E.V. Rieu, Homer: The Odyssey, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1946.
2. Even though ‘no trace of it remained’ in his day: Pliny, N.H. 35.29.85.
3. Quoted by D. Powell, The Villa Ariadne, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1973, 22. Despite his frustration, Evans employed both Christian and Muslim workers, ‘so that the work at Knossos might be an earnest of the future co-operation of the two creeds … the experiment proved very successful’ (ibid., 260).
4. A.J. Evans, The Palace of Minos at Knossos, vols i-iv, with index volume, London: Macmillan, 1921–36.
5. Powell, The Villa Ariadne, 30.
6. The Admonitions of IPW-WER 3, Papyrus of Leiden.
7. Sir (pseud.: B. Eckstein-Diener) Galahad, Im Palast des Minos, Munchen: Albert Langen, 1913.
8. The Atlantis theory can no longer withstand serious analysis: see S.P. Kershaw, A Brief Guide to the Greek Myths, London: Robinson, 2007, 424 ff.
Chapter 2
1. AP IX.101, trans. E. Morgan, in P. Jay (ed.) The Greek Anthology and Other Ancient Epigrams, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973.
2. Graves I–V were excavated by Schliemann; VI by P. Stamatakes.
3. Telegram dated 28 November 1876 to King George of Greece: H. Schliemann, Mycenae: A Narrative of Researches and Discoveries at Mycenae and Tiryns, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, Bell & Howell Co, 1880, 380–1. See also D.A. Traill,Schliemann of Troy: Treasure and Deceit, Penguin: London, 1995, 162; S.P.M. Harrington, W.M. Calder III, D.A. Traill, K. Demakopoulou, and K.D.S. Lapatin. ‘Behind the Mask of Agamemnon’, Archaeology (July/August 1999), 52.
4. Schliemann telegram to a Greek newspaper: Tr. W.M. Calder III and D.A. Traill, eds., Myth, Scandal, and History: The Heinrich Schliemann Controversy and a First Edition of the Mycenaean Diary, Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986, 234.
5. Homer, Iliad 11.632 ff., trans. R. Lattimore, The Iliad of Homer, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
6. Despite its evocative name, it is not a treasury and had nothing to do with the mythical Atreus.
7. Corbelling is a technique in which each course of blocks slightly overlaps the one below in order to reduce the span still to be roofed.
8. A stone consisting of naturally cemented together pebbles, cobblestones and other sediments.
9. See below, p. 168 f.
10. Pausanias 2.16.4. He was immensely impressed with the walls, which he regarded as no less marvellous than the Egyptian pyramids (9.36.3).
11. Trans. R. Castleden, The Mycenaeans, London: Routledge, 2005, 108.
12. Tn 316.
13. Homer, Iliad 10.263 ff.
14. Ibid., 7.219–23, although Aias’ shield also incorporates a boss, which tower shields did not have.
15. See above, pp. 14–16.
16. Henry Miller, The Colossus of Maroussi, New York: New Directions, 1941, 86.
Chapter 3
1. Homer, Odyssey 20.232–5. Ganymede’s abduction is sometimes said to have been perpetrated by Zeus himself, by an eagle on his behalf, or by Zeus in the form of an eagle, but Minos, Tantalos and Eos (Dawn) are also mentioned. Ganymede usually pours nectar into Zeus’ cup, rather than wine.
2. Don Juan, Canto IV, stanza 101.
3. T. Moore, Life of Lord Byron: With his Letters and Journals, Vol. 5, new edn., London: John Murray, 1854, 70.
4. Report of 4 August 1872, in Schliemanm, H., Troy and its Remains, London: John Murray, 1875, p. 211.
5. C.W. Blegen, Troy and the Trojans, London: Thames & Hudson, 1963, 20.
6. C.3000–2100 BCE on other scholars’ datings.
7. Or c.3000–2500 BCE.
8. Or c.2500–2300 BCE.
9. See above, p. 23 f.
10. Or c.2300–2100 BCE; or 2300–2200 BCE.
11. See above, p. 18.
12. Or c.2100–1700 BCE. Together Troy IV and V comprise what Korfmann calls the ‘Anatolian-Trojan’ culture.
13. Or c.1700–1250 BCE.
14. There is a move to recategorize Troy VIIa as ‘Late Troy VI and Troy VIi, formerly Troy VIIa’, because of the cultural continuity between these levels. However, Dörpfeld’s original designation is generally kept to avoid confusion.
15. Some writers have seen the myth of the Trojan Horse as a metaphor for this earthquake, in that the horse was sacred to Poseidon, the Greek god of earthquakes. This seems an unconvincing rationalization: Poseidon built Troy’s walls, and he backed the Trojans in the war.
16. Or c.1250–1000 BCE.
17. Trans. F. Stark, quoted in J. Latacz, Troy and Homer: Towards the Solution of an Old Mystery, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, 106–7.
18. Trans. P.H.J. Houwink ten Cate, ‘Sidelights on the Ahhiyawa Question from Hittite Vassal and Royal Correspondence,’ Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux 28, 1983–4, 40.
19. Trans. O.R. Gurney, in J. Garstang and O.R. Gurney, The Geography of the Hittite Empire, London: British Institute of Archaeology in Ankara, 1959, 111–14.
20. M.I. Finley, J.L. Caskey, G.S. Kirk and D.L. Page, ‘The Trojan War’, Journal of Hellenic Studies 84, 1964, 1–20.
21. ‘Peter Jones reviews The Trojan War: A New History by Barry Strauss (Hutchinson)’, Sunday Telegraph, 25 February 2007.
22. Euripides, Trojan Women, 1319 ff., trans. P. Vellacott, in Euripides, Three Plays: Alcestis; Hippolytus; Iphigenia in Tauris, Harmondsworth: Penguin, rev. edn, 1974.
Chapter 4
1. Trans. M. McCarthy, in S. Weil and R. Bespaloff, War and the Iliad, New York: New York Review of Books Classics, 2005.
2. Homer, Iliad 12.310 ff., trans. R. Lattimore, in The Iliad of Homer, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
3. Ibid., 3.38 ff.
4. Ibid., 6.466 ff.
5. Ibid., 9.604 f.
6. Ibid., 15.661 ff.
7. Ibid., 16.83 ff.
8. Ibid., 18.98 ff.
9. Ibid., 22.104 ff.
10. Ibid., 22.317 ff.
11. Ibid., 24.503 ff.
12. Ibid., 24.518 ff.
13. J. Redfield, Nature and Culture in the Iliad: The Tragedy of Hector, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1975.
14. Homer, Odyssey 2.104 f., trans. R. Lattimore, in The Odyssey of Homer, New York: Harper, 1999.
15. Lyrics from ‘Moon River’ by Henry Mancini.
16. Homer, Odyssey 1.119 ff., trans. E.V. Rieu, in Homer: The Odyssey, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1946.
17. Homer, Odyssey 4.556 f., trans. Lattimore.
18. Homer, Odyssey 4.605 ff., trans. D.M. Gaunt, in Surge and Thunder: Critical Readings in Homer’s Odyssey, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971, 106.
19. Homer, Odyssey 6.119 ff., trans. Lattimore.
20. Ibid., 9.466 f.
21. Homer, Odyssey 9.19 ff., trans. Gaunt.
22. Homer, Iliad 9. 105 ff., trans. E.V. Rieu, in Homer: The Illiad, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1950.
23. Ibid., 9.252 f.
24. Homer, Iliad 9.387 ff., trans. R. Lattimore.
25. Ibid., 9.504 f.
26. Ibid., 9.534 f.
27. Ibid., 11.114 f., exactly echoing Polyphemus’ hopes: cf. 9.534 f.
28. Ibid., 11.205 ff.
29. Ibid., 11.410 f. In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon it is Clytemnestra who takes the lead role in the murder, with Aegisthus a rather cringing weakling. See below, p. 173.
30. Ibid., 18.96 ff.
31. Ibid., 18.281 ff.
32. Ibid., 22.41.
33. Ibid., 22.470 ff.
34. John Keats, On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer, 1816.
35. Published privately – the first public edition, published posthumously, was 1775.
36. Trans. T.E. Kennedy and P. Sherrard, in C.P. Cavafy, Collected Poems, The Hogarth Press, 1984.
37. Recorded by Joyce’s pupil Georges Borach in his journal on 1 August 1917. See R. Ellman, James Joyce, Oxford: Oxford University Press, rev. edn, 1983, 429–30.
38. T.S. Eliot, ‘Ulysses, Order, and Myth’, Dial 75.5, November 1923, 480.
39. Rupert Brooke, Fragment 2, 1915, published in Collected Poems of Rupert Brooke with a Memoir, London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1918.
40. P. Shaw-Stewart, ‘Achilles in the Trench’, 1916, Found after his death, written in his copy of A.E. Houseman’s A Shropshire Lad, now in Eton College library.
41. J. Buchan, Memory Hold-the-door, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1940.
Chapter 5
1. Aristotle, Politics 1327b, trans. T.A. Sinclair, in Aristotle: The Politics, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962.
2. Thucydides, I.142.
3. Greek agora = ‘market’.
4. Elegies, 53 ff., trans. J.B. Bury and R. Meiggs, A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great, 4th rev. edn, London: Macmillan, 1975, 113.
5. Aristotle, Athenaion Politeia, 5.
6. Plutarch, Solon 24, trans. I. Scott-Kilvert in The Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1960.
7. Aristotle, Athenaion Politeia 8.1. The previous system had been simply by hairesis (direct election).
8. Herodotus, 1.59.
9. Ibid., 1.61.
10. Ibid., 5.66; cf. Aristotle, Athenaion Politeia. 20.1: ‘he attached the people to his following, by proposing to give political power to the masses’.
11. Herodotus, 5.105
12. Plutarch, Moralia, 347C.
13. Herodotus, 7.141. The actual authenticity of this post eventum oracle is highly questionable.
14. Ibid., 7.226
15. Aeschylus, The Persians, 408 ff, trans. P. Vellacott, in Aeschylus: Prometheus Bound, The Suppliants, Seven Against Thebes, The Persians, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1961.
16. Thucydides, 1.98.
17. It is important not to confuse the ‘First Peloponnesian War’ of 461–446 BCE with The Peloponnesian War of 431–404 BCE.
18. Thucydides, 2.65, trans. R. Warner, in Thucydides: History of the Peloponnesian War, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972.
19. Ibid., 2.41
20. Aristotle, Rhetoric 1407a.
21. Thucydides, 1.76, trans Warner, Thucydides.
22. Ibid., 1.99. Cf. Plutarch Kimon 11.
23. Ibid., 1.23.
24. Ibid.
25. Aristophanes, The Acharnians, 514 ff., trans. A.H. Sommerstein, in Aristophanes: The Acharnians, The Clouds, Lysistrata, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973.
26. Thucydides, 4.38, trans. Warner, Thucydides.
27. Ibid., 5.101
28. Xenophon, 1.1.23.
29. Plato, Phaedo, 118a 16 f.
Chapter 6
1. Aristotle, Politics 1275a1 ff., trans. T.A. Sinclair.
2. IG I2 374.
3. Thucydides, 7.63.
4. Tod, GHI II, no. 100. As a metic, Emporion would work the land, not own it.
5. Pseudo-Xenophon, Constitution of the Athenians 1.10 ff., trans. K. Hughes, M. Thorpe, and M. Thorpe, in The Old Oligarch, rev. edn, London: London Association of Classical Teachers, 1986.
6. Pseudo-Aristotle, Oikonomika 1.5.1, 1344a22.
7. R. Meiggs and D. Lewis, A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions: To the End of the Fifth Century BC, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969, no. 79a.
8. Oikonomikos 9.5, tr. R. Bradley in The Science of Good Husbandry, or, The Oeconomics of Xenophon: Shewing the Method of Ruling andOrdering a Family, and of Managing a Farm to the Best Advantage, London: T. Corbet, 1727.
9. Lysias, 24.6, tr. W.R.M. Lamb, Lysias with an English translation, London, 1930.
10. Demosthenes, Against Aphobos 9, trans. from J. Ferguson and K. Chisholm (eds), Social and Political Life in the Great Age of Athens, London: Ward Lock Educational, 1978.
11. Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.5. 2.
12. Plato, Laws 776c–777d, trans. T.J. Saunders, in Plato: The Laws, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970.
13. IG2, 2 1 no. 1559, 26 ff. The way the ex-slave’s name is presented indicates he now has metoikos status. ‘Defeating’ your master is the technical term for saying you have secured your freedom and paid back the loan.
14. Euripides, Iphigeneia in Aulis 1400.
15. Aristotle, Politics 1252a 31ff., trans. T.A. Sinclair.
16. Ibid., 1255b4 ff.
17. Ibid., 1, 1253b13 By ‘the art of getting wealth’ he means the supply of food and other necessities, which he says is necessary and honourable, rather than moneymaking per se, which is unnatural.
18. Ibid., 1252a34 ff., 1259a37 ff.
19. Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.7.4, trans. from Ferguson and Chisholm, Social and Political Life.
20. Plutarch, Alkibiades 8.3 ff., trans. I. Scott-Kilvert, in The Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives, Harmondworth: Penguin, 1960.
21. Toronto 635, from near Athens, ARV 1031,51.
22. Xenophon, Memorabilia 2, 2, 4–5, trans. from Ferguson and Chisholm, Social and Political Life.
23. Plutarch, Perikles 24, trans. Scott-Kilvert, in The Rise and Fall of Athens.
24. Alexis in Athenaeus 13, 568a-d.
25. Demosthenes, Against Neaira, 122.
26. Homer, Odyssey 8.336 ff., trans. E.V. Rieu, in Homer: The Odyssey, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1946.
27. Aristophanes, Wealth, 168.
28. Aristophanes, The Clouds, 1079 ff., trans. A.H. Sommerstein, in Aristophanes: The Acharnians, The Clouds, Lysistrata, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973.
29. Lysias, Against Simon 6.
30. Aristophanes, Lysistrata 15 ff., trans. from Ferguson and Chisholm, Social and Political Life.
31. Lysias 1.6, trans. S.P. Pomeroy, in Goddesses, Whores,Wives and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity, New York, 1975. Lysias’ client’s trust was misplaced; she had an affair with a neighbour, and the speaker killed him.
32. Plato, Protagoras 325d, trans. W.K.C. Guthrie, Plato: Protagoras and Meno, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1956.
33. Aiskhines, Against Timarkhos 9, trans. from Ferguson and Chisholm, Social and Political Life.
34. Aristotle, Politics 1339a.
35. Plato, Protagoras 319a, tr. W.K.C. Guthrie, op. cit.
36. Ibid., 319a.
37. Xenophon, On Hunting 13.1.
38. Plato, Protagoras 320c.
39. Ibid., fr. 2.
40. Ibid., fr. 1.
41. Quoted by Thucydides, 2.45. Aspasia’s reputation certainly stands in entertaining contrast to the views attributed here to Perikles.
42. Euripides, Trojan Women 648 f.
43. Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.7.12, trans. from Ferguson and Chisholm, Social and Political Life.
44. Aristophanes, Ekklesiazousai 214 ff., trans. D. Barrett, in Aristophanes: The Knights, Peace, Wealth, The Birds, The Assemblywomen, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978.
45. Aristotle, Politics, 1300a, trans. T.J. Sinclair, in Aristotle: The Politics, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962.
Chapter 7
1. According to Plutarch, Apophthegmata Lakonika, 225c.11, this was what Leonidas said to Xerxes before the Battle of Thermopylai.
2. Thucydides, 1.10, trans. R. Warner, in Thucydides: History of the Peloponnesian War, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972.
3. Tyrtaios, fr. 5 Diehl = frs. 6–7 West.
4. Plutarch, Lykourgos 9.
5. Xenophon, Constitution of the Lakedaimonians 7, trans. R.J.A. Talbert, in Plutarch on Sparta, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1988.
6. Plutarch, Lykourgos 16, trans. Talbert, in Plutarch on Sparta.
7. Ibid.
8. Xenophon, Constitution of the Lakedaimonians 2, trans. Talbert, in Plutarch on Sparta.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid., 3.
11. Plutarch, Lykourgos 15, tr, R.J.A. Talbert, op. cit.
12. Ibid., 22.
13. Ibid., 14.
14. Aristophanes, Lysistrata, 79 ff., trans. A.H. Sommerstein, in Aristophanes: The Acharnians, The Clouds, Lysistrata, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973.
15. Plutarch, Lykourgos 14, tr, R.J.A. Talbert, op. cit.
16. Ibid., 15.
17. Ibid.
18. Aristotle, Politics 1269b22, trans. T.A. Sinclair, in Aristotle: The Politics, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962.
19. Euripides, Andromache 595–600, trans. P. Vellacott, in Euripides: Orestes and Other Plays, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972.
20. Tyrtaios, fr. 5 Diehl = frs. 6-7 West.
21. Plutarch, Lykourgos 28.
22. Xenophon, Hellenika, 3.3.11, M.M. Austin and P. Vidal-Naquet, Economic and Social History of Ancient Greece: An Introduction, London: Batsford, 1986.
23. Aristotle, Politics 1285b.
24. Described in Plutarch, Lykourgos 26.
25. Tyrtaios, fr. 4West, trans. M.L. West, Greek Lyric Poetry, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
26. Xenophon, Constitution of the Lakedaimonians 14.
27. Plutarch, Agesilaos 2.
28. Reinhold, Meyer, Classica Americana: The Greek and Roman Heritage in the United States, Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1984, 233.
29. Letter to John Scollay, 30 December, 1780, in H.A. Cushing (ed.), The Writings of Samuel Adams, New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904–8, Vol. 4, 238.
30. Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt and Barbary, translated from the French by F. Shoberl, New York: Van Winckel & Wiley, 1814, 106.
31. M. Proust, À la recherche du temps perdu, Vol. 7, Le Temps Retrouvé, Abbeville: F. Paillart, 1927, Vol. I, Ch. 2, 154.
32. K. Petter, Preface to O.W. von Vacro, Spata, der Leberskampf einer nordischen Herrenschicht, 2nd edn, Kempten: Arbeitsheft der Adolf-Hitler Schulen, 1942, 1.
33. T. Hill, The Hidden, London: Faber & Faber, 2009, 194.
Chapter 8
1. Herondas Mimiamboi 4.1 ff., trans. W. Headlam and A.D. Knox, in Herodas: The Mimes and Fragments, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922.
2. Xenophanes fr. 15, trans. P. Jones, Vote for Caesar, London: Orion, 2008.
3. Plutarch, Non posse, 1105b, tr. W. Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press, 1987, p. 23.
4. Quoted by both the Artemii Passio 35 (Philostorg. Hist. Eccl. 7. p. 77) and Georgius Cedrenus, Hist. Comp. I p. 532, Bekker.
5. Plutarch, Moralia 438B, trans. F.C. Babbitt, Plutarch, Moralia, Vol. V, Loeb Classical Library, 1936.
6. Lucian, Bis acc. 1. Promantis can be either masculine or feminine: he uses the feminine here.
7. J. Foster and D. Lehoux, ‘The Delphic Oracle and the ethylene-intoxication hypothesis’, Clinical Toxicology, 2007, 45(1), 85–9.
8. Fontenrose H.23.
9. Mor. 404a = Fontenrose H.63.
10. Philo, Sac. 116
11. Pythian Ode 8.85 f.
12. Thucydides, 1.6.
13. Euripides, Autolykos, fr. 282, trans. from J. Ferguson and K. Chisholm (eds), Social and Political Life in the Great Age of Athens, London: Ward Lock Educational, 1978.
Chapter 9
1. O. Taplin, Greek Tragedy in Action, London: Methuen, 1978, 23.
2. Aristotle, Poetics 1449b224 ff., trans. T.S. Dorsch, in Classical Literary Criticism-Aristotle: On the Art of Poetry; Horace: On the Art of Poetry; Longinus: On the Sublime, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965.
3. Aeschylus, Agamemnon, 177.
4. Willy Russell, Educating Rita, Act 1, Scene v.
5. Archilochus Fr. 120West = Athenaeus, Deipnosophistai 628a–b, trans. M.L. West, Greek Lyric Poetry, Oxford and New York: Clarendon, 1994.
6. Pindar Fr. 75, 1 ff. = Dion. Hal. De comp. verb. 22, trans. W.H. Race, in Pindar: Nemean Odes; Isthmian Odes; Fragments. Edited and Translated by William H. Race, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997. Bromios and Eriboas (= ‘Loud Roarer’ and ‘Loud Shouter’) are cult names of Dionysos; ‘highest of fathers and Kadmeian women’ is a reference to Zeus and Semele, Dionysos’ parents.
7. J. Gould, ‘Tragedy and Collective Experience’, in M.S. Silk (ed.), Tragedy and the Tragic: Greek Theatre and Beyond, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.
8. K. Reinhardt, Sophocles, 3rd edn, trans. H. and D. Harvey, 3rd edn, Oxford: Blackwell, 1979, p. 86.
9. The basis of iambic metre is a short syllable followed by a long one. Although not in trimeters, Shakespeare’s blank verse is iambic: Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more Or close the wall up with our English dead!
10. A trochee is the opposite of an iambus, i.e. a long syllable followed by a short one. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s Song of Hiawatha uses trochees: Listen to this simple story, To this Song of Hiawatha!
11. The anapaest is two short syllables followed by a long one. Clement Clark Moore’s A Visit From Saint Nicholas is written in anapaests: But I heard him exclaim, ‘ere he drove out of sight, ‘Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good-night!’
12. IG II2 2318, 17 ff. The didaskalos is the ‘director’, who is often also the author.
13. Aristotle, Poetics 1449a16.
14. Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae VIII 347e.
15. Ulick O’Connor, Oliver St John Gogarty: A Poet and His Times, London: Cape, 1964.
16. Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1564. Cf. Aeschylus, Khoephoroi 313. The maxim had been common since the time of Hesiod.
17. Aeschylus, Agamemnon 218 ff., trans. R. Fagles, Aeschylus: The Oresteia, Harmondsworth: Penguin, rev. edn, 1979.
18. Ibid., 258 ff.
19. Ibid., 455 ff.
20. Ibid., 823 f.
21. Ibid., 910 ff.
22. Ibid., 940.
23. Ibid., 1231 f.
24. Ibid., 1318 f.
25. Ibid., 1372 f.
26. S. Goldhill, Aeschylus: The Oresteia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, 39.
27. Aeschylus, Agamemnon, 1410 ff., trans. Fagles, Aeschylus: The Oresteia.
28. Ibid., 1558 f.
29. Ibid., 1659 ff.
30. Ibid., 1672. Again she uses a kratos-word here.
31. Aeschylus, Agamemon 382 f., 525 f., 813, 1432.
32. Dio Chrysostom Or. 52.15.
33. Homer, Odyssey 11.271ff., trans. R.D. Dawe, in The Odyssey, Lewes, 1994. NB there is no blinding in the Odyssey version, and his mother/wife is called Jocasta (Iokaste in Greek) in Sophocles’ play.
34. Asklepiades FGrH 12 F 7a, trans. L. Edmunds.
35. Sophocles, Oedipus the King, 7 f., trans. R. Fagles, Sophocles: The Three Theban Plays, Antigone, Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982.
36. Sophocles, Oedipus the King 59 ff., tr.M. Baldock, Greek Tragedy, an Introduction, Bristol, 1989, 55.
37. Sophocles, Oedipus the King 136.
38. Poetics 1453a7 ff.
39. Sophocles, Oedipus the King, 219 f., trans. Baldock, Greek Tragedy.
40. Sophocles, Oedipus the King 328 f., tr. R. Fagles, op. cit.
41. Ibid. 353; 362.
42. Sophocles, Oedipus the King 391 ff., tr. M. Baldock, op. cit., 56.
43. Sophocles, Oedipus the King 412 ff., tr. S. Kershaw.
44. Ibid., 622 f.
45. Sophocles, Oedipus the King 715 ff.
46. Sophocles, Oedipus the King 791 ff. tr. R. Fagles, op. cit.
47. Sophocles, Oedipus the King 897 ff., tr. C. A. Trypanis, Sophocles: Three Theban Plays, Warminster, 1986.
48. Sophocles, Oedipus the King 971 f., tr. R. Fagles, op. cit.
49. Ibid., 977 ff.
50. Ibid., 1076 ff.
51. Aristotle, Poetics 1452a32 f., trans. S. Kershaw.
52. Sophocles, Oedipus the King, 1169 f., trans. R. Fagles, Sophocles: The Three Theban Plays.
53. Ibid., 1229 f.
54. Ibid., 1329 ff.
55. Ibid., 1530.
56. Ibid., 1455 ff.
57. Aristotle, Poetics 1460b33 ff. Cf. Aristophanes, The Frogs 959, where Euripides says: ‘I wrote about familiar things, things the audience knew about, and could take me up on if necessary.’
58. J.P.A. Gould, ‘Euripides’, in S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth (eds), The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd edn, revised, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2003.
59. Euripides, Medea 36 ff., trans. P. Vellacott, in Medea and Other Plays by Euripides, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963.
60. Gould, ‘Euripides’.
61. Euripides, Medea 146 ff., trans. Vellacott, in Medea and Other Plays.
62. Ibid., 244 ff.
63. Aristophanes, Lysistrata 368 f., trans. S. Kershaw.
64. Euripides, Medea 407 ff., trans. Vellacott, in Medea and Other Plays.
65. Ibid., 540 f.
66. Ibid., 641 f.
67. Ibid., 1029 ff.
68. Aristotle, Poetics 1457a37 ff.
69. Sophocles fr. 1190, trans. I.C. Storey and A. Allan in A Guide to Ancient Greek Drama, Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell, 2005, 157.
70. Muzeo Nazionale, Naples 3240; Beazley ARV2 1336.1. It dates from the end of the fifth century BCE.
71. F. Lissarrague, ‘Why Satyrs are Good to Represent’, in J.J. Winkler and F.I. Zeitlin (eds), Nothing to do with Dionysos? Athenian Drama in its Social Context, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990, 228 ff.
72. Horace, Ars Poetica 231–3, trans. T.S. Dorsch, in Classical Literary Criticism: Aristotle: On the Art of Poetry; Horace:On the Art of Poetry; Longinus: On the Sublime,Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965.
73. Sophocles, Trackers 142ff., trans. E. Dugdale, in Greek Theatre in Context, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 89. There is a double-entendre here: his ‘manly courage’ manifests itself in sexual exploits with nymphs, not in combat.
74. Homeric Hymn to Hermes, 77 ff., trans. J. Cashford, in The Homeric Hymns, London: Penguin, 2003.
75. Fragment of a Greek Tragedy, first published in the Bromsgrovian, 8 June 1883.
Chapter 10
1. See T. Schreiber, Athenian Vase Construction: A Potter’s Analysis, Malibu: J. Paul Getty Museum, 1999. It is, apparently, relatively easy to forge ancient Greek vases.
2. British Museum 1971.11-1.1.
3. Florence, 4209, from Chiusi, ABV 71.1. It is so-called after the man who assembled it out of the hundreds of fragments in which it was found.
4. Paris, Cabinet des Médailles 222, from Vulci. ABV 152, 25.
5. Vatican Museums 344, from Vulci. ABV 144, 7.540-30 BCE.
6. Munich, Antikensammlingen 2301, from Vulci. ABV 255, 4.
7. Munich, Antikensammlingen 2307, from Vulci. ARV 26, 1. c.510–500 BCE.
8. Arezzo, Museo Civico 1465. ARV 15, 6. 510–500 BCE.
9. London, British Museum GR 1848.8-4.1 (Vases E 468), from Cerveteri. 500–480 BCE.
10. Naples, Museo Nazionale 2422, from Nola. ARV 189, 74. 1st quarter fifth century BCE.
11. Plutarch, Perikles 13.
12. Pausanias 1.24.5, trans. J.G. Frazer, Pausanias’ Description of Greece, London, 1898.
13. Ibid., 1.22.7.
Chapter 11
1. Aristotle, Poetics 1448a29 ff.
2. Ibid., 1449a10 ff. As a measure of the difficulty posed by dealing with Ancient Greek, there is dispute as to whether the word exarkhonton, here translated as ‘leaders’, should be rendered ‘preludes’.
3. Aristophanes, The Acharnians 241–78.
4. Paris, Louvre E 620.
5. See A.W. Pickard-Cambridge, Dithyramb, Tragedy and Comedy, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927, fig. 18.
6. Attributed to the Gela Painter, c.480 BCE. British Museum, 1842.7-28.787 (B509).
7. Malibu, J. Paul Getty Museum, 82.AE.83, the product of an illicit excavation in central northern Italy, now repatriated.
8. Archilichos, frs. 41, 42, 43. trans. West.
9. Hipponax, fr. 84. trans. West.
10. Aristotle, Poetics 1449a38ff.
11. Ibid., 1449a32 ff.
12. Aristophanes, The Frogs 98ff., trans. D. Barrett, in Aristophanes: The Wasps, The Poet and the Women, The Frogs, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964.
13. Ibid., 207.
14. Ibid., 404 f.
15. Aristophanes, The Frogs 470 ff., tr. D. Barrett, op. cit.
16. Ibid., 479.
17. Ibid., 1043 ff.,.
18. Ibid., 1169.
19. Ibid., 123 ff.
20. Ibid., 1285 ff. The lines that make sense come from Aeschylus’ Agamemnon and Sphinx.
21. Ibid., 1308.
22. Aristophanes, The Frogs 133l ff., trans. A.H. Sommerstein, in The Comedies of Aristophanes, Vol. 9, Frogs, London: Aris & Philips Ltd, corrected impression, 1999.
23. Aristophanes, The Frogs 1403. The line comes from the lost play Glaukos Potnieus (Aeschylus fr. 38).24. Aristophanes, The Frogs 1468 ff. tr. D. Barrett, op. cit.
24. ????????????
25. We know the names of 64 writers of Greek New Comedy, of whom the most important were Diphilus, Philemon and Menander.
26. Theophrastus The Characters 4, trans. P. Vellacott, in Theophrastus, The Characters; Menander, Plays and Fragments, 2nd edn, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973.
27. Syrian, In Hermog Ii.23 Rabe, trans. S. Kershaw. Aristophanes of Byzantium (c.257–180) should not be confused with Aristophanes the comic poet.
28. Menander, Dyskolos 63, trans. P. Vellacott, in Theophrastus, The Characters.
29. Ibid., 183 f.
30. Ibid., 743 ff.
31. Ibid., 842ff. Three talents is a substantial sum of money: normal dowries from the generation before Menander was writing did not usually exceed one talent.
32. Ibid., 965 ff.
Chapter 12
1. Galen, Opera 1.14.631ff.
2. Clement of Alexandria, The Instructor, 3.11.77.
3. Horace, Epistles 2.1.175f., trans. N. Rudd, Horace: Satires and Epistles; Persius: Satires, rev. edn, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979.
4. E. Segal, Roman Laughter, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987, 7.
5. Plautus, The Swaggering Soldier, 42 ff., trans. E.F. Watling, in Plautus: The Pot of Gold and Other Plays, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965.
6. Ibid., 150 ff.
7. Terence, The Brothers 643.
8. Aristotle, E.N. 112.a.10ff.
9. Theophrastus, The Characters 10.
10. M. Freeland, The Goldwyn Touch, London: Harrap, 1986.
Chapter 13
1. Nikos Kazantzakis, The Last Temptation, trans. P.A. Bien, London: Faber & Faber, 1961.
2. Cicero, Pro Sestio, 45, 96, trans. J.A. Shelton, in As The Romans Did: A Source Book in Roman History, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988, 229. He is, of course, suggesting that the Populares are malevolent, shameless, insane and bedevilled by family problems.
3. Sallust, B.J. 35.
4. Cicero, Pro C. Rabirio Perduellionis Reo 20.
5. Plutarch, Sulla 31.
6. Suetonius, Julius Caesar 77.
7. Plutarch, Sulla 35–8.
8. P.A. Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic, London: Chatto & Windus, 1971, 111.
9. Karl Marx, in a letter to Engels: Karl Marx/Friedrich Engels, Werke, Berlin, 1955 ff., 30, 160.
10. Suetonius, Caesar 1.
11. Ibid., 10.
12. Cicero, Letters to His Brother Quintus 1.1.11.
13. The words of Theodotos, one of Ptolemy’s advisers: Plutarch, Pompey 77.
14. Plutarch, Caesar 49, trans. R. Warner, The Fall of the Roman Republic: Six Lives by Plutarch, rev. edn, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972.
15. Born 23 June 47: clearly Caesar’s paternity is doubtful.
16. Plutarch, Caesar 82
17. Antony, quoted by Cicero, Philippics 13.11.24.
18. Cicero, Letters to his Friends, 11.20 (24 May 43 BCE).
19. Appian, Civil Wars. 4.127, trans. H. White, in Appian’s Roman History, Vol. IV, London and New York: William Heinemann, 1913.
20. Virgil, Eclogues 1.70 ff., trans. C. Day Lewis, in The Eclogues, Georgics and Aeneid of Virgil, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966.
21. Plutarch, Antony 25, trans. I. Scott-Kilvert, in Plutarch, Makers of Rome: Nine Lives by Plutarch, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965.
22. Ibid., 27.
23. Virgil, Aeneid 8.678 ff., trans. Day Lewis, in The Eclogues.
24. Horace, Odes 1137.1 ff., trans. J. Michie, in The Odes of Horace, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964.
25. Augustus, Res Gestae 27, trans. S. Kershaw.
26. Velleius Paterculus, 2.89, trans. A. Lentin, in K. Chisholm and J. Ferguson (eds), Rome: The Augustan Age, Oxford: 1981.
27. H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 BC to AD 68, 5th edn, London and New York: Methuen, 1982, 208.
28. Augustus, Res Gestae 34, trans. Lentin, in Chisholm and Ferguson, Rome: The Augustan Age.
29. Ibid.
Chapter 14
1. Routledge, 1946.
2. Juvenal, Satires 7.227. See R. Cavenaile, Corpus Papyrorum Latinorum (1958), 7 ff.
3. Virgil, Aeneid 1.1. The usual rendering of arma as ‘arms’ is misleading: the Latin word has much stronger emotional connotations than the English – ‘war’ or ‘fighting’ is much better.
4. Amartyron ouden aeido: Fragment 442.
5. Virgil, Aeneid 1.278 f., trans. C. Day Lewis, The Eclogues, Georgics and Aeneid of Virgil, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966.
6. Sunt lacrimae rerum, ibid., 1.462.
7. He actually says, ‘I amafraid of Greeks, particularly when they are bringing gifts’. Ibid., 2.49.
8. Virgil, Aeneid 2. 557 f., trans. Jackson Knight, Virgil: The Aeneid, Harmondsworth: Penguin, rev. edn. 1958. It could be that Virgil is alluding to the death of Pompey the Great, who was murdered and decapitated after the Battle of Pharsalus 49 BCE as he landed in Egypt.
9. Virgil, Aeneid 2.792 ff., tr. C. Day Lewis, op. cit. Cf. Homer Odyssey 11.206 ff. Virgil will use it again at 6.700 ff.
10. Virgil, Aeneid 3.255 ff. trans. D. West, Virgil: The Aeneid, Harmondsworth: Penguin, rev. edn., 2003.
11. Virgil, Aeneid 4.569 f.
12. Virgil, Aeneid 4.628 f., tr. D. West, op. cit.
13. Ibid, 6.721.
14. Virgil, Aeneid 6.791 ff., tr. C. Day Lewis, op. cit.
15. Ibid., 6.847 ff.
16. 32.
17. Virgil, Aeneid 7.96 ff., trans. West.
18. Virgil, Aeneid 8.440 f., tr. W.F. Jackson Knight, op. cit.
19. Virgil, Aeneid 8.485 ff., tr. C. Day Lewis, op. cit.
20. Ibid., 8.614 ff.
21. D. West, op cit., xxxii.
22. Virgil, Aeneid 10.284.
23. Virgil, Aeneid 10.442 f., tr. D. West, op. cit.
24. Ibid. 11.330 ff.
25. Virgil, Aeneid 11.442, tr. W.F. Jackson Knight.
Chapter 15
1. Horace, Satires 1.4.115 ff., trans. N. Rudd, in Horace: Satires and Epistles; Persius: Satires, Harmondsworth: Penguin, rev. edn, 1979.
2. Horace, Odes 3.2.13, trans. S. Kershaw.
3. Acts 22.25–27.
4. Cicero, In Verrem 2.5.169, trans. J.A. Shelton, in As The Romans Did: A Source Book in Roman History, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988, 287.
5. See Seneca the Younger, On the Brevity of Human Life 14.4.
6. Juvenal, Satires 5. 12 ff.
7. Augustus, Res Gestae 15, trans. A. Lentin, in K. Chisholm and J. Ferguson (eds), Rome: The Augustan Age, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1981.
8. See Cicero, De Officiis 1. 150–1.
9. Herrenius Modestinus, Digest 23.2.1
10. Soranus, Gynaecologica 1.60.
11. Horace, Satires 1.2.31ff., trans. Rudd, in Horace: Satires and Epistles, Persius: Satires.
12. Catullus, 15.17ff. Juvenal speaks of similar humiliation in Satire 10.314 ff.
13. Dessau, 8402.
14. Sallust, Bellum Catilinae 25
15. Macrobius, Saturnalia 115
16. Seneca, On Benefits 6.32.1, trans. J.W. Basore, in Seneca: Moral Essays, London and New York, 1935.
17. Tacitus, Annals 3.33
18. Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.9
19. Petronios, Satyricon 1 ff.
20. Pliny, Letters 4.11, trans. R. Barrow, Greek and Roman Education, Basingstoke and London, 1976, p. 84.
21. Seneca, On Clemency 1.24.
22. Strabo, 14.5.2. NB: he says that Delos ‘could’ (dynamene) do this, not that it actually did.
23. P.Oxy 95. The monthly food allowance for a young apprentice at this time was 5 dr.
24. P.Wisc. 16.5.
25. Varro, On Landed Estates 1.17.1. The children become the property of the master.
26. Columella, On Agriculture 1.6–9.
27. Juvenal, Satires 6.476 ff., trans. P. Green, Juvenal: The Sixteen Satires, Harmondsworth: Penguin, rev. edn, 1974.
28. Tacitus, Annals 14.42 f.
29. The Digest of Laws 50.17.32 (Ulpian).
30. Suetonius, Augustus 40.3.
31. Juvenal, Satire 3.63ff., trans. Green, Juvenal: The Sixteen Satires.
32. Horace, Satires 1.6.45 ff., trans. Rudd, in Horace: Satires and Epistles; Persius: Satires.
Chapter 16
1. Trans. J.A. Shelton, As The Romans Did: A Source Book in Roman History, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988, p. 312.
2. Juvenal, Satire 10.80 f., trans. A. Bell, in E. Köhne, ‘Bread and Circuses: The Politics of Entertainment’, in E. Köhne, C. Ewiglebe and R. Jackson (eds), The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome: Gladiators and Caesars, London: British Museum, 2000, 8.
3. Varro, De Re Rustica, 37 BCE.
4. Livy, 7.213., trans. B.O. Foster, Livy: History of Rome, Books V–VII, Cambridge, MA, and London, 1924.
5. Suetonius, Caesar 39
6. Suetonius, Caligula 56.
7. Tacitus, Annals 15.44. Note the absence of lions in his account.
8. CIL 12.5837.
9. Suetonius, Claudius 21, 6.
10. Encheiridion 33, 2.
11. Satire 6.110 ff., trans. M. Jenks, in A. Futrell, The Roman Games: A Sourcebook, Oxford 2006, and A. Bell in C. Ewigleben, ‘What TheseWomen Love is the Sword’, in Köhne et al., The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome, 125 ff. There is also a sexual double-entendre in ‘sword’.
12. CIL VI 10047; Suetonius, De grammaticis et rhetoribus 17.2
13. Correspondence 2, p. 216, trans. A. Bell,. 139.
14. Suetonius, Tiberius, 2.2.
15. For the principal State gods and goddesses, see Table 8.1 on p. 149.
16. Polybius, 36.17.
17. Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods 3.87.
18. Quirinus is the deified Romulus.
19. Philo, The Embassy to Gaius 155 ff.
20. Horace, Odes 3.6.6 f., trans. J. Michie, The Odes of Horace, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964.
21. Minucius Felix, Octavius 12.5, trans. Shelton, As The Romans Did, 418.
Chapter 17
1. CIL IV 1293.
2. Tacitus, Annals 14.17 for the riot; CIL IV 3340.143 and 3340.144 for the removal of the magistrates.
3. Tacitus, Annals 15.22.
4. Seneca, Natural Questions 6.1.2. Seneca was writing shortly after the event, and says it took place on 5 February 63 CE. There is still some dispute about who is correct.
5. TR P VIIII IMP XV COS VII PP. The August date is, however, supported by finds of leaves of deciduous trees, herbs that would have finished flowering by autumn and broad beans, which ripen in late summer. Autumnal fruits like pomegranates were also often picked early and preserved.
6. Pliny, Letters 6.16; 6.20. The letters are written to the historian Tacitus.
7. So called after a famous and devastating eruption of Mount Pelée on Martinique in 1902.
8. Pliny, Letters 6.12, trans. B. Radice, in The Letters of the Younger Pliny, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963.
9. Suetonius, Vespasian 5.
10. CIL IV.10231.
11. CIL IV.1842.
12. CIL IV.1819; CIL IV.1781; CIL IV. 1820; CIL IV.1904.
13. CIL IV 2184; 2193.
14. CIL X.877. Mosaic dogs guard other entrances, e.g. those of Paquis Proculus (I.7.1) and the House of Caecilius Iucundus (V.1.26), and one was painted on the wall of Trimalchio’s house in Petronius’ Satyricon, also with CAVE CANEM.
15. M. Beard, Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town, London: Profile, 2008, p. 117.
16. Described by Vitruvius, de Architectura, 7.5.1. See R. Ling, Roman Painting, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, 12 ff.
17. Vitruvius, de Architectura, 7.5.2. See Ling, Roman Painting, 23 ff. (Good illustration at http://www.skenographia.cch.kcl.ac.uk/oplontis/analysis.html.)
18. Vitruvius, de Architectura, 7.5.3. See Ling, Roman Painting, 52 ff.
19. Vitruvius had died by 62 CE. See Ling, Roman Painting, 71 ff.
20. Vitruvius, de Architectura, 2.8.20.
21. Frontinus, On the Aqueducts of Rome 1.16, trans. C.E. Bennett, The Stratagems and the Aqueducts of Rome, London: William Heinemann, 1925.
22. Vitruvius, de Architectura, 8, 6, 1–10.
23. Frontinus, On the Aqueducts of Rome 1.16. The law was passed in 9 BCE. The penalty is astronomical.
24. Pliny the Elder, N.H. 36.121 f. Cf. Strabo 5.3.8.
Chapter 18
1. Eusebius, Historia Ecclestiastica 8.16.3 ff., trans. D. Miller, ‘How the Mighty Fall: The Fate of Roman Emperors’, Minerva 20.1 (2009), 52.
2. Claudian, De Consulatu Stilichonis, 2.250 ff., r. H.H. Scullard, Roman Britain: Outpost of the Empire, London: Thames & Hudson, 1979, 175.
3. Virgil, Aeneid I. 278 f., trans. S. Kershaw.
4. T.S. Eliot, ‘Virgil and the Christian World’, in On Poetry and Poets, London, 1959, 135.