Introduction
Simmons (1993: p. 153) and Hughes (2006: p. 152) provide introductions to environmental history, with brief research histories.1 Hughes (1994: p. 154) reports generally on the environment in antiquity; Sallares (2007: p. 154) and Foxhall et al. (2007: p. 154) give a brief introduction. Panessa (1991: p. 154) contains the appropriate literary sources from antiquity. The results of natural-scientific examinations of pollen, tree-ring, ice-core, river and lake sediment, peat, glacier and osteological data – which are published in the respective periodicals, such as ArchaeoZoologia, Environmental Archaeology, Geoarchaeology, Science, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany – are also increasingly important.
The geographic space
Semple (1931: p. 154) provided an overview of the Mediterranean area in ancient times from an ecological perspective, as do, more recently, Grove and Rackham (2001: p. 154); Horden and Purcell (2000: p. 154) and Hughes (2005: p. 154) do so from a historical perspective. Fundamental for the history of the climate is Lamb (1977: p. 157); the most recent reconstruction based on tree rings is Büntgen et al. (2011: p. 157). The discussion of the deposits in Mediterranean river valleys and their causes started with Vita-Finzi (1969: p. 158), and was continued by Bintliff (1977: p. 156), with more comprehensive examinations. Further individual studies were provided by van Andel and colleagues (van Andel and Zangger, 1990; van Andel et al. 1986, 1990: p. 158) and Brückner (1983,1986, 1990, 1997: p. 157), who increasingly took human influences into account.
People and nature
Bernert's article ‘Naturgefühl’ (‘feeling for nature’) in Pauly's Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (1935: p. 158) laid the foundations. Glacken (1967: p. 159) published an epoch-making standard reference. Newer essays on the Greek understanding of nature are contained in Westra and Robinson (1997: p. 159); for Pliny, see Beagon (1992: p. 166).
Agriculture
Isager and Skydsgaard (1992: p. 160) provide an introduction to Greek agriculture; Wells (1992: p. 160) contains select examples. White (1970: p. 168) and Flach (1990: p. 167) wrote important manuals on Roman agricultural history. For the situation in Italy, see Spurr (1986: p. 168) and Jongman (2003: p. 167), who questions the transformation in agriculture, and emphasises the priority of cereals cultivation.
Forests and timber
The pioneering work is Meiggs (1982: p. 161); Thirgood (1981: p. 161) still emphasised deforestation in antiquity. Nenninger (2001: p. 169) and Ulrich (2007: p. 169) provide more current pictures of the Roman world – especially also on timber construction. The most recent and cautious general overview is Harris (2011: p. 160).
Gardens
The epoch-making general work is by Gothein (1914: p. 161), supplemented by the modern summary by Bonnechere and De Bruyn (1998: p. 161). Carroll-Spillecke (1989: p. 161) and Osborne (1992: p. 161) are comprehensive for the Greek garden; Birge (1982: p. 161) for the sacred groves. The scientific works of Jashemski (1967, 1979 in particular, 1992, 1998: p. 170) are path-breaking on the Roman gardens, using the example of Pompeii. Archaeobotanical and palynological studies which have been carried out for some time at ancient digs, are also important.
Animals
The comprehensive, epoch-making general manual is by Kalof (2007: p. 162). For the human–animal relationship in antiquity, see Gilhus (2006: p. 162). Jennison (1937, with sources: p. 170) provided the basic study on the use of animals in the circus spectacles; Toynbee (1973: p. 171) addressed ancient Rome in general. Archaeozoological studies, which are increasingly being presented in connection with provincial Roman digs, are also important.
Food
Dalby (1996: p. 162) provides an overview on Greece; André (1981: p. 171) on Rome. Garnsey (1988, 1999: p. 172) discusses the diet situation in antiquity in general. Davidson (1997: p. 162) gives an outline of Greek dietary habits and physical requirements in their social and political context. Kleberg (1966: p. 172) is the basic work on Roman inns; Carusi (2008: p. 171), on all aspects of salt.
Fire and water
Crouch (1993: p. 163) is the key work on water supply in Greece; on hydraulic engineering in antiquity, Tölle-Kastenbein (1990: p. 163) and Wikander (2000: p. 164); on Athens, Tölle-Kastenbein (1994: p. 163). On the water supply in Rome and its organisation, Kleijn (2001: p. 173) and Bruun (1991: p. 173) are the basic works. Aldrete (2007: p. 172) is comprehensive for the Tiber floods. Peachin (2004: p. 173) provides an overview on Frontinus and the contemporary water supply.
Earthquakes and volcanoes
Guidoboni (1994: p. 174) offers a summary of the seismic events of antiquity and the early Middle Ages. Waldherr (1997: p. 164) examines the ancient interpretations of earthquakes. Sonnabend (1999: p. 175) and Meißner (2008: p. 164) are the key works on natural disasters and their management.
Mining
Healy (1978: p. 164), Tylecote (1992: p. 165) and Shepherd (1993: p. 165) – and recently also Domergue (2008: p. 164) – provide complete portrayals. Ramin (1977, 199ff.: p. 165) contains the ancient documentary sources. Conophagos (1980: p. 164) and Kalcyk (1982: p. 165) are comprehensive on Laureion. See Davies (1935: p. 175) for the Roman mines generally, Domergue (1990: p. 175) for the situation in Spain, and Penhallurick (1986: p. 165) on tin in south-western England.
Urban problems and rural villa construction
Kolb (1995: p. 177) is comprehensive on the history and design of the city of Rome; Robinson (1992: p. 177) provides a brief summary. Thüry (2001: p. 177) covers the waste problem in antiquity. Hobson (2009: p. 173) presents a comprehensive monograph on latrines. Percival (1976: p. 177) is the key work on villas, along with d’Arms (1970: p. 176) on the Bay of Naples, and Marzano (2007: p. 177) on central Italy, which also contains a detailed catalogue; for Pliny, see Förtsch (1993: p. 176).
The environment in Roman Britain
The basic research work was done by Dark and Dark (1997: p. 178) and Dark (2000: p. 178). A useful overview is also provided by Jones (1996, chapter 6, 186ff.: p. 178). More recent overviews of such important topics as ‘Health and Disease’, ‘Economic Structures’, ‘Rural Settlement in Northern/Southern Britain’, ‘Domestic Animals’, or ‘Britain in the Fourth Century’ are included in Todd (2004: p. 173). There is an illustrative overview of ‘The Economy’ in Jones and Mattingly (1990, 179ff.: p. 178). Cool (2006: p. 178) is basic on the question of diet; for the introduction of approximately fifty new plants, see van der Veen et al. (2008: p. 179). An illustrated richly complete portrayal of Roman Britain has been presented by de la Bédoyère (2006: p. 178).
1 Page references in this chapter are to the Bibliography.