3. Mencius, Mentor of Princes
A model mother—A philosopher among kings—Are men by nature good?—Single tax—Mencius and the communists—The profit-motive—The right of revolution
Mencius, destined to be second in fame to Confucius alone in the rich annals of Chinese philosophy, belonged to the ancient family of Mang; his name Mang Ko was changed by an imperial decree to Mang-tze—i.e., Mang the Master or Philosopher; and the Latin-trained scholars of Europe transformed him into Mencius, as they had changed K’ung-fu-tze into Confucius.
We know the mother of Mencius almost as intimately as we know him; for Chinese historians, who have made her famous as a model of maternity, recount many pretty stories of her. Thrice, we are told, she changed her residence on his account: once because they lived near a cemetery, and the boy began to behave like an undertaker; another time because they lived near a slaughterhouse, and the boy imitated too well the cries of the slain animals; and again because they lived near a market place, and the boy began to act the part of a tradesman; finally she found a home near a school, and was satisfied. When the boy neglected his studies she cut through, in his presence, the thread of her shuttle; and when he asked why she did so destructive a thing, she explained that she was but imitating his own negligence, and the lack of continuity in his studies and his development. He became an assiduous student, married, resisted the temptation to divorce his wife, opened a school of philosophy, gathered a famous collection of students about him, and received invitations from various princes to come and discuss with them his theories of government. He hesitated to leave his mother in her old age, but she sent him off with a speech that endeared her to all Chinese males, and may have been composed by one of them.
It does not belong to a woman to determine anything of herself, but she is subject to the rule of the three obediences. When young she has to obey her parents; when married she has to obey her husband; when a widow she has to obey her son. You are a man in your full maturity, and I am old. Do you act as your conviction of righteousness tells you you ought to do, and I will act according to the rule which belongs to me. Why should you be anxious about me?165
He went, for the itch to teach is a part of the itch to rule; scratch the one and find the other. Like Voltaire, Mencius preferred monarchy to democracy, on the ground that in democracy it is necessary to educate all if the government is to succeed, while under monarchy it is only required that the philosopher should bring one man—the king—to wisdom, in order to produce the perfect state. “Correct what is wrong in the prince’s mind. Once rectify the prince, and the kingdom will be settled.”166 He went first to Ch’i, and tried to rectify its Prince Hsuan; he accepted an honorary office, but refused the salary that went with it; and soon finding that the Prince was not interested in philosophy, he withdrew to the small principality of T’ang, whose ruler became a sincere but ineffectual pupil. Mencius returned to Ch’i, and proved his growth in wisdom and understanding by accepting a lucrative office from Prince Hsuan. When, during these comfortable years, his mother died, he buried her with such pomp that his pupils were scandalized; he explained to them that it was only a sign of his filial devotion. Some years later Hsuan set out upon a war of conquest, and, resenting Mencius’ untimely pacifism, terminated his employment. Hearing that the Prince of Sung had expressed his intention of ruling like a philosopher, Mencius journeyed to his court, but found that the report had been exaggerated. Like the men invited to an ancient wedding-feast, the various princes had many excuses for not being rectified. “I have an infirmity,” said one of them; “I love valor.” “I have an infirmity,” said another; “I am fond of wealth.”167 Mencius retired from public life, and gave his declining years to the instruction of students and the composition of a work in which he described his conversations with the royalty of his time. We cannot tell to what extent these should be classed with those of Walter Savage Landor; nor do we know whether this composition was the work of Mencius himself, or of his pupils, or of neither, or of both.168 We can only say that the Book of Mencius is one of the most highly honored of China’s philosophical classics.
His doctrine is as severely secular as that of Confucius. There is little here about logic, or epistemology, or metaphysics; the Confucians left such subtleties to the followers of Lao-tze, and confined themselves to moral and political speculation. What interests Mencius is the charting of the good life, and the establishment of government by good men. His basic claim is that men are by nature good,169 and that the social problem arises not out of the nature of men but out of the wickedness of governments. Hence philosophers must become kings, or the kings of this world must become philosophers.
“Now, if your Majesty will institute a government whose action will be benevolent, this will cause all the officers in the kingdom to wish to stand in your Majesty’s court, and all the farmers to wish to plough in your Majesty’s fields, and all the merchants to wish to store their goods in your Majesty’s market-places, and all traveling strangers to wish to make their tours on your Majesty’s roads, and all throughout the Kingdom who feel aggrieved by their rulers to wish to come and complain to your Majesty. And when they are so bent, who will be able to keep them back?”
The King said, “I am stupid, and not able to advance to this.”170
The good ruler would war not against other countries, but against the common enemy—poverty, for it is out of poverty and ignorance that crime and disorder come. To punish men for crimes committed as the result of a lack of opportunities offered them for employment is a dastardly trap to set for the people.171 A government is responsible for the welfare of its people, and should regulate economic processes accordingly.172 It should tax chiefly the ground itself, rather than what is built or done on it;173 it should abolish all tariffs, and should develop universal and compulsory education as the soundest basis of a civilized development; “good laws are not equal to winning the people by good instruction.”174 “That whereby man differs from the lower animals is but small. Most people throw it away; only superior men preserve it.”175
We perceive how old are the political problems, attitudes and solutions of our enlightened age when we learn that Mencius was rejected by the princes for his radicalism, and was scorned for his conservatism by the socialists and communists of his time. When the “shrike-tongued barbarian of the south,” Hsu Hsing, raised the flag of the proletarian dictatorship, demanding that workingmen should be made the heads of the state (“The magistrates,” said Hsu, “should be laboring men”), and many of “The Learned,” then as now, flocked to the new standard, Mencius rejected the idea scornfully, and argued that government should be in the hands of educated men.”176 But he denounced the profit-motive in human society, and rebuked Sung K’ang for proposing to win the kings to pacifism by persuading them, in modern style, of the unprofitableness of war.
Your aim is great, but your argument is not good. If you, starting from the point of profit, offer your persuasive counsels to the kings of Ch’in and Ch’i, and if those kings are pleased with the consideration of profit so as to stop the movements of their armies, then all belonging to those armies will rejoice in the cessation (of war), and will find their pleasures in (the pursuit of) profit. Ministers will serve the sovereign for the profit of which they cherish the thought; sons will serve their fathers, and younger brothers will serve their elder brothers, from the same consideration; and the issue will be that, abandoning benevolence and righteousness, sovereign and minister, father and son, younger brother and elder, will carry on all their intercourse with this thought of profit cherished in their breasts. But never has there been such a state (of society), without ruin being the result of it.177
He recognized the right of revolution, and preached it in the face of kings. He denounced war as a crime, and shocked the hero-worshipers of his time by writing: “There are men who say: ‘I am skilful at marshaling troops, I am skilful at conducting a battle.’ They are great criminals.”178“There has never been a good war,” he said.179 He condemned the luxury of the courts, and sternly rebuked the king who fed his dogs and swine while famine was consuming his people.180 When a king argued that he could not prevent famine, Mencius told him that he should resign.181 “The people,” he taught, “are the most important element (in a nation); . . . the sovereign is the lighest”;182 and the people have the right to depose their rulers, even, now and then, to kill them.
The King Hsuan asked about the high ministers. . . . Mencius answered: “If the princes have great faults, they ought to remonstrate with him; and if he do not listen to them after they have done so again and again, they ought to dethrone him.” . . . Mencius proceeded: “Suppose that the chief criminal judge could not regulate the officers (under him), how would you deal with him?” The King said, “Dismiss him.” Mencius again said: “If within the four borders (of your kingdom) there is not good government, what is to be done?” The King looked to the right and left, and spoke of other matters. . . . The King Hsuan asked, “Was it so that T’ang banished Chieh, and that King Wu smote Chou (Hsin)?” Mencius replied, “It is so in the records.” The King said, “May a minister put his sovereign to death?” Mencius said: “He who outrages the benevolence (proper to his nature) is called a robber; he who outrages righteousness is called a ruffian. The robber and the ruffian we call a mere fellow. I have heard of the cutting off of the fellowChou, but I have not heard of putting a sovereign to death.”183
It was brave doctrine, and had much to do with the establishment of the principle, recognized by the kings as well as the people of China, that a ruler who arouses the enmity of his people has lost the “mandate of Heaven,” and may be removed. It is not to be marveled at that Hung-wu, founder of the Ming Dynasty, having read with great indignation the conversations of Mencius with King Hsuan, ordered Mencius to be degraded from his place in the temple of Confucius, where a royal edict of 1084 had erected his tablet. But within a year the tablet was restored; and until the Revolution of 1911 Mencius remained one of the heroes of China, the second great name and influence in the history of Chinese orthodox philosophy. To him and to Chu Hsi* Confucius owed his intellectual leadership of China for more than two thousand years.