Chapter 1
1.Book-length treatments include RCHME 1928; Merrifield 1965; Marsden 1980; Merrifield 1983; Perring 1991; Milne 1995; Hingley 2018.
2.E.g. Richard Reece as quoted in Johnston 1977, 1.
3.Scheidel 2007.
4.Swain and Williams 2008.
5.E.g. Horden and Purcell 2000, 90–7.
6.Flohr and Wilson 2017, 1.
7.Finley 1985; Perring 1991, vii–viii.
8.Wallace 2016, 131.
9.A distinction can be drawn between the annona, the yearly import of grain and produce that fed cities, and free monthly distributions of grain and supplies known as frumentationes. The term annona leaves open the issue of how the goods were distributed.
Chapter 2
1.RCHME 1928, 1–7; Milne 1995, 15–19.
2.Stow 1603, 3.
3.Schnapp 1996, 140–1.
4.Stow 1603, 168–70.
5.S. Pearce 1990; Hepple 2003; Arnold 2006.
6.Bacon 1876.
7.Hingley 2008, 179–80; Hingley 2016.
8.Woodward 1713; Seymour 1735.
9.J. Clark 2008.
10.Stow 1842, 3.
11.Schofield 1998, 1–5.
12.Tite 1848.
13.C. Smith 1883, 114; Kidd 1977, 113.
14.Marsden 1996, 14; S. Scott 2017; Orton et al. 1993, 9; C. Smith 1854; C. Smith 1859 iii.
15.D. Wilson 2002, 133.
16.J. Price 1870; S. Wardle 2020.
17.Lane-Fox 1867; J. Price 1880.
18.Marsden 1987, 5–6.
19.Hingley 2000; Gardner 2016, 482.
20.Haverfield 1915.
21.VCH 1909.
22.Marsden 1994, 109.
23.Schofield 1998, 1–5.
24.Quoted by Hawkes 1982, 105.
25.RCHME 1928; R. Wheeler 1930, 17.
26.Marsden 1980, 194–5.
27.Fulford 2007, 360; Schofield 1998, 1–5.
28.Grimes 1968; Shepherd 1998, 13–15; Merrifield 1965, 13–21.
29.Millett 2016b, 27.
30.Marsden 1980, 205.
31.B. Jones 1984.
32.Biddle et al. 1973.
33.Milne 2005, 72.
34.Museum of London 1990, 47–8; J. Maloney 2020, 27.
35.Carver 1993, 9; J. Maloney 2020, 28–9: DMT88.
36.DoE 1990.
37.Perring 2015, 20.
Chapter 3
1.Collingwood 1939.
2.Popper 1959.
3.Medawar 1996.
4.Bradley 1997, following Shanks and McGuire 1996.
5.Barker 1977, 145; Lucas 2001, 56–8; Spence 1990; Roskams 2001.
6.R. Thomas 2019.
7.Perring 2016.
8.E.g. Woolf 2004; Millett 2016b, 31 taking issue with Barker 1977, 12; Hamilton and Barrett 2018.
9.Hingley 2008, 329–32.
10.Chapman and Wylie 2016.
11.Bell 1994.
12.Frere 1999, xvi–xvii.
13.Storey 1999; Gardner 2016, 490.
14.I. Morris 2000, 3–36.
15.Brien 2013.
16.I. Tyers 2008a.
17.D. Goodburn 1995; D. Goodburn 2008.
18.Orton et al. 1993; Marshall and Seeley 2018.
19.Davies et al. 1994; Symonds and Tomber 1991.
20.Verboven 2015, 51.
21.Pitts 2018. For objectscapes see Pitts and Verlsuys 2021.
22.Laurence 2012, 65–6; Gardner 2016, 489–99.
23.Laurence 2011; Newsome 2011a.
24.Carl et al. 2000, 346.
25.Noreńa 2011, 9.
26.Creighton 2006, 93–107.
27.Laurence 2012, 62; Finley 1985. See p. 191.
28.Millett 1990, 60–1; Millett 2007, 137.
29.See Pitts and Versluys 2015, 6; Laurence 2012; Gardner 2016.
30.Mattingly 2011.
31.Perring and Pitts 2013.
32.R. Moore 2016, 2.
Chapter 4
1.E.g. Ackroyd 2000, 11.
2.Kent 1978, 53.
3.Baker and Brookes 2013, 269.
4.Lewis 2000a; Sidell et al. 2002; Lewis 2000c, 54.
5.Bradley 1990, Bradley 2000; Lewis 2000b, 74; Hingley 2018, 13–24.
6.Myers 2016; Sidell 2008.
7.Brown and Cotton 2000, 92; Powell 2017.
8.Holder and Jamieson 2003.
9.Milne 1985, 79–86; Sidell 2008, 67: PDN81.
10.Marsden 1994, 23–4.
11.Museum of London Archaeology 2011.
12.Bentley 1984.
13.Myers 2016, 327–8; T. Taylor 2020; Ranieri and Telfer 2017, 47–9; Shepherd 1998, 216; Ridgeway 2009, 42; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 18, 255; Wallace 2014, 34; Scaife 2011, 535; Sidell 2008, 68; Bull et al. 2011: HLW06; SDX07.
14.Cowan et al. 2009, 14.
15.Dark 2017, 17.
16.T. Moore 2016, 263; Champion 2016, 158–67; Pitts 2018.
17.Evans 2016, 511–12.
18.Caes. BGall. 1.3–18.
19.Champion 2016, 159; Haselgrove 2006.
20.Caes. BGall. 5.12; Hawkes and Dunning 1931; Birchall 1965.
21.T. Moore 2016, 263–70; Pitts 2017, 55; Gosden 2004, 109.
22.Caes. BGall. 4.20–36; 5.8–23.
23.Fitzpatrick 2018.
24.Champion 2016, 163; Strabo Geog. 4.5.3.
25.Laurence 2001, 68; Tac. Ann. 2.24.
26.T. Moore 2011.
27.Nash 1987.
28.Creighton 2000, 80–125.
29.Pitts 2018, 66, 104–6.
30.Suet. Calig. 44.2; Mattingly 2011, 88.
31.Perring and Pitts 2013, 88; Atkinson and Preston 2015.
32.Fulford and Timby 2000, 545–64.
33.Fulford and Timby 2000, fig. 238.
34.F. Morris 2013, 43.
35.Kent 1978, 53–8; Cotton 2018, 64.
36.Wait and Cotton 2000; P. Tyers 1996a.
37.Cotton 2018, 64.
38.I. Thompson 1982.
39.P. Tyers 1996a, 139; Rayner 2017, 348.
40.I. Thompson 2015, 123.
41.Bowlt 2008.
42.P. Tyers 1996a; Rayner 2017, 348.
43.Cowan et al. 2009, 14: GRA89; GRW91; AW89.
44.Rayner 2009, 38–40.
45.TLT00.
46.Cowan et al. 2009, 38–40.
47.Killock et al. 2015, 140.
48.Cowan 1992, 11: 15SK80.
49.Hammerson 1996, 154.
50.Cowan 1992, 183–4.
51.Creighton 2006, 49. The evidence finds parallel at Fishbourne: Manley and Rudkin 2005.
52.Hingley 2018.
53.S. Watson 2015, 8: GHM05; Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 13: FER97.
54.WAO06.
55.Harward et al. 2015, 14: RIV87; MRL98.
56.Field 1985: TOL79-84.
57.B. Davies 1990: GWS89.
58.Sloane 2012, 10–14: ENG84; CLK86; NEW87; SCT87; SNS87.
59.Cowan et al. 2009, 39.
60.Telfer 2010, 50: SMD01.
61.P. Tyers 1996a.
62.Tac. Ann. 14.33; Tomlin 2016, 70–1.
63.Jackson 1953; Coates 1998, 204–5.
64.Bynon 2016.
65.Ptol. Geog. 2.3, 12; Rivet and Smith 1979, 115, 144.
66.Rivet and Smith 1979, 398.
67.Millett 1996, 35.
68.Hassall 2017, 118.
69.Marsh 1979a.
70.Braund 1988; Mattingly 2011, 75, 84–5; Dio Cass. 60.19.1–2.
Chapter 5
1.Tac. Ann. 14.33.
2.Home 1948; Merrifield 1965, 34–5.
3.Dio Cass. 60.20.5–60.21.30.
4.Hind 1989; Frere and Fulford 2001; Manley 2002, 52; Grainge 2005, 111; Kaye 2015.
5.G. Webster 1966.
6.E.g. Chapman and Johnson 1973, 71.
7.E.g. Merrifield and Sheldon 1974.
8.Marsden 1980, 17–26.
9.Hammerson 1978a.
10.Haverfield 1911, 149.
11.Finley 1985.
12.Millett 1990; Grahame 1998; Wallace 2014, 12.
13.Millett 1994, 433.
14.Millett 1996, 34.
15.J. Morris 1982, 78; Fuentes 1985.
16.WAO06.
17.Merrifield and Sheldon 1974, 189; Sheldon 2014, fig. 1.
18.Wallace 2013; Wallace 2016.
19.Thorp 2010.
20.Sankey 2002, 3: ETA89.
21.R. Wilson 2006, 28.
22.Fulford et al. 2018, 15–17.
23.Wallace 2013, 70, 286.
24.R. Wilson 2006, 26–7.
25.Bushe-Fox 1932, 3; Cunliffe 1968, 232–4. Research by Philip Smither suggests a later Claudian date.
26.Frere and St Joseph 1974, 10.
27.E.g. P. Crummy 1988, 29.
28.KWS94.
29.E. Hartley 2012, fig. 7.
30.R. Wilson 2006, 25; von Schnurbein 2003.
31.See p. 41 for isolated late Iron Age or early Roman pottery assemblages.
32.R. Jones 2014.
33.Wallace 2014, 112; Davies et al. 1994, 166.
34.Milne and Wardle 1993, 28: LCT84.
35.P. Crummy 1997, 35.
36.Manley 2002, 109, drawing on Hyginus. R. Jones 2014 reviews problems in assessing occupation densities in temporary camps but illustrates how figures of 480–620 men per hectare might be proposed.
37.Mason 2003, 78; B. Hoffmann 2013, 56.
38.P. Tyers 1996a, 143: PRK90.
39.Yule 2005, 23–5: WP83.
40.Dio Cass. 60.20.5.
41.Thornhill 1976, 119–28.
42.Baker and Brookes 2013, 279; Phillips 1981, 69.
43.VCH 1909, 29–30; Margary 1967, 54.
44.Haverfield 1911. For a recent instance see Rowsome 2018, 91.
45.C. Thomas 2008.
46.Sloane et al. 1995, 369: LEG94.
47.Van der Meer 2007. For a description of how the army built such bridges see Dio Cass. 71.3.
48.Merrifield 1983, 25. Brigham 2001b, 33: GM248.
49.Dio Cass. 60.21.3.
50.B. Hoffmann 2013, 66.
51.Grainge 2005, 133–4.
Chapter 6
1.Cowan et al. 2009, 43: 15SK80.
2.Reece 1995, 191; Hammerson 1996, 153.
3.Hammer 1985, 7–8: FEN83; Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 13: FER97.
4.Wallace 2014, 104.
5.ONE94.
6.Wallace 2014, 22; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 23–4.
7.Keily 2011, 553.
8.Graham and Hinton 1988; Cowan et al. 2009, 55–61; Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 25: BGH95.
9.P. Tyers 1996a.
10.Margary 1967, 53.
11.Kaiser 2011, 25.
12.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 20: FER97.
13.Houston 1988; Roth 1999, 175, 216–17.
14.Marsden 1987, 18–21: GM297; GST77.
15.Wallace 2014, 60.
16.Amiens was laid out around a similar central space: Bayard and Massy 1983, 74–7.
17.Philp 1977, 8–9: GM297; Marsden 1987, 18–19.
18.Marsden 1987, 140–2: GM100.
19.Frere 1983, 193–4.
20.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 18: FER97.
21.WAO06.
22.Lennon 2014, 44–5.
23.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 26; Birbeck and Schuster 2009, 13–16; Graham and Hinton 1988; Westman 2009, 52–60.
24.Wallace 2014, 43, 56.
25.Laurence 2008; Laurence 2012, 90; S. Stevens 2017, 69–71.
26.Newsome 2011a.
27.Wallace 2014, 38: CASS72; FST85; LFE87; CID90; BBH05; NEG98. In similar arrangements at Verulamium the widely spaced flanking ditches were only deployed to define carriageways outside town: Niblett 2001, 69–70; Niblett and Thomson 2005, 66.
28.S. Watson 2006, 17–20: NGT00.
29.Holbrook 2015, 97.
30.NHA86.
31.Dean and Hammerson 1980; R. Goodburn 1978, 453; Rayner 2009, 38; Connell 2009, 254: 124BHS77.
32.Cowan et al. 2009, 14.
33.Parnell 1985, 5–7; Bayley 1985; Chapman 1985, 63–5: TOL79-84.
34.Birley 2005, 25–9; Mattingly 2006a, 102–3; Tac. Agr. 14.1; Tac. Ann. 12.31–2.
35.Frere 1983, 5.
36.Cunliffe 1968, 234–43; Perring 1991, 18; Wallace 2014, 18.
37.Ptol. Geog. 2.3, 12.
38.E.g. Caes. BGall. 6.32; Roth 1999, 169–76.
39.Wallace 2014, 112, 127: BTBHS91; Philp 1977, 9: GM297.
40.Woolf 2012, 76.
41.Caes. BGall. 7.3.1; Roth 1999, 230, 251, 275.
42.E.g. Hingley 2018, 34–5.
43.Millett 1990, 88–91; Millett 1996; Millett 2016b.
44.Fulford 2015a, 196.
45.Woolf 2012, 35–6.
46.Strabo Geog. 4.3, 2; Desbat 2007, 179–80.
47.Tchernia 2016, 256.
48.Ottaway 1993, 20.
49.Purcell 2013.
Chapter 7
1.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 20: FER97.
2.FEU 08; Philp 1977, 9–16: GM297.
3.Wallace 2014, 95–100.
4.Buildings flanking a 5-metre-wide road at Whittington Avenue were destroyed in a fire likely to date ad 60/61: WIV88. Wallace 2014, 56 fn 77 questions this dating, but it seems supported by spot-date records (e.g. context 1923). Other components of the street grid include a street-side ditch at LIM83 and an east-west gravel surface at BRL87. A small cremation cemetery at LCT84 marks its northern limits.
5.ONE94.
6.Milne 1985, 25: PDN81.
7.Waterfront 1: Brigham and Watson 1996; Brigham 1998, 23; D. Goodburn in prep.: KWS94. Some piles were prepared by small round-bladed axes rather than the larger straighter-edged axes typical of Roman woodworking.
8.D. Swift 2008, 16–17: AUT01; Brigham 2001a, 17: SUF94; Hillam 1986, 99: ILA79.
9.I. Tyers 2008a, fig. 2.2.1.
10.Birley 2005, 31–7; Gambash 2016, 260–1; Tac. Ann. 12.40.1–5.
11.Suet. Ner. 18.
12.Tomlin 2016, .
13.Tomlin 2016, .
14.GM297; FSE76; FEH95.
15.P. Crummy 1984, 22, 37; Desbat 1981, 55–8; Perring 2002, 99–101.
16.Similar in plan to a pre-Flavian courtyard building beneath the Silchester forum. Fulford and Timby 2000, 565–6.
17.Straker 1987; A. Davis 2004.
18.C. Stevens 2009: FNE01; A. Davis 2014: FEU08.
19.Dunwoodie 2004, 20: FEH95.
20.D. Smith 2012, 51–4.
21.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 21, 264–72: ONE94.
22.Smith and Davis 2011; Smith and Kenward 2011, 253.
23.Dunwoodie 2004, 19: FEH95.
24.Neal and Cosh 2009, 398–9: Mosaic 370.54: LCT84.
25.Monteil 2008, 178; A. Wardle 2016, 163–6.
26.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 36: FER97.
27.Hammer 1985, 9: FEN83; Wallace 2014, 113–14: KWS94.
28.Henig 1984a, 11–15: EST83.
29.Laurence et al. 2011, 213; Revell 2016, 781.
30.Bidwell 2009, 55; Ottaway 1993, 31.
31.Pringle 2007; Betts 2017a, 99; Betts 2016, 171–6: FER97.
32.Hingley 2018, 32 is unconvinced, but the materials were made to build a bathhouse somewhere in London.
33.Wilmott 1982; Philp 1977, 15: GM297. Roman London’s water-pipes were formed from lengths of squared oak bored through the centre and clamped together by iron collars.
34.Grew and Watson 2016: FEN14.
35.RCHME 1928, 118–19.
36.D. Swift 2008, 16–17: AUT01.
37.ONE94 Road 2.
38.Blair et al. 2006, 5: GHT00.
39.Niblett 1999, 319, 415; Creighton 2006, 126–7.
40.King 1990; A. Smith 2018b, 141; Serv. Aen. 7.42.
41.Derks 1998, 137–8; A. Smith 2001; Laurence et al. 2011, 135–7; Vitr. De arch. 1.6.7, 4.5.
42.Frankfurter 2006, 547–8; McInerney 2006.
43.Yule 2005, 17; Brigham 2001b, 12–27: WP83; TW70.
44.Divers et al. 2009, 12: MTA99. Some reconstructions show this road continuing towards Westminster, but the topography makes this highly unlikely.
45.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 31, 50: BGH95.
46.15SK80.
47.Ridgeway et al. 2019, 149–50: BVF10; BVT09; BVB10.
48.Hammerson 1978a, 587–600; Hammerson 1988; Hammerson 1992, 143; Hammerson 2011, 518; Walton and Moorhead 2016, 839.
49.Marsden 1980, 26; Lawrence 1940.
50.Yule 2005, 25, 47; Pringle 2007: WP83.
51.Mattingly 2006a, 274.
52.Hayward 2015: LLS02.
53.LGK99.
54.SWN98.
55.Ghey 2007, 25; Fulford 2001; Gerrard 2011e, 558; A. Smith 2016, 641. Douglas 2007, 34. This may account for lamb skulls in a pre-Flavian roadside ditch at 201–211 Borough High Street: Ferretti and Graham 1978, 63: 207BHS72.
56.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 31: BGH95.
57.Niblett 1985, 24–5.
58.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 97, 291–305, 471; D. Goodburn et al. 2011, 419–24.
59.Mainly mustard and dill, with fennel, celery, coriander, and black cumin.
60.A. Wardle 2016, 162; S. Watson 2013: BZY10.
61.WAO06.
62.Perring and Roskams 1991, 5–6: GPO75. See also CID90 and CDP04.
63.S. Watson 2006, 70–1: NGT00.
64.Birbeck and Schuster 2009, 15: FNE01. See also FST85.
65.BOP82.
66.Perring and Roskams 1991, 3–6: GPO75.
67.Hill and Woodger 1999, 10; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 271–4: CID90.
68.Casson et al. 2014: GSM97; Bluer and Brigham 2006, 15–16: FCC95; Brigham 2001b: TW70.
69.Wallace 2014, 110; Hingley 2018, 40.
70.A. Rogers 2016, 759.
71.E.g. Neal et al. 1990, Buildings 7 and 18.
72.Wallace 2014, 138.
73.J. Webster 2005; Perring 2011, 255.
74.Rayner 2009, 40: AB78.
75.Brigham 2001b: TW70. This and the ‘native’ carpentry of an early second-century wattle and pale wall at Tokenhouse Yard are more likely to be the product of later immigration rather than witnessing a continuing local tradition: D. Goodburn 2012, 54–5: THY01.
76.Davies et al. 1994, 29; Symonds 2003; Rayner 2017: SLO82.
77.Rayner 2017, 359: FNE01.
78.S. Watson 2006, 75–6.
79.BAH15. Nothing has yet been published to suggest a date for this feature.
80.Shepherd and Chettle 2012, 148: BAR79; WES89; BMC13.
81.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 308–10; Elsden 2002, 55.
82.Bryan et al. 2016, 34: BZY10.
83.McCann and Orton 1989, 105: VAL88.
84.Perring and Roskams 1991, 29, 115: WAT 78; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 273–4: BWL98; Shepherd 1987.
85.Elsden 2002, 8–12: CAO96.
86.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 70–2: KNG85; Perring and Roskams 1991, 112: MLK76 Roads 5 and 3.
87.Blair 1983, 23; Shepherd 2012, 150; Wallace 2014, 77: OST82; ABC87. The interim dating is questioned by Wallace but her grounds for doing so are not clear: the data itself is unpublished.
88.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 440, 264–72; Hillam 1986.
89.KWS94.
90.Birley 2005, 43–50; Mattingly 2006a, 104–5.
91.E.g. Monteil 2004; N Crummy 2008; Wallace 2014, 138–43.
92.LCT84.
Chapter 8
1.Wallace 2014, 100; Swain and Williams 2008, 37.
2.Pitts 2014; Pitts 2018.
3.Perring and Pitts 2013, 244; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 264–72.
4.Wallace 2014, 24.
5.Tac. Ann. 14.29; B. Hoffmann 2013, 93–100.
6.Birley 2005, 45, 302; below p. 92.
7.Tac. Ann. 14.33.
8.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 46–8: BGH95; Ridgeway et al. 2109: BVQ09; Hingley 2018, 54.
9.Fuentes 1983, 316–17.
10.E.g. Birley 2005, 43–52; K. Carroll 1979.
11.Tac. Ann. 14.38.2.
12.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 75: ONE94; Ridgeway 2009: DGT06. See p. 99.
13.Gambash 2015, 67.
14.Tomlin 2016, 55 , below p. 199.
15.Zuiderhoek 2016, 9.
16.E.g. Wacher 1995.
17.Tac. Ann. 14, 32–3.
18.Birley 2005, 45; Roth 1999, 156.
19.Suet. Ner. 39.1; Dio Cass. 62.1, 62.7.1.
20.B. Hoffmann 2013, 78.
21.Millett 1996, 34.
22.de la Bédoyère 2003, 41.
23.Fuhrmann 2012, 240–1.
24.Mattingly 2006a, 16–20.
25.Tac. Agr. 15.2.
26.Plin. Ep. 10.17b, 10.23, 10.37, 10.70, 10.80, 10.90; Laurence et al. 2011, 82.
27.Birley 2005, 298; Reece 2015; Roth 1999, 175.
28.Tac. Ann. 14.32.2–3.
29.Fuhrmann 2012, 196; Dondin-Payre and Loriot 2008.
30.P. Crummy 1997, 70–2; Birley 2005, 12.
31.Below pp. 105–7; Hassall 1996.
32.Marsden 1975; Brigham 2001, 45–6; but see pp. 138–9.
33.E.g. Dondin-Payre and Loriot 2008.
34.E.g. Hingley 2018, 34–5, 74.
35.Mann 1998.
36.RCHME 1928, 170.
37.RIB 2436.9: Collingwood and Wright 1991b, 92; Hingley 2018, 7: BWB83.
38.Dondin-Payre and Loriot 2008.
39.Haverfield 1911, followed by Wilkes 1996, 28–9.
40.R. Wilson 2006, 30.
41.Sheldon 2014, 12–13 drawing on Selkirk 1995.
42.Birley 2005, 14; Hassall 2017, 120.
43.Tomlin 2018a, 170–1 .
44.Fuhrmann 2012, 198.
Chapter 9
1.FER97.
2.Tac. Ann. 14.38.1; Tomlin 2016, 56, 200: ; Millett 2016a questions the Vangiones identification.
3.Tomlin 2016: .
4.A. Wardle 2016, 159; Marshall 2017.
5.DGT06; TRM86.
6.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 306–9: ONE94; Bryan et al. 2016, 42: BYZ10.
7.Marsden 1987, 22: GM100.
8.Brigham 1998: Waterfront 2; Brigham 2001b, 43: KWS94.
9.Hassall and Tomlin 1996, 449.
10.Milne 2000, 129.
11.van Driel-Murray in prep.
12.Marsden 1994, 178–9.
13.Milne 2005, 72.
14.Brigham 1998, 27; Brigham and Watson 1996; Shepherd 2008: KWS94.
15.Bateman 1986, 233–8: FMO85; Hillam 1986; Miller 1982: ILA79.
16.Brigham 2001b: GM248. Brigham 1990b 142; Marsden 1994, 70.
17.Blair et al. 2006; A. Wilson 2009a, 352–3: GHT00.
18.Howell 2013, 17: BBH05; Marsden 1976: GM37.
19.S. Watson 2015, 30: CDP04.
20.Rowsome 1999, 274; Laurence et al. 2011, 222; Ghey 2007, 26.
21.Booth 2014, 371; S. Watson 2013; Bryan et al. 2016, 37–42: BZY10.
22.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 306–9: ONE94.
23.WIV88.
24.Cowan and Rowsome 2009, 170; Fulford 2008b, 10; Milne 1985, 143.
25.NCZ07.
26.Millett 1994, 430; Rayner 2009, 46; Davies et al. 1994, 186.
27.Casson et al. 2014; A. Wardle 2015, 184: GSM97.
28.B. Hoffmann 2013, 110–1.
29.Twelve Tablets 10.1; Cic. Leg. 2.58; Lennon 2014, 137; Favro and Johanson 2010.
30.Birbeck and Schuster 2009, 11–12: FNE01.
31.Marsden 1980, 24: GM60.
32.Milne and Wardle 1993, 28–32: LCT84.
33.LIM83.
34.Shepherd 1988, 10–11.
35.Tylor 1884; RCHME 1928, 154.
36.Perna 2015, 126–31.
37.Toller 1977, 3.
38.Blyth 1997, 187–90; Pl. Phdr.
39.H. Hoffmann 1963.
40.Birley 2005, 28.
41.Marsden 1969a; Marsden 1980, 76–7: GM131.
42.RIB 12: Collingwood and Wright 1965; Cottrill 1936; Grasby and Tomlin 2002, 71; Coombe et al. 2015, no. 82; Hope 2016, 293.
43.Tac. Ann. 14.38.3; Birley 2005, 303.
44.Dean and Hammerson 1980; Redfern et al. 2017; Cotton 2008: HR79.
45.Joy 2012.
46.N. Crummy 2005.
47.S. Watson 2006, 19–21: NGT00.
48.Birbeck and Schuster 2009, 11–12: FNE01.
49.Conheeney in prep.; Brigham and Watson in prep.; Rowsome 2018, 92: GM248; KWS94.
50.S. Watson 2013, 242; Booth 2014, 373: BZY10.
51.GHT00. I am grateful to David Bowsher for providing information in advance of publication.
52.SWN98.
53.Cotton 1996, 89; Perring 2017, 67–8: Hingley 2018, 20–2: BHS72; WAT78; WAO06; LIB82.
54.Milella et al. 2010; Crerar 2016; A. Smith 2018a, 226–30.
55.Toynbee 1971, 43; A. Taylor 2008; Hor. Carm. 1.28; M. Carroll 2018, 239–40; Rebillard 2009, 62.
56.Hingley 2018, 16–20.
57.Armit 2012; Carr 2007; Craig et al. 2005; Cotton 1996; Bradley and Gordon 1988, 503–9; Knüsel and Carr 1995; West 1996; Schulting and Bradley 2013.
58.Dig. 48.24.1; Kyle 1998, 147, fn 45; Hope 2007; A. Taylor 2008; Perring 2017.
59.Euseb. Hist. eccl. 5.1.63.
60.E.g. Dio Cass. 61.35.4; Luc. Pharsalia 2.210–220; App. B Civ. 1.90–93; Cic. Sest. 77. Hope 2000; Kyle 1998; Lennon 2014.
61.Mattison 2016; A. Reynolds 2009, 178.
62.Barley 1995, 82–3.
63.Diod. Sic. 5.29.4–5; Strabo Geog. 4.4.5; Livy 10.26.11; Voisin 1984; Fields 2005; Isserlin 1997, 95; J. Pearce 2013, 100–1; P. Crummy 1984, 94–7; Benfield and Garrod 1992, 37; Mays and Steele 1996; Curle 1911, 113–14; W. S. Hanson 2012, 70; Ross and Feachem 1976; Loe 2003; Creighton 2016, 371–3.
64.Tucker 2016. Cut marks associated with three decapitated individuals in London’s late antique northern cemetery probably evidence execution: McKenzie and Thomas 2020, 68: PPL11.
65.Armit 2012, 197, 223; Cotton 1996, 89; Wait 1985, 51–82, 117; M. Green 2001, 104; L. Walker 1984.
66.Holst et al. 2018; Roymans 2018; Fitzpatrick 2018.
67.Campbell 2000, 44–5; 69–70; Laurence et al. 2011, 147.
68.Ridgeway 2009, 12: DGT06.
69.M. Carroll 2018, 180.
70.Varner 2005, 67–88; Russell and Manley 2015, 166.
71.Coombe et al. 2015, 216; Shotter 2004, 4; Bayley et al. 2009: GHT00.
72.Coombe et al. 2015, no. 20.
73.Frere 1983, 8; P. Crummy 2003, 50–1.
74.Fulford 2008b, 9–11.
75.K. Carroll 1979.
76.D. Walker 1988, 281–6.
77.Perring and Pitts 2013, 245–6; Evans 2016, 512; Pitts 2018, 209.
Chapter 10
1.Juv. 10.80.
2.Bateman et al. 2008: GAG87.
3.Wilmott 2008, 55.
4.Laurence et al. 2011, 260.
5.S. Price 1984, 74; Fishwick 2002.
6.Allason-Jones 2011, 223; Wilmott 2008, 18.
7.Latham 2016, 161–80; Hingley 2018, 80–1; G. Rogers 1991.
8.Revell 2016, 779; A. Wardle 2011, 330. We don’t know if London also had a purpose-built theatre.
9.Welch 2007; Fuhrmann 2012, 187.
10.Ridgeway 2009, 12: DGT06.
11.Cowan et al. 2009, 67; Cowan 2003, 16–18: 52SOS89; Killock 2005, 31: FSS96.
12.15SK80.
13.Hingley 2018, 99, following Neal and Cosh 2009, 457. Another possibility is that it housed a guild or corporation.
14.Drury 1988.
15.Leveau 2016.
16.G. Rogers 1991, 13.
17.Hammer 2003.
18.Brigham 1998, 2.
19.Milne 1985, 27: PDN81.
20.Hillam 1986, refined through reference to Millard 2002.
21.TEQ10; SGA12.
22.Hassall and Tomlin 1996, 446–7: KWS94.
23.ETA89; WAO06.
24.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 51–2: FST85; LAH88; SOB90; SCS83.
25.S. Watson 2004; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 310: OJW98 Road 8; Perring and Roskams 1991, 57: IRO80.
26.Blair et al. 2006: GHT00 Road 4; Casson et al. 2014, 10–12: GSM97 Structure 2; S. Watson 2015, 16–17: CDP04 Road 1.
27.ALG84.
28.McCann 1993, 25–31: VAL88.
29.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 310–11, fig. 82: ONE94 Roads 3 and 4.
30.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 124, Site C: BUC87 Building 4.
31.Killock et al. 2015, 13, 238–9: LLS02 and LGK99.
32.G. Rogers 1991, 24–7.
33.Lodwick 2017, 68.
34.E.g. Hill and Woodger 1990, 17: CID90; Wallace 2014, 118; C. Green 2017, 173; J. Hill et al. 2011, 347–8: ONE94.
35.Merrifield 1965, 240–1.
36.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 350: BUC87; A. Davis 2011, 304; J. Price 1873, 66.
37.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 316–17: ONE94 Building 18/48.
38.Philp 1977, 22–3: GM297; BRL87.
39.Marsden 1980, 72; Wilmott 1991, 177; S. Watson 2013; A. Wilson 2009a and 2009b, 355–7: BZY10. I am grateful to Sadie Watson for providing details in advance of publication.
40.GWS89.
41.Myers 2016, 320.
42.McCann 1993, 25–31: VAL88.
43.Rickman 1980, 187.
44.R. Wilson 2006, 15–17: BAX95.
45.G. Hunt 2010, 50: CPW99.
46.The ‘1955’ ditch: Niblett and Thompson 2005, 66–9; Niblett 2001, 72.
47.Creighton 2016, 322–7.
48.R. Wilson 2006, 1–15.
49.GSM97.
50.OST82; ABC87; Howe and Lakin 2004, 37, Site E, Road 2: LVL 97.
51.Howe and Lakin 2004, 18–20: LVL97 Structure 7. A large flat-bottomed ditch found at Aldersgate Street also anticipated the fort’s orientation: ALG84.
52.Occasional remains of Flavian timber buildings have been found beneath the Cripplegate fort, but may derive from sporadic later phases of use. Howe and Lakin 2004, 15–24, 23, 48: NST94, WOO97; Lyon 2004: NHG98; Shepherd 2012, 70, 148–54: WFG3, WFG5.
53.S. Watson 2017, 392: BAH15.
54.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 62–6: FER97.
55.Joseph. BJ 82f.
56.Discarded timbers associated with rebuilding at the site of the Neronian wells were felled in the winter ad 70/71, suggesting that repairs were in hand around the time that Cerialis reached the province.
57.Gambash 2016.
58.Grant 2007, 92.
59.W. H. Hanson 1988, 62.
60.Tac. Hist. 2. 67, 2.
61.Tac. Agr. 17. 1–2; Grant 2007, 72; Birley 2005, 67.
62.Gambash 2016, 264; Birley 2005, 67.
63.Birley 2005, 70.
64.D. Walker 1988.
Chapter 11
1.Zuiderhoek 2009.
2.Tomlin 2016 . For an important alternative reading of this text see Costabile 2017.
3.W. H. Hanson 1988, 63–4.
4.Tomlin 2016 .
5.Marsden 1987.
6.Revell 2016, 769.
7.The area behind the basilica may have been defined by an enclosure ditch: CNL81.
8.Marsden 1987, 73, 119: GM70; Philp 1977, 48 no. 51: GM297.
9.Frere 1983, 55, 69; Birley 2005, 82; Fulford and Timby 2000, 569.
10.Tac. Agr. 21.
11.E.g. Marsden 1987, 73; Dondin-Payre and Loriot 2008, 151.
12.Millett 1994, 432–3; see Wilkes 1996, 29 on why a later date might be preferred.
13.Niblett 2001, 75–6.
14.Marsden 1980, 40.
15.Wacher 1995, 90.
16.Marsden 1987, 106–14: GM68.
17.Marsden 1987: walls 32–5 at 17–19 Gracechurch Street: GM68; wall E at All Hallows, Lombard Street; early stone foundations at 54–58 Lombard Street: GM100.
18.Laurence et al. 2011, 180.
19.Frankfurter 2006, 547–8.
20.NVMC PROV BRITA. RIB 5: Collingwood and Wright 1965; C. Smith 1859, 29; Fishwick 1969, 83–4.
21.Zuiderhoek 2016, 165; Ando 2000; Noreńa 2011, 7–8.
22.B. Hoffmann 2013, 90; Boatwright 2000, 96.
23.Esmonde Cleary 2005, 3.
24.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 79–81: FER97.
25.PEP89.
26.Hammer 1987, 6–12: FEN83.
27.Wallace 2014, 91–3, followed by Hingley 2018, 32. Since the foundations were associated with Flavian material, this remains the preferred dating.
28.RAC90.
29.Marsden 1975; Marsden 1978; Marsden 1980, 92: GM25, GM29, GM 210.
30.J. Price 1870.
31.CNV08.
32.DOW86.
33.Milne 1996; Spence and Grew 1990, 20–1: LYD88.
34.Brigham 2001a, 45–7: SUF94.
35.Milne 1996.
36.Perring 1991, 33; Betts 2017b, 370.
37.Laurence et al. 2011, 216–21.
38.LIB82.
39.WAO06; CNV08.
40.GM257.
41.Leary and Butler 2012, 12: THY01.
42.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 81: FER97.
43.Brigham 2001a, 31–3: SUF94 Building 1.
44.Bryan et al. 2016, 49: BZY10.
45.KWS94.
46.Brigham 2001a, 46.
47.Betts 1995; Betts 2015; Betts 2017b; P P BRI LON and variants.
48.S. Watson 2015, 11–13: GHM05.
49.Betts 1995, 221: GPO75.
50.Birley 2005, 92–4; Tac. Agr. 38.
51.Hingley 2018, 73.
52.E.g. DeLaine 1999, 72.
53.J. Reynolds 1988, 38; Plin. Ep. 10-23-24.
54.Merrifield 1983, 87–9.
55.Bushe-Fox 1949, 38; Birley 2005, 93.
56.Betts 2003; Betts 1995, 217.
57.Marsden 1976: GM240; DMT88.
58.Perring and Roskams 1991, 30: Perring 2002, 62; Hurst 1999: WAT78.
59.RIB 2401.5: Collingwood and Wright 1990; Roxan 1983; Haynes 2013, 339–42.
60.Hassall 2012, 160; Tab. Vindol. II.154; Bowman and Thomas 1991, 72, below pp. 220–2.
61.Goldsworthy 2003, 73; Gilliam 1957.
62.S. Watson 2015, 63–4: GHM05.
63.ABC87.
64.Neal and Cosh 2009; Pritchard 1988, 177; Merrifield 1965, Site 106; CS75; MC73; NCZ07.
65.BOP82; ETA89.
66.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 82–86, 107: FER97.
67.Yule 2005, 33–41: WP83.
68.Goffin 2005, 105–13.
69.Rielly 2015, 220.
70.Cowan 1992, 35; 15SK80.
71.Crowley 1992, 155.
72.Cowan 1992, 101.
73.Gerrard 2009a, 132: USS03.
74.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 59–60: BGH95; BSE94; JSS92.
75.Wacher 1995, 64.
76.Richard 2014.
77.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 55: BGH95 Buildings 10 and 31.
78.Killock et al. 2015, 13, 19: LLS02.
79.TIY07.
Chapter 12
1.Hill and Woodger 1999, 7, 13, 21: CID 90. Two street repairs within the same time-frame were identified at One Poultry and three at Well Court between c. ad 85/90 and c. ad 120. Hill and Rowsome 2011, 131–3: ONE94; Perring and Roskams 1991, 54–5: WEL79.
2.Mattingly 2006a, 151; Grant 2007, 112; B. Hoffmann 2013, 137.
3.D. Walker 1988, 286–7.
4.de la Bédoyère 2003, 125.
5.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 83, 127–8: ONE94; S. Watson 2015, 9: GHM05; Schofield 1998, 164: FSP80. See also Shepherd 2012, 149 on burnt Flavian pottery from near Cripplegate.
6.Milne and Wardle 1993, 34–5: LCT84.
7.Cowan et al. 2009, 46–7: 22BHS88.
8.Marsh 1981; Monteil 2005, fig. 19.
9.Hingley 2018, 147; Howell 2013, 19–28: BBH05.
10.Marsden 1987: GM297.
11.Bateman et al. 2008, 34–8: GAG87.
12.Milne 1985, 44–54; Hillam 1986: PDN81.
13.A revised approach to estimations of sapwood allowance suggests that these timbers were probably felled no later than ad 104, see Millard 2002.
14.KWS94.
15.Brigham 1990b, Waterfront 3.
16.Milne 1985, 36–9; Hillam 1986: PDN81; PEN79.
17.Bryan et al. 2016, 49–51: BZY10.
18.Brigham 1990b; Devoy 1979.
19.McCann 1993: VAL88. Identifications by Alan Pipe summarized in Brigham and Watson in. prep.
20.Colonia Nervia Glevensium: CIL 6.3346.
21.Wacher 1995, 150.
22.Shotter 2013.
23.C. Smith 1842, 150; Rhodes 1991, 184.
24.Elkins 2017, 58–64.
25.CIL 6.8681.
26.Brigham 1990b Waterfront 3; KWS94.
27.Keay 2012, 36, 55; A. Wilson 2008, 187.
28.Willis 2005, chart 12; Mees 2018.
29.Rhodes 1987b: FEN83.
30.Verboven 2016, 174–88; Verboven 2009; C. Hawkins 2016, 70.
31.RIB 91: Collingwood and Wright 1965.
32.Blair et al. 2006: GHT00.
33.As at Gresham Street. S. Watson 2015, 63–4: GHM05.
34.DMT88.
35.Shepherd 1987, 22–3; Bateman 2009, 159.
36.E.g. Niblett and Thompson 2005, 91–2.
37.Bateman et al. 2008, 120. Shepherd 1987, 40–1: GM82.
38.Bateman et al. 2008, 116; Killock et al. 2015, 251: GHT00; Shepherd 1987, 33–4: GM76.
39.T. Moore 2016, 270; Derks 1998, 243; Revell 2016, 777.
40.BVK11.
41.Sudds 2019, 192.
42.Ridgeway et al. 2019, 157: LBN08.
43.Tomlin 2012, 395.
44.Dorcey 1992.
45.RIB 2503.127: Collingwood and Wright 1995; Hall and Shepherd 2008, 31.
46.Takacs 2015.
47.Bakker 1994.
48.Laurence et al. 2011, 229.
49.BAX95.
50.The argument, however, that the presence of this boundary deflected the line of the west road is unsubstantiated: Hill and Rowsome 2011, 438; Perring 1991, 14–15.
51.Bentley 1987; Askew 2007, 259: SHN97; VAL88.
52.Norman and Reader 1912, 274–84; Lyon 2007, 11–12, 17: KEW98.
53.Marsden 1965, 137: GM136.
54.BOJ10.
55.Hall 1996, 58–64.
56.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 51.
57.RCHME 1928, 165.
58.Milne and Reynolds 1997, 20.
59.Philpott 1991, 112.
60.J. Pearce 2016, 346; Barber and Bowsher 2000, 60–3: MST87; Mackinder 2000, 11–12: GDV96.
61.J. Pearce 2015, 147.
62.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 75–6.
63.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 69–70; Roth 1999, 25; Plut. Vit. Crass. 19.5.
64.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 80.
65.J. Pearce 2015, 150; C. Hawkins 2016, 70.
66.Lerz et al. 2017.
67.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 110–16.
68.J. Price 1880; Burkitt 1852, 240; C. Smith 1859; Coombe et al. 2015, no. 80.
69.Coombe et al. 2015, no. 68: DGT06.
70.Grimes 1968, 30; Shepherd 1998, 38; Howe and Lakin 2004, 28: WFG5.
71.Coombe et al. 2015 17 no. 65.
72.J. Pearce 2016, 354; I. Morris 1992; Hope 2016, 297.
Chapter 13
1.Graafstal 2018; SHA Hadr. Millar 1992, 35–6; Birley 2005, 119–224; Birley 1997, 125–8.
2.RIB 3006: Tomlin et al. 2009; Tomlin 2006. See also Wilkes 1996.
3.Marsden 1987; Milne 1992; Brigham 1990a; Revell 2016, 769: LCT84.
4.CNL81; WIV88.
5.Fulford and Timby 2000, 569.
6.WIV88.
7.Vitr. De arch. 5.1.8. Hingley 2018, 126; Revell 2016, 138.
8.Fulford and Timby 2000, 574.
9.Brigham 1990a; Marsden 1987, 53–60: Room 13: GST77. Revell 2007, 138; Revell 2016, 772.
10.Vitr. De arch. 5.2.1; Lawrence et al. 2011, 170, 182.
11.Wacher 1995, 42.
12.Brigham 1990a, 67.
13.Newsome 2011b.
14.Hmood 2017, 264.
15.Vitr. De arch. 5.1.2; Tomlin 2016: .
16.Ulpian, preserved in Frag. Vat. 134.
17.Temin 2013, 105.
18.SHA Comm. 2.1.
19.Ando 2000, 228–32; Noreńa 2011, 271.
20.cited by Noreńa 2011, 201.
21.Philp 1977: GM297; Marsden 1987, 63: GM101; Dunwoodie 2004, 32: FEH95.
22.Coombe et al. 2015.
23.Ando 2000, 207–8.
24.Marsden 2019; Marsden 1987, fig. 55.
25.Marsden 1987, 64–6: GST77.
26.Marsden 1987, 76; Brigham 1990a, 81.
27.Milne 1992, 68.
28.Betts 2015: types 2A and 3.
29.Packer 2001, 4.
30.SHA Hadr. 12; Boatwright 2000. Birley 1997, 101–4; Graafstal 2018, 89; Elsner 1998, 68–9.
31.Laurence et al. 2011, 58.
32.Fulford and Timby 2000, 573; Brewer 1993, 65; Wacher 1995, 345.
33.Blagg 1984, 254.
34.Boatwright 2000, 32, 117.
35.Brigham 1998, 29–30: KWS94; GM248.
36.This phase of riverside reclamation is not separately identified in Brigham’s 1990 survey of London’s Roman port, intervening between the Nervan/Trajanic waterfront 3 and the post-fire waterfront 4.
37.Hillam 1986, 10–11: ILA79.
38.Brigham 1990a, 143–7.
39.CLE81; GSM97.
40.WAT78.
41.West and Milne 1993: LCT84.
Chapter 14
1.Kolb 2002, 68.
2.Roman Vagniacae. P. Andrews et al. 2011, 212; A. Smith 2016, 651.
3.Sheldon and Schaaf 1978, 68.
4.Philp and Garrod 1992; ECO08.
5.Sheldon and Yule 1979: GP78; Tomlin and Hassall 2000, 433; Henig 2007, 47; Wallower 2002a; Wallower 2002b: GMA99.
6.Rivet 1970; Fuentes 1986a; Sheldon and Schaaf 1978, 73. Another roadside site is posited at Ilford.
7.G. Brown 2008: LEK95.
8.G. Brown 2016: BEU04.
9.Sheldon 1996, 240; I. Thompson 2008.
10.Niblett 2001, 69–70.
11.Cowie et al. 2013, 46: BRE70, BRE74, BRE77.
12.D. Swift 2003: BGB98.
13.Perring 2000, 157; Dearne 2017, 321.
14.Dearne 2017, 11.
15.D. Bird 2002; D. Bird 2004, 60.
16.Sheldon and Schaaf 1978, 73.
17.HRE16.
18.J. Graham 1936.
19.Philp 1980; Perring 2000, 150; possibly Noviomago mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary.
20.Davies et al. 1994, 40.
21.MGT87. RCHME 1928 pl. 52; Coombe et al. 2015, 36.
22.Hall and Shepherd 2008, 35; Merrifield 1996, 111; Coombe et al. 2015, 36.
23.Caes. BGall. 6.17; Derks 1998, 115.
24.Sheldon and Schaaf 1978, 63; Laurence 2001, 81.
25.Rickman 1980, 120; Nelson and Drummond 2015, 92.
26.Kolb 2002, 71.
27.Hdn.7.8.11; Chevalier 1976, 34, 186–7.
28.de Ligt 1993, 128, 142–3, 204.
29.Fuhrmann 2012, 216–22.
30.Perring 2000, 151; Fuentes and Greenwood 1993; Elliston Erwood 1916; Lakin 1999: SWY97/SNY97.
31.Cowan et al. 2009, 228: BA84; AW89; GRA89; GRW91; Sloane 2012, 14: ENG84; Telfer 2010: SMD01.
32.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 51–2; Ellis 1985, 117: SCS83.
33.Douglas et al. 2011, 9–13: TOC02.
34.Cuming 1858, 356; RCHME 1928, 163–4.
35.McCann 1993, 25–31: VAL88.
36.Grimes 1968, 182–5; Groves 1997, 53: WFG62.
37.NSS05.
38.C. Thomas 2008, 105: PSW93; PLQ95.
39.Adams 2012, 227.
40.Mills 1980, 77.
41.Hodder and Millet 1980.
42.Green et al. 1997; Sheldon et al. 1993; Smith et al. 2016, 79.
43.Sheldon and Schaaf 1978, 76.
44.F. Clark 1985; Potter and Shepherd 2009: WKN07; F. Clark 1998; Brooks 1977.
45.Meates 1979; Black 1987.
46.Philp et al. 1991.
47.Ptol. Geog. 2.3.12.
48.Tomlin 1996; Tomlin 2018a, 258; Du Plessis 2015: TRM86.
49.Dondin-Payre and Loriot 2008, 148 responding to Mann 1998.
50.D. Bird 1996, 223; Black 1987, 57–8.
51.P. Andrews et al. 2011; Smith et al. 2016, 116.
52.von Reden 2012, 271.
Chapter 15
1.Allen 2018, 80–1, 91.
2.Elliott 2014; Elliott 2018, 84–90; Pearson 2002, 82.
3.E.g. Dawkes 2015, 111–13.
4.Russell 2013; Russell 2017, 246.
5.Marsden 1994, 16–17.
6.Liddle et al. 2009.
7.Albarella et al. 2008, 1831.
8.Biddulph et al. 2012, 171–4.
9.Milne 1985, 87–95: PEN79.
10.Tsigarida 2015.
11.Gerrard 2008, 121.
12.Hathaway 2013, 466; Biddulph 2017; A. Smith 2017, 214.
13.Gerrard 2008; Allen and Fulford 1996.
14.Monaghan 1987, 202; Biddulph 2017, 227–9; Davies et al. 1994, 102. See Chapter 19.
15.Perring and Pitts 2013, 34–5.
16.Schofield 1991, 11.
17.Harris 2017, 212.
18.Leach 2017, 167–72; Humphreys 2021.
19.D. Goodburn 1991; D. Goodburn 1995, 33–43; D. Goodburn 2001; D. Goodburn 2005; D. Goodburn in prep.
20.D. Goodburn 1995: CO88.
21.Harris 2017, 228; Nelson and Drummond 2015, 117.
22.Rayner 2017.
23.Marsh and Tyers 1978, 533–82.
24.Perring 1991, 50; Marsh and Tyers 1978, 534.
25.Evans 2013.
26.Symonds 2003; P. Tyers 1998.
27.Brown and Sheldon 2018; Davies et al. 1994, 74; Rayner 2017, 351: HW70.
28.Davies et al. 1994, 203.
29.Rayner 2017, 349–50; Lyne and Jefferies 1979, 54.
30.Leach 2017, 176.
31.Crowley and Betts 1992, 221.
32.Betts 2017a, 104–5; Betts 2017b, 371–2; D. Bird 1996, 226, 229 fn. 25.
33.Margary 1965, 124; D. Bird 2017, 46.
34.Millum and Wallace 2017, 8.
35.Cleere and Crossley 1995, 57–60; Hodgkinson 2008, 30–4; Dungworth 2016, 544–9; Hodgkinson 2017, 286.
36.Mason 2003, 12.
37.A. Smith 2017, 181; Hammer 2003; below pp. 212–3.
38.Bray 2010, 180–1.
39.RIB 3036: Tomlin et al. 2009; Brodribb 1969; Brodribb and Cleere 1988, 261; Hirt 2010, 288; Elliott 2018, 104. Millett 2007 notes that this reading is uncertain.
40.Cleere 1974; Cleere and Crossley 1995, 66–9.
41.See Hirt 2010, 192 on our uncertain knowledge of the fleet’s role.
42.CIL 11. 5632; Birley 2005, 307.
43.Hodgkinson 2012.
44.Cleere 1974, 176.
45.Hodgkinson 2017, 291–3.
46.Mattingly 2006a, 507.
47.A. Wilson 2008, 176.
48.RIB 2409.26: Collingwood and Wright 1990; Birley 2005, 300.
49.Cleere 1974; Cleere 1977, 18.
50.Millett 1990, 120–1; Millett 2007, 178–9; A. Smith 2017, 181.
51.Hirt 2010; Lo Cascio 2015, 63–8.
52.Hirt 2015.
53.Drury and Rodwell 1980, 64; Jackson and Potter 1996, J. Taylor 2000.
54.Millar 1992, 621; Kehoe 2006, 298–9; Cod. Theod. 11.28.
55.Salway 1981, 104.
56.Tac. Ann. 14.31.
57.Fulford and Timby 2000, 569. The emphasis is my own.
58.Hirt 2010, 357–9.
59.Lo Cascio 2007b, 641.
60.Kehoe 1988.
61.Tsigarida 2015.
62.Brindle 2017, 278–9.
63.Plin. Ep. 7.18, 9.37; Kehoe 2007, 80–1.
64.Cleere 1970; Lucy and Evans 2106, 433.
65.Rickman 1980, 85.
66.Tac. Agr. 31.2.
67.Tac. Agr. 19.4; Birley 2005, 80; B. Hoffmann 2013, 74.
68.A. Jones 1964, 457; Gerrard 2016, 853.
69.Duncan-Jones 1990, 187–93; Kehoe 2007, 165; Elton 2006, 202; Mattingly 2006a, 496.
70.Pitts and Versluys 2015, 9.
71.Evers Grønlund 2011, 29; P. Dura-Europos 64.A; Hopkins 1983.
72.Erdkamp 2002, 60; de Ligt 2002, 57; Hopkins 2002, 215; Bang 2009, 114.
73.Laurence 2012, 63.
74.As attested in late antique Egypt: Kehoe 2006, 299; N. Pollard 2000, 103 drawing on the Abinnaeus archive.
75.Erdkamp 2002, 55.
76.Plin. Ep. 10.27–28.
77.Rathbone 2009, 308–9.
78.P. Brown 2012, 13.
Chapter 16
1.E.g. Rostovtzeff 1957, 177, 192–3; Finley 1985, 33–4, 105–6; Temin 2001; Cartledge 2002, 13–15; Flohr and Wilson 2016.
2.Finley 1985; Whittaker 1995; Erdkamp 2001, 340; Bang 2008, 27–9.
3.Scheidel and von Reden 2002; Andreau 2002; Mattingly 2006b, 283; Zuiderhoek 2015, 5.
4.North 1991; Scheidel et al. 2007; Bang 2012, 197; Verboven and Laes 2016.
5.Bowman and Wilson 2009; Scheidel and Friesen 2009; Hobson 2014, drawing on Hopkins 1978.
6.Fulford 2004.
7.E.g. Lo Cascio 2007a.
8.Roth 1999, above p. 90.
9.A. Jones 1964 111, 191–2; Kehne 2007, 324–5; Tchernia 2016, 99.
10.Whittaker 2004, 94.
11.Tchernia 2016, 99.
12.Irby-Massie 1999, 15–17; Tab. Vindol. II.190.
13.Bowman and Thomas 1984; Bowman 1994; Evers Grønlund 2011.
14.Tab. Vindol. II.343.
15.Tab. Vindol. III.645.
16.J. Jones 2004.
17.Mattingly and Aldrete 2000, 151.
18.Whittaker 2004, 91; Tab. Vindol. II.180.
19.Tchernia 2016, 94.
20.Verboven 2007, 297–303.
21.Whittaker 2002, 207–13; Carreras Monfort 2002, 70–7; S. James 2001.
22.Rathbone 2009, 310.
23.CIL 2.1180; Carreras Monfort 1998, 162; Blázquez 1992, 177; Patterson 1998, 160.
24.Middleton 1979; Erdkamp 2002; Rice 2016; Tchernia 2016, 103.
25.Swain and Williams 2008.
26.Rickman 1980; Palomera 2010, 15; P. S. Johnson 2012, 22.
27.Scapini 2016.
28.A. Wilson 2012, 289; Tchernia 2016, 97.
29.Rickman 1980, 80; Broekart 2011; Plin. Pan. 29. 4–5.
30.A. Wilson 2008, 187; Suet. Claud. 17,2–19,1.
31.Mattingly and Aldrete 2000, 146; Kehoe 2015a, 189–96; Zuiderhoek 2016.
32.Fulford 1987.
33.Davies et al. 1994, 9; Rayner 2011, 281.
34.Remesal Rodriguez 1986 and 2002; Carreras Monfort 1998, 160–2.
35.Notably Wierschowski 1982, 38–9; Ehmig 2003; Tchernia 2016, 255–6; Mees 2018.
36.Tomlin 2016, 9; Wilmott 1982; below p. 219.
37.D. Goodburn 2011, 394–6: ONE94.
38.Livarda and Orengo 2015.
39.Hayward 2009; Coombe et al. 2015.
40.Pitts 2018.
41.Willis 2005.
42.Roymans 2011, 150.
43.Fulford 2017, 317–18.
44.Mees 2018.
45.Pitts 2018.
46.Verboven 2015, 53.
47.Reece 1987; Millett 1990, 58–9; Brindle 2017, 240.
48.Verboven 2007, 309; von Reden 2012, 266.
49.Reece 2002, 115.
50.Abdy 2002, 14; see also Walton 2015; Walton and Moorhead 2016.
51.Tomlin 2016, 158–9 ; BZY10.
52.Zuiderhoek 2016, 142.
53.Bowman 2017, 38–9.
54.S. Graham 2005, 110.
55.Henig 2008, 226.
56.Bang 2008, 216–26; de Laet 1949, 427–35.
57.Whittaker 1994, 111–12.
58.Milne 1985, 149.
59.Bowman and Wilson 2017, 7.
60.Tchernia 2016, 259–60.
61.Kolb 2002.
62.Mattingly 2006b, 295–6.
63.Cunliffe 1968, 234–43.
64.Pitts 2018.
65.Ogilvie 2007.
Chapter 17
1.Tomlin 2016, .
2.Sirks 2017, 79–80; Eckardt 2018, 23–4; Tomlin 2016, ; R. Wheeler 1930, 54–5.
3.Tomlin 2016, .
4.RIB 2443.7: Collingwood and Wright 1992; Richmond 1953, 206–8; Tomlin 2016, 287;.
5.Tomlin 2016, .
6.Mattingly and Aldrete 2000, 148; Erdkamp 2012, 250.
7.For comparative figures on Mediterranean ports see Wilson et al. 2012. With a capacity approaching c. 100 vessels London was comparable in scale with the port at Lepcis Magna.
8.Brigham 1990b, 101: BIG82.
9.Swain and Williams 2008; Erdkamp 2012; Mattingly and Aldrete 2000, 155.
10.C. Hawkins 2016, 28.
11.Vegetius 4–39; Beresford 2013.
12.Roth 1999, 177–9; Tac. Agr. 18.1–2.
13.Bernard 2016, 64; C. Hawkins 2016, 29.
14.DeLaine 2000, 135–6; Kehoe 2012, 123.
15.Perring 2002, 87–98.
16.D. Goodburn 2001, 83; D. Goodburn et al. 2011; D. Goodburn 1995, 43.
17.Perring 2002, 98–106.
18.Kehoe 2015a, 195; Erdkamp 2015, 27–9.
19.Scheidel 2012, 99.
20.Evers Grønlund 2011, 26; Tab. Vindol. II.155.
21.Verboven and Laes 2016, 12.
22.Turner and Skutsch 1960; Marsden 1980, 42: GM31.
23.Betts 2017a, 106.
24.Biddulph et al. 2012, 171.
25.Lodwick 2017, 45.
26.Tab. Vindol. II.310; Tomlin 2016, 56: ; above p. 93.
27.C. Hawkins 2016, 29, 48.
28.Birley 1979, 131.
29.Flohr and Wilson 2016, 37.
30.Smither 2017.
31.Booth 2016, 341; Ridgeway 2009, 33.
32.Perring and Roskams 1991, 18: GPO75.
33.Zuiderhoek 2016, 136.
34.Flohr 2016, 149.
35.MacMahon 2003.
36.Perring and Roskams 1991: GPO75.
37.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 194–220: ONE94.
38.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 441.
39.Evans 2005.
40.Bowman and Thomas 2003, 40–2: Tab. Vindol. III.588.
41.Perring and Pitts 2013, 249.
42.Milne 1992, 77; Milne and Wardle 1993: LCT84.
43.Perring and Roskams 1991: GPO75.
44.Mattingly 2011, 114.
45.Mason 2003, 20; Tac. Ann. 2.6.
46.Marsden 1994, 97: GM451; GM182; Grainge 2005, 67, 75.
47.Mason 2003, 48; Cunliffe 2013; Caes. BGall. 4.21.
48.Wild 2002; Lambrick and Robinson 2009, 254.
49.RIB 2443.16: Collingwood and Wright 1992; R. Wheeler 1930, 54–5.
50.The area of St Katherine Docks, downriver of the Tower, might also have been suitable for shipyards, but the construction of the docks in 1827 leaves a gap in our knowledge.
51.Hammer 2003, 33, 310, 166–7; Cowan 2003, 45; Cowan et al. 2009, 106: CO88/CO87; PRK90.
52.Yorkshire coal was sometimes used in later periods.
53.Tab. Vindol II. 310.
54.Hall 2005, 130–1; Dungworth 2016, 549; Perring and Roskams 1991: 106BHS73; 207BHS72; GP075.
55.See p. 76 on London’s gem-cutters whose works would have been set within rings made in local workshops.
56.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 40–1; Hingley 2018, 43: JSS92.
57.E.g. LEN89; ALG84. Perhaps also TW70.
58.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 28–9, 61–2, 96–9, 83: BGH95.
59.Dungworth 2016, 543–8.
60.Hingley 2018, 105.
61.Cowan and Wardle 2009, 107: 1STS74.
62.Wilmott 1991, 18–33: GM157.
63.Merrifield 1995; Merrifield and Hall 2008; Manning 1985.
64.Humphreys 2021.
65.RIB 2428.5–8: Collingwood and Wright 1991a; Hall 2005, 132; I. Scott 2017, 316;.
66.C. E. Jones 1983, 49–59; Dungworth 2016, 532.
67.Jones and Sherlock 1996, 165.
68.Hall 2005, 132: DMT88, LYD88.
69.Marsden 1975, 9–12: BLH73; Dennis and Ward 2001, 116–20: SUF94.
70.Hall 2005, 133; Sheldon 1978, 31: 1STS74; C. Maloney 1990, 84: KEY83; Dungworth 2016, 549: CIL86.
71.Nelson and Drummond 2015, 78–81.
72.van Driel-Murray 2016, 137; Keily and Mould 2017, 237.
73.E.g. Grimes 1968, 97; RCHME 1928, 145–7; Lees et al. 1989, 119; Wilmott 1991; Sheldon 1978, 31; Shepherd 1998: WFG44.
74.Rhodes 1986, 89, 211–16: NFW74/FRE78; Rhodes 1987a; Keily and Mould 2017, 244–5; van Driel-Murray 2016.
75.Manning 1985, 39–42; Keily and Mould 2017, 247–9; Humphreys 2021.
76.Keily and Mould 2017, 246; LOW88, DGT06.
77.Cool 2016, 408.
78.Groves 1990, 82; Hall 2005, 136: OPT81; Humphreys 2021; E. Swift 2017, 92.
79.Wild 2002, 29.
80.Tomlin 2016, , .
81.Tomlin and Hassall 2006, 478: GHT00.
82.Humphreys 2021.
83.D. Goodburn 2016, 8–13: PDN82.
84.Milne 1985, 91–5: PDN81; KWS94.
85.Milne 1985, 87: PEN79.
86.Ridgeway et al. 2019, 230; Liddle 2008: GAG87; Rielly in prep: DGT06.
87.N. Crummy 2017, 262.
88.Lees et al. 1989, 32: LOW88; Ewens and Pipe 2017, 175: XSM10.
89.Shepherd 1986, 141–3: GM160; Howell 2013: BBH05.
90.FER97; PEP89.
91.Bayley and Shepherd 1985, 72–3: TOL79-84.
92.Keily and Shepherd 2005, 147–9: MGT87; MRG95; Perez-Sala and Shepherd 2008: GAG87. See also KEY83 and OPT81.
93.A. Wardle 2015: BAZ05; COA86.
94.OBA88.
95.Marsden 1969b: GM136.
96.Seeley and Drummond Murray 2005; Hall 2005, 137; Rayner 2017, 361: MRG95; Nesbitt and Watson 2019: MLW15.
97.Swan 1984, 107; Amicone and Quinn 2015.
98.Humphreys 2021, 138; Lodwick 2017, 74; Davies et al. 1994, 37.
99.WIV88; TRM86; RAG82; BOP82; THY01.
Chapter 18
1.Blagg 1990; Hope 2016, 287–90; Hurst 2016, 107; J. Pearce 2016, 351.
2.N. Holder 2007, 29.
3.Tomlin 2016, 58.
4.Harris 1991.
5.Monteil 2008; Eckardt 2018, 55–6.
6.See p. 76 on the post-Boudican assemblage from Plantation Place.
7.Derks 1998; C. Andrews 2012.
8.Henig 2008, 234.
9.Coombe et al. 2015; Bishop 1983, 31–48; Tomlin 2016, 56.
10.Fuhrmann 2012, 204–5; Rankov 1999, 24–5.
11.N. Pollard 2006, 224.
12.RIB 19: Collingwood and Wright 1965; Coombe et al. 2015, 46; Fuhrmann 2012, 193.
13.Speidel 1978, 26–8; Hassall 2017, 106.
14.Haynes 2016.
15.Bowman and Thomas 1991, 72: Tab. Vindol. II.154 and 310.
16.Tomlin 2016 .
17.Tomlin 2016 .
18.Hassall 2012.
19.Birley 2005, 298.
20.Cool 2016, 416; Bishop and Coulston 2006, 254–9.
21.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, fig. 60.
22.Lo Cascio 2007b, 636; Roth 1999.
23.Allason-Jones 2016, 473–4.
24.Rosenstein 2009, 36; G. Rogers 1991, 13.
25.Temin 2013, 129.
26.RIB 2443.2: Collingwood and Wright 1992.
27.Tomlin 2003; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 128, 515: ONE94.
28.RIB 21: Collingwood and Wright 1965; Coombe et al. 2015, no. 83.
29.Blagg 1990.
30.Boatwright 2000, 15; Cod. Iust. 10.40.7.
31.RIB 9: Collingwood and Wright 1965; RCHME 1928, 170–1; Coombe et al. 2015, no. 81.
32.Hingley 2018, 122.
33.Kolbeck 2018.
34.Tomlin 2016, 54.
35.Nixon et al. 2002, 30.
36.Hall 2005, 125.
37.Marsden 1980, 25.
38.Eckardt 2010; Verboven 2009.
39.Redfern et al. 2016; Redfern et al. 2017; Redfern et al. 2018; Millard 2013; Montgomery et al. 2010, 217–19.
40.Verboven 2007, 303–4.
41.Tomlin 2016, 54.
42.Scheidel 2012, 91.
43.Gowland and Redfern 2010.
44.Harper 2017, 80–3; Rohnbogner 2018, 342; Pitts and Griffin 2012.
45.Eckardt and Müldner 2016, 214.
46.Morley 2011.
47.Cool 2016, 410; A. Wardle 2011.
48.A. Wardle 2011; Cool and Baxter 2016.
49.Eckardt and Crummy 2008, 24; N. Crummy 2008, 218.
50.Monteil 2005.
51.RIB 2492.24: Collingwood and Wright 1994; Yule 2005, 22: WP83.
52.K. Hartley 1996.
53.Symonds 2012.
54.Above p. 80; van der Veen et al. 2007.
55.Cowan et al. 2009, 113–14; A. Davis 2011.
56.C. Stevens 2009; A. Davis 2014.
57.Liddle et al. 2009; Rielly 2015; Pipe 2011.
58.Locker 2007.
59.Henig 1984b, 25–35.
60.RIB 2443.11: Collingwood and Wright 1992.
61.A. Rogers 2013, 16.
62.Creighton 2006, 95.
63.GDV96: Blagg 2000, 61–2; Coombe et al. 2015 no. 37.
64.Coombe et al. 2015.
65.Durham 2016, 75; Fittock 2015, 168.
66.Carl et al. 2000.
67.J. Reynolds 1988, 48–9.
68.Esmonde Cleary 2013, 355.
69.A. Smith 2001.
70.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 87: BGH95; Merrifield 1995, 37–8; Wilmott 1991, 178.
71.Howell et al. 2015, 147: TRT85.
72.Frankfurter 2006, 557–8.
73.E.g. Hingley 2018, 108; Davies et al. 1994, 229: MFI87.
74.Serv. Aen. 1.446.
75.A. Smith 2016, 642.
76.Merrifield 1995; Merrifield and Hall 2008; also Leary and Butler 2012, 85–6.
77.Zoll 2016, 635; Frankfurter 2006, 554; A. Smith 2016, 642.
78.Hurst 2016, 109.
79.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 186. For other examples see Birley 1979, 124; Cowan et al. 2009, 148, and p. 244.
80.E.g. Perring and Roskams 1991, 69–70: GPO75; Ridgeway et al. 2019, 42: BVQ09.
81.E.g. Hart and Melikian 2007, 305: LDH99 and other examples.
82.S. Watson 2013.
83.G. Davis 2018, 76 drawing on unpublished reports by Michael Marshall.
84.Bowsher and Marshall 2013: BZY10.
85.A. Smith 2016, 654. For examples see pp. 79 and 385.
86.Fulford 2001.
87.Ridgeway et al. 2013, 54: LTU03.
Chapter 19
1.Dunning 1945, 60; Roskams and Watson 1981; Perring 2017.
2.KWS94; AUT01; PDN81.
3.CSD12.
4.Rowsome 1999, 269–700; Bateman 1998, 48: DMT88.
5.PCH85; KEW98; NEG98.
6.Bateman et al. 2008, 61, 116 and Fig 114: GSJ06; KIG95; IRO80; GHT00.
7.ETA89; TEA98; BIS82.
8.E.g. LC76; BRL87; FEC80; FSP80; IME83; LIM83.
9.Brigham 1990a, 70; Milne 1992, 70: LCT84.
10.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 118: FER97; Dunning 1945, 57; Roskams and Watson 1981, site 250; Parnell 1985, 9.
11.Bluer and Brigham 2006, 18: FCC95; Hobley and Schofield 1977, 57; Roskams and Watson 1981, site 242: CAS75.
12.FST85, LFE87 and LAH 88; PUB80; Bluer and Brigham 2006, 27: FCC95.
13.Howe and Lakin 2004, 21.
14.E.g. S. Watson 2015, 30: CDP04.
15.Cowan et al. 2009, 46.
16.Yule 2005, 39: WP83.
17.Marsh 1981; Symonds 1998, 340.
18.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 162.
19.Brigham 1998, 29; Brigham 2001, 27, 41: Building 4; Blair et al. 2006, 18–20: GHT00; Hillam 1986, 14.
20.Brigham and Watson 1996: KWS94.
21.Brigham 1998, 29; Brigham 1990b, Waterfront 4; Brigham 2001a, 27, 41: SUF94, Building 4.
22.Parnell 1985, 8: TOL79-84.
23.Milne 1992, 68.
24.Casson et al. 2014, 37, 61–2, 86–92: GSM97.
25.E.g. Dunning 1945, 60; Merrifield 1965, 46; Perring 1991, 73.
26.Gibbon 1776, 95–6.
27.Fronto Ep. de bello Parthico 2.
28.Dio Cass. 69.14.1.
29.SHA Hadr. 5.2.
30.Jarrett 1976; Birley 1997, 123; Birley 2007b.
31.CIL 11.5632; CIL 10.5829; R. Davies 1977; Frere 2000; Breeze et al. 2012, 27; B. Hoffman 2013, 140–3; Hodgson 2021 makes a case for a slightly earlier date.
32.Graafstal 2018, 98–100; P. Holder 2003; Birley 1998; P. Hill 2006, 144; Breeze 2003, 13–16.
33.Casey 1987, although the identification is uncertain.
34.The Alexandrian calendar year ran from September.
35.Cowie et al. 2013, 18, 20; Parnum and Cotton 1983, 320; Sheldon and Schaaf 1978, 66; P. Jones 2010, 16, 20.
36.Allen and Lodwick 2017, 157 173.
37.Sealey 1995.
38.‘BB2’: Davies et al. 1994, 107, 205–9.
39.Gerrard 2008; Allen and Fulford 1999, 178; Bidwell 2017, 292–8.
40.Monaghan 1987; R. Pollard 1988, 173–7; Allen and Lodwick 2017, 157; Millett 2007, 167.
41.Biddulph 2012.
42.Allen and Fulford 1999, 178; Boatwright 2000, 204.
43.Tac. Ann. 14.31.
44.Birley 1997, 2.
45.Grimes 1968, 17–40; Shepherd 2012; Howe and Lakin 2004.
46.Butler 2001, 237: PLH97.
47.Marsden 1968a, 8: GM4.
48.Shepherd 2012: WFG1a, WFG7, WFG9; Lyon 2004: NHG98.
49.Grimes 1968: WFG5.
50.Shepherd 2012.
51.M. Lavan 2019b, 189. This is a lower settlement density than suggested for earlier temporary camps crowded with tents.
52.Hassall 2012; Howe and Lakin 2004, 55–8: WFG20, WFG22, NST94, WOO97, NHG98.
53.Shepherd 2012, 50, 154; Howe and Lakin 2004, 37–9, table 7.
54.Fuhrman 2012, 45, 157, 194; Plin. Ep. 10.77.
55.Wacher 1995, 94; Shepherd 2012, 155.
56.Hassall 2017, 91–7; above pp. 220–2.
57.Hassall 2012, 166–8; Yule and Rankov 1998.
58.Philp 1981, 91–7; Breeze 1983.
59.A. Wardle 2015, 101.
60.Bateman et al. 2008: 101: GAG87.
61.Bateman et al. 2008, 58, 196.
62.Bateman 2009.
63.Brown and Pye 1992: WIV88.
64.Brigham 2001a, 21–30: SUF94; D. Swift 2008, 34–6: AUT01; Brigham 1990b Waterfront 4: Seal House I: SH74/SH76, Swan Lane I: SWA81; table 10.
65.Brigham 1990b: NFW74 I, CUS73 I, BC75.
66.Milne 1985, 54; Brigham 2001b, 44.
67.Hassall and Tomlin 1987, 360–3.
68.Rhodes 1991. See p. 271.
69.Bateman 1986: FMO85; KWS94.
70.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 96–107.
71.R. Burns 2017.
72.MacDonald 1986; Laurence et al. 2011, 116.
73.Boatwright 2000, 172–4; Birley 1997, 74; J. Reynolds 1988, 43.
74.Birbeck and Schuster 2009, 24–5: FNE01.
75.E.g. Lime Street: IME83.
76.Perring and Roskams 1991, 41: WAT78.
77.E.g. Hill and Rowsome 2011, 418: ONE94; Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 118; FER97.
78.KWS94.
79.C. Maloney 1990, 85–88, 89–112, 114–15; Leary and Butler 2012, 78–83; Harward et al. 2015, 15; DGT06.
80.Schofield 1998, 246, 253; I. Tyers 2008a, table 2.2.1: MGT87; COV87.
81.Seeley and Drummond-Murray 2005, 142: MRG95.
82.C. Maloney 1990, 26–39: OPT81, KEY83, TEL83, CHL84; MGE96; TEA98; COV87; ACW74; Shepherd 1987.
83.Ridgeway 2009, 22: DGT06; A. Wardle 2015, 9.
84.Leary and Butler 2012, 80.
85.Perring 2000, 141: Lees et al. 1989, 118; LOW88; Perez-Sala and Shepherd 2008; A. Wardle 2015, 97: MGT87; Shepherd 2012, 156.
86.Hingley 2018, 163; Bruce et al. 2009, 77: MGE96.
87.Reddaway 1940, 26.
Chapter 20
1.Harward et al. 2015, 24–5, 83–5; Ranieri and Telfer 2017: RIV87; ELD88; FIB88; BSP91; BDC03; ENS03; XSM10.
2.Hyland 1990, 259; Dixon and Southern 1992, 229–31; Roth 1999, 203; N. Crummy 2006, 24.
3.Denyer 1935, 13; Booth 2012, 333: KXU10. RIB 18: Collingwood and Wright 1965, which referes to a soldier of Legio XX.
4.RCHME 1928, 56. These have alternatively been used to hypothesize a road bypassing London along the line of Old Street.
5.Ranieri and Telfer 2017, 12, 86.
6.Harward et al. 2015, 21.
7.Ranieri and Telfer 2017, 24.
8.Tac. Hist. 2.45, 70.
9.Harward et al. 2015, 92–107: RIV87; ELD88; FIB88; BDC03; ENS03.
10.Ranieri and Telfer 2017, 22, 89–92: XSM10.
11.Tucker 2016, 103.
12.Geoffrey of Monmouth HRB, 5, 4; Lane Fox 1867; Norman and Reader 1906.
13.Perring 2017, table 1; Ranieri and Telfer 2017, fig. 104; Schulting and Bradley 2013; Edwards et al. 2009; Marsh and West 1981.
14.Schulting and Bradley 2013, 54; Marsh and West 1981, 97.
15.Hall 1996, 83; J. Pearce 2015, table 1.
16.Reader 1903; RCHME 1928, 15; Powers 2015, 127–34; Haglund 1993.
17.E.g. Cipin 2015, 10.
18.E.g. Daykin 2017: PPL11; BGB98.
19.Butler 2006, 40: MRL98.
20.Marsh and West 1981; Ross 1967; Cotton 1996.
21.Ranieri and Telfer 2017, 25–28, 115–17: XSM10.
22.Ranieri and Telfer 2017, 58–61, 109–10; Harward et al. 2015, 21.
23.Ranieri and Telfer 2017, 112.
24.E.g. Brittany, the Central Massif in France, the Rhine Graben, the Alps and the Bohemian Massif.
25.P. Brown 2012, 297; Haynes 2013, 364; Shaw 1993: 335–6. It was not possible to consult Elliott 2021 on theories that connect a massacre in London with the supposed disappearance of the Ninth legion, for which see also Hodgson 2021.
26.Lees et al. 1989, 116; Redfern and Bonney 2014; Shaw et al. 2016, 65; LOW88.
27.Shaw et al. 2016.
28.Redfern and Bonney 2014: LOW88.
29.Hope 2000; Ash 1997; Bauman 1996, 151; Varner 2005, 69; Kyle 1998, 53.
30.Above p. 220. RIB 19: Collingwood and Wright 1965; Furhman 2012, 171–4.
31.Hinard 1987, 119; Kyle 1998, 217–20.
32.Luc. Pharsalia 2.103; Livy 24.20.6, 24.30.6; Val. Max. 9.2.1; BHisp. 32; App. B Civ. 1.71, 4.2.5–4.20; Plut. Vit. Ant. 20, Plut. Vit. Cic. 48–9; Lennon 2014, 157; Kyle 1998, 132–3, 220–4.
33.Scenes 71, 24 and 113. Fields 2005; Goldsworthy 1998.
34.RIB 522: Collingwood and Wright 1965; RIB 3185: Tomlin et al. 2009; Bull 2007. See also Birley 2002, 34.
35.CIL 6. 1523. Birley 2005, 152.
36.Campbell 2000, 44–5; 69–70; Fields 2005.
37.Howe 2002: BAX95.
38.J. Maloney 1979: DUK77; Morgan 1980, 114: TR74.
39.S. Watson 2006, 48: SLY00.
40.Pitt 2006b, 27–31: OBL97.
41.Hingley 2018, 164; LLS02; SWN98; TIY07; LTU03.
42.Armit 2012, 91; M. Green 2001, 151.
43.Hingley 2018, 110–14.
44.Braithwaite 2007, 255, 348, 323–403 Casson et al. 2014, 59–60; Ranieri and Telfer 2017, 32; Wilmott 1991, 28–30, 177–8.
45.Noreńa 2011, 202; Russell and Manley 2015, 166; Varner 2005, 67–88.
Chapter 21
1.Betts 1995, 222. Later building supplies were occasionally marked as the products of civilian tilieries. Betts 2017b, 370: RIB 2489.13–15: Collingwood and Wright 1993.
2.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 445; Pritchard 1988, 186.
3.E.g. LBN08; WHY85; DHS75 Building 4; 11STS77 Building 3; LBE95 Building 1; BGH95 Buildings 30–2; Bird and Graham 1978, site 10; BOP82; FCC95, Buildings 16 and 32; TEA98; BRD88 Building 1; LFE87, FNC88; WIV88; S. Butcher 1982; TEL83; SUF94, Buildings 3 and 4; BAX95, Building 1; KNG85; FNE01 Building 16; WAO06; LIE14; LIM83 and IME83; IMG12; AUT01 Building 12; LSO88; FER97 Building 31; WAT78. Possibly also: BBH87; GM160 and GM213; GM37; GM73; HOP83 Building 5; GM136 Building 1; ESC97; BBH05 Building 15; OJW98 Building 3; LDH99; BZY10.
4.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 187: LHY88.
5.Neal and Cosh 2009, 399–400: Camomile Street 370.22, Finch Lane 370.43, Birchin Lane 370.7; Crosby Hall 370.36; Cullum Street 370.40; Founders Court 370. 65; Mansion House 370.71.
6.Milne 1985, 138–40: PDN81 Building 6; Maloney and Holroyd 2009, 51: CYQ05. Rowsome 1999, 273.
7.Ridgeway 2009, 22–5: DGT06. Water pipes feeding the building incorporated timbers felled ad 155–87 and a writing tablet internally dated to ad 158 was found in a drain alongside the building.
8.Neal and Cosh 2009: Mosaic 370.72.
9.Niblett and Thompson 2005, 114–5, 155.
10.Frere 1983, 16; Millett 1990, 107.
11.Perring 2005.
12.E. Thomas 2017.
13.Schmitz 2011, 306–10.
14.Teçusan 1990; Perring 2015.
15.Described by Jas Elsner as the apogee of Second Sophistic monuments: Elsner 1998, 174.
16.Yule 2005: WP83.
17.Goffin 2005, 120–5.
18.Crowley 2005, 92–4.
19.RIB 3016: Tomlin et al. 2009: Yule and Rankov 1998; Hassall 2017, 107; Hingley 2018, 139.
20.Mattingly 2006a, 274; above p. 79.
21.Above p. 185; Birley 2005, 307.
22.Cowan 1992, 49; Neal and Cosh 2009, 456: 15SK80.
23.Cowan et al. 2009 Site 44: RWG94.
24.C. Thomas 2008, 105: PSW93; PLQ95.
25.Howell 2005; Philp et al. 1991.
26.E.g. Walton-on-the-Hill, Titsey, Darenth, Farningham (Franks), Ash and Cobham: Black 1987, 34–5.
27.Perring and Pitts 2013, 247.
28.S. Watson 2016; S. Watson 2017, 394: SGA12; Booth 2012, 332; Symonds 1995: LTS95; Monteil 2005, 70, 115–119, 141 and pers. comm.: TEQ10; Rhodes 1986, 91: NFW74.
29.Following Nieto 1997 the port might be seen to have ceased serving as a principal emporia for redistribution, adopting a secondary role within the more extended lines of supply. See also Wilson et. al. 2012.
30.G. Brown 2008.
31.Brigham 1990a, 73; Tyers and Vince 1983, 303–4.
32.Brigham et al. 1995: CO88.
33.Ridgeway et al. 2019, 30–31, Fig 4.32: BVM12; Cowan et al. 2009, 73–6: GHL89; Taylor Wilson 2002: HHO97.
34.Bateman et al. 2008, 62–72: GAG87.
35.de la Bédoyère 2003, 125.
36.Frere 1999, 139.
37.Horne and King 1980.
38.Williams 1993, 120: PET81; Pritchard 1988, 187.
39.Bradley and Butler 2008, 65–9: QUV01; Marsden 1967: GM91.
40.D. Goodburn 2008, 45.
41.Bateman 1998, 49.
42.Zoll 2016, 629; Whittaker 1997, 151–2.
43.Williams 1993, 77–87; RCHME 1928, 141; Humphrey 1986, 431; Fuentes 1986b, 144–7. Smithfield Market, north of town, is an alternative location.
44.P. Crummy 2008.
45.Perring 1991, 81–2; Schofield 1998, 277 and 283–4; McCann 1993, 39: OBA88.
46.Merrifield 1996, 110–1.
47.Bateman et al. 2008, 118; Booth 2007, 287; Booth 2008, 317: GSJ06 and GAM88.
48.Dawe and Oswald 1952, 15–107: GM219; re-investigated as BOA83 and IRL95.
49.Grainger 1995: IRL95.
50.Neal and Cosh 2009: Mosaic 370.51.
51.Shepherd 1987, 41–2: GM83.
52.Blair 2005: KIG95.
53.Bayley et al. 2009, 155: GHT00.
54.RCHME 1928, 120; Merrifield 1996, 106, 112.
55.Killock et al. 2015: LLS02.
56.Beasely 2006: SWN98.
57.A. Smith 2016, 648.
58.Evershed et al. 2004.
59.RIB 3014: Tomlin et al. 2009; Grew 2008; Tomlin 2015.
60.Bynon 2016.
61.RIB 678: Collingwood and Wright 1965; Birley 1979, 126; CIL 13.8164a; RCHME 1962.
62.Tomlin 2018a, 304; Dondin-Payre and Loriot 2008.
63.Adams 2017, 200.
64.Tomlin 2018a, 304–6; Hassall 2017, 177.
65.Lis 2009, 61–2; C. Hawkins 2016, 70; Verboven 2016, 196.
66.Millett 2016a.
67.Millett 1990, 107.
68.Vitr. De arch. 1.6.7.
69.P. Andrews 2008; A. Smith 2016, 651.
70.A. Smith 2001.
71.Creighton 2006, 129–45.
72.G. Rogers 1991.
73.Irby-Massie 1999, 15–17.
74.Henig 1984b, 41.
75.Biddulph et al. 2019, 208–10: BVX09; Marsh 1979b, 265.
76.The adjacent bathhouse may have been restored, and rubbish indicates that an adjacent masonry building hosted banquets. Ridgeway et al. 2019, 91, 190, 205–6: BVK11.
77.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 174, 377: ONE94, Building 69.
78.Mackinder 2000: GDV96.
79.J. Pearce 2016, 354; J. Pearce 2015, 143.
80.Thrale 2008: OCU04.
81.Blagg 2000; Hingley 2018, 166; Hayward 2015, 190.
82.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 111–16: MSL87, with others at ETN88 and WTN84.
83.Hunt and Shepherd 2009, 136: PCO06.
84.Pitt 2006b, 50–3: NEG98.
85.Rowsome 2014b, 38: LUD82.
86.S. Stevens 2017, 92.
87.Norman and Reader 1912, 294; Marsden 1980, 124.
88.Schofield 1998, 289: BTB89. Hingley 2018, 177.
89.J. Maloney 1979: DUK77; Butler 2001, 45–6: PLH97; Sankey and Stephenson 1991, 117–18; BLM 87; CAP86.
90.Howe 2002, 12: BAX95.
91.RCHME 1928, pl 55.
92.Frere 1983, 35–6; Niblett and Thompson 2005, 155.
93.Swain and Williams 2008, 39.
Chapter 22
1.Marsden 1980, 110: GM217.
2.Waddington 1930, 68–9.
3.Sheldon 1975, 278–84.
4.J. Morris 1975, 343–4; Symonds and Tomber 1991, 59.
5.E.g. Roskams and Schofield 1978, 227–8; Marsden 1980, 110–17; Merrifield 1983, 140; Perring and Roskams 1991, 120.
6.Yule 1990.
7.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 166: ONE94; Bluer and Brigham 2006, 44: FCC95.
8.E.g. Howe and Lakin 2004, Rowsome 2006; 51; Rowsome 2008, 30; Cowan and Rowsome 2009; Rowsome 2018, 94.
9.S. Watson 2006, 56–7.
10.Hingley 2018, 155–92.
11.B. Watson 1998, 103–5; Macphail 2003; Macphail 2005; Lyon 2007, 36; Cowan and Seeley 2009; Ridgeway et al. 2019, 173.
12.Sankey 2002, 13–17.
13.Hingley 2018, 147: GPO75.
14.E.g. Shepherd 1987, 36, 48–50: GM 129 and KNG85; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 237–9: BRD88/DOC87, KNG85.
15.Perring and Roskams 1991, 19 and 67: GPO75 Group 8.8–13.
16.OST82; ABS86.
17.Yule 1988, 79: 88BHS74.
18.Howe and Lakin 2004, 42: NST94.
19.Crabtree 2018, 23–5.
20.Rielly 2006, 117: PNS01 and 1STS74.
21.Perring and Roskams 1991, 26, 57: GPO75; WEL79.
22.Rielly et al. 2006.
23.Marsden and West 1992, 138.
24.Vince 1987, fig. 102; Monteil 2005, 67; Symonds 2006, fig 80.
25.Marshman 2015, 218–20.
26.66 sites present evidence of contraction or abandonment: GM217; TW70, 207BHS72, FNS72, 106BHS73, 64BHS74, 88BHS74, CAS75, GPO75, CHR76, MLK76, 213BHS77, WAT78, BAR79, HEN79, WOW79, IRO80, PUB80, 107BHS81, 223BHS81, CLE81, BOP82, EST83, HOP83, HIL84, KNG85, PCH85, ABS86, MOG86, ORG86, BLM87, COV87, LFE87, MGT87, LOW88, VAL88, WIV88, CED89, TWR89, NST94, BGH95, MRG95, GSM97, WOO97, KEW98, MRL98, NEG98, OJW98, MTA99, SLY00, EAE01, FOT01, PNS01,CDP04, BAZ05, BBH05, CYQ05, GHM05, POU05, SGY05, GHB06, LMZ06, FEU08, BBO10, BVF10 and IMG12. By contrast 50 sites present evidence of continued occupation: 1STS74, 175BHS76, AB78, WEL79, OPT81, PDN81, PHI81, BIS82, OST82, POT82, FEN83, KEY83, TEL83, WIT83, LWA84, CON86, NHA86, ABC87, AST87, BUC87, CO88, PPO87, BRD88, LHY88, LSO88, SXE88, USA88, 179BHS89, ETA89, PEP89, CID90, KWS94, ONE94, SUF94, BAX95, BPL95, FCC95, SHI95, CAO96, ESC97, FER97, TEA98, LGK99, NGT00, USS03, AUT01, FNE01, THY01, DGT06 and FEN14. This sample excludes public works, sites where appropriate levels were truncated, and those with inadequate dating frameworks. The data can be compared with Hingley 2018 fig 7.13 which addresses a smaller sample using a more liberal definition of late antique continuity, but none-the less shows reduced building density on a third of sites.
27.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 187: LHY88.
28.Birbeck and Schuster 2009, 29–30: FNE01 Building 14.
29.Bluer and Brigham 2006: FCC95 Period 4.
30.An archaeomagnetic date recovered from one of the hearths is dated ad 180–220 at a 95 per cent confidence level.
31.Keily 2006, 146.
32.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 119–24: FER97.
33.RCHME 1928, 189.
34.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 358–9, 450: ONE94.
35.Shepherd 2012, 156; Howe and Lakin 2004, 41–7: NST94; GAH95.
36.BAS88.
37.Lyon 2004, 160: NHG98.
38.Harward et al. 2015, 32: ELD88, BDC03.
39.S. Watson 2015, 34–9: GHM05; Casson et al. 2014, 101: GSM 97; Shepherd 1987, 45: GM86.
40.Pitt 2006a, 35: POU05.
41.McCann 1993, 34: VAL88.
42.Merrifield 1962, 38–52; Wilmott 1991; Shepherd 1998, 219. It is not certain, however, that this mill survived the Hadrianic fire.
43.Blair et al. 2006: GHT00; Wilmott 1982.
44.RAG82.
45.Mackinder 2000, 7: GDV96; Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, fig. 93: BGH95.
46.Cowan et al. 2009: STS88 and GHL89; Taylor Wilson 2002, fig. 36: HHO97.
47.Ridgeway et al. 2019, 101–6: BVK11.
48.Killock et al. 2015, 39: LLS02.
49.Marsh and Tyers 1978, 533–82; Seeley and Drummond-Murray 2005; Rayner 2017; Brown and Sheldon 2018.
50.Betts 2017a, 107; Betts 2017b, 376; Pringle 2002, 161.
51.A. Wardle 2015, 21, 107: BAZ05.
52.Hammer 2003, 58–67, 171: CO88/CO87.
53.I. Tyers 2008a: SHI95; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 181–2: ONE94 Structure 53.
54.Dearne 2017, 316; Pemberton 1973, 84–6; Cowie et al. 2013; Bickleman 2016, 243; P. Jones 2010, 29–30; Crouch and Shanks 1984, 3.
55.Fulford and Allen 2017, 8–9; Smith et al. 2016, 81, 416–17; Margetts 2018, 124–7.
56.Hathaway 2013, 467; Lucy and Evans 2016; Biddulph 2012; Biddulph et al. 2012, 158; Perring 2000, 155.
57.Cunliffe 1968, 243; Perring 2003, 211–12; Esmonde Cleary 2013, 107–9. This might have contributed to Verulamium’s slow recovery after fire destruction c. ad 155: Niblett 2001, 112–13.
58.Millett 1990, 123.
59.See Roymans 2019, 455 on the impact of war on rural populations. For frontier wars in Britain see SHA Ant. Pius 5.4 and SHA Marc. 8.7.
60.Dio Cassius 74; SHA Marc; Birley 1987.
61.Harper 2017, 98–114; Flemming 2019; Gal. Ind. 1–7, 31–5; Gal. Libr. Propr. 3.3; Aristid. Or. 48.38–45; Amm. Marc. 23.6.24; SHA Verus 8.1.1–2; SHA Marc. 13, 17; Dio Cass.71.2.4; Lucian Hist. conscr. 15; Oros. 7.15.5, 27.7; Eutr. 8.12. Jerome Chron. (Helm 287); Dio Cass. 73.14.3; Hdn. 1.12.1–2.
62.Harper 2017; Littman and Littman 1973, 254–5; Zelner 2012. We lack proof, however, that variola was present in the Roman world: Flemming 2019 and Haldon et al. 2018.
63.Salient contributions to this debate include Duncan-Jones 1996; Rathbone 1997; Scheidel 2002; Bagnall 2002; Greenberg 2003; Bruun 2007; Bruun 2012; Duncan-Jones 2018.
64.Sheldon 1981, followed by Merrifield 1983, 147–8 and Perring 2011.
65.Tomlin 2014; C. P. Jones 2016, 30; Tomlin 2018a, 358 <12.67>. This was one of five tablets found at VRY89, another of which referred to recurrent fever: Tomlin 2018b, 446.
66.Harper 2017, 98–101.
67.RIB 1579: Collingwood and Wright 1965; C. P. Jones 2005.
68.Merrifield 1996, 112.
69.RCHME 1928, 120.
70.SHA Marc. 21. Liebeschuetz 1979, 209.
71.Disease may have caused the death of a youth and two children buried together c. ad 170–200 at Lant Street in Southwark. Ridgeway et al. 2013, 76: LTU03. A second-century mass burial at Gloucester is argued to have been a product of the Antonine plague: Simmonds et al., 2008, 140; Chenery et al. 2010; J. Pearce 2015, 154.
72.M. Lavan 2019a, 34–5.
73.RIB 2404 19–20: Collingwood and Wright 1990; Duncan-Jones 1996, 121, fn. 118; Swan and Philpott 2000.
74.Dio Cass.71.16.2.
75.Defoe 2010.
76.Ottaway 1993, 73, 89.
77.E.g. Meier 2016, 282.
78.Cool 2016, 414; van Driel-Murray 2016.
Chapter 23
1.B. Hoffmann 2013, 158; Birley 2005, 172–3; Dio Cass. 72.9.22, 80; SHA Pert. 3.5–3.9; SHA Comm. 6.2, 8.4.
2.Birbeck and Schuster 2009, 35: FNE01; D. Swift 2008, 41: AUT01; Rowsome 1987: KNG85; Sankey 2002, 10–11: ETA89; Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 123–4: BGH95.
3.Gwladys Monteil pers. comm.
4.M. Walsh 2017.
5.Richardson and Tyers 1984, 133–41; Hassall 1978, 43.
6.Coombe et al. 2015 xii, xxiv; Henig 2007; de Kind 2005.
7.SHA Clod; Dio Cass. 76.14.3.
8.Hdn. 3.8.1.
9.Hodgson 2014; Mennen 2011, 208; Birley 2005, 161; Dio Cass. 77.13.1; Hdn. 3.15.6.
10.Brigham 1990b: Seal House II, Swan Lane II: SH74; SWA81. Possibly also Tatton-Brown 1974; Brigham 1990b: CUS73 I.
11.Timbers missing sapwood cannot be ascribed a precise felling date but a range can be estimated where the heartwood-sapwood transition survives. Most studies assume a 10–55-year sapwood allowance, but recent research proposes a shorter allowance of 9–36 years to a 95 per cent degree of certainty. Hillam 1990; Millard 2002.
12.ANT88.
13.A piecemeal approach to redevelopment at Swan Lane might indicate that these preparations devolved to a variety of contractors.
14.Brigham 1990b waterfront 6; Brigham 1998, 30.
15.Esmonde Cleary 1996, 424: UPT90; Brigham 1990b, 138; I. Tyers 2008a, 72: VRY89.
16.Mennen 2011, 133; B. Hoffmann 2013, 163; Dio Cass. 75.5.4.
17.Marsden 1976: GM240; Schofield 1998, 265; Rowsome 1999: DMT88.
18.Schofield 1998, 259; I. Tyers 2008a, 72; Spence and Grew 1990: UTA87; Schofield 1998, 274–5 LYD88. For plan see Brigham 2001a, fig 48.
19.Brigham 1990b, 129–30: DGH86.
20.Brigham 1990b, 118–19; Tatton-Brown 1974, Custom House II: CUS73; Booth 2012, 332: TEQ10; S. Watson 2017, 394: SGA12.
21.Brigham 1990b, 128; Miller et al. 1986, 8: Billingsgate Lorry Park, New Fresh Wharf III; Seal House III; Swan Lane III: BIG82; NFW74; SH74; SWA81.
22.Parry 1994; Schofield 1998, 282: TEX88; Brigham 1990b, 119, Custom House III: CUS73.
23.Hillam 1990; Brigham 1990b 165: BIG82; Hillam and Morgan 1986, 78–84: NFW74.
24.D. Goodburn 2008, 48: PET81.
25.RIB 2411.18–19, 29, 33, 39, 91–92, 303: Collingwood and Wright 1990.
26.Brigham 1990b, 156–7: BIG82, see p. 203.
27.Tomlin 2018a, 309 <11.40>. For other examples see Marsden 1994, 195.
28.Marsden 1994, 33–80.
29.Marsden 1994, 97–104; B. Watson 2012: GYH10.
30.Bradley and Butler 2008, 18–22, 67–9: QUV01. The dating combines evidence from Phase 6b timber structure and piles reported by I. Tyers 2008b. Hingley 2018, 136 points out that the foundations may alternatively have been those of a palatial house although this seems unlikely.
31.Blagg 1980, 125–93; C. Hill et al. 1980; Coombe et al. 2015 xii: BC75.
32.Coombe et al. 2015, 81.
33.RIB 3001–3002: Tomlin et al. 2009; Hassall 1980, 195–8; Birley 2005, 361. BC75.
34.Coombe et al. 2015 no. 77; Garman 2008; Zoll 2016, 630. An inscription found in Budge Row apparently records the restoration of a temple or shrine dedicated to the Mother Goddesses, RIB 2: Collingwood and Wright 1965.
35.Burch 1987, 9–12; Schofield 1998, 218: QUN85.
36.Marsden 1975: GM210.
37.Blair and Sankey 2007, 9–14: BPL 95.
38.Lusnia 2014, 119.
39.Marsden 1980: GM163.
40.Birley 2005, 206: RIB 8: Collingwood and Wright 1965.
41.Coombe et al. 2015, Nos. 23–4.
42.RCHME 1928, 29–32, 153–63; Merrifield 1965, 298–325; J. Maloney 1983. More recently DUK77; ASQ87, KEW98, CPW99, TRH08.
43.ASQ87; CPW99. The presence of an inter-vallum road might be implied by interim reports on a road found at 56–62 Moorgate but more information is needed: MLW15.
44.Myers 2016, 292; C. Smith 1842, 152.
45.Merrifield 1965: W3, W5 and W10; Marsden 1980, 121–6: GM131; Butler 2001, 49: PLH97; G. Hunt 2010: CPW99, GM44; Whipp 1980, 47–67: THL78b.
46.Norman and Reader 1912, 294–5. For more recent observations of fragmentary foundations of the town gates see Schofield 1998, 289: BTB89; Rowsome 2014a, Rowsome 2014b: LUD82.
47.Shepherd 2012, 78.
48.Schofield 1998, 283–4. McCann 1993, 37: VAL88.
49.Sheldon 2010 prefers a later third-century date, but lacks evidence in support.
50.Sankey and Stephenson 1991, 122: ASQ87.
51.Grimes 1968, 51: WFG5.
52.Marsden 1970, 2–6; Marsden 1980, 126–7: GM131.
53.Hall 2014b: BLM87.
54.Marsden 1994, 80–3; Milne 2017; Elliott 2018, 81–100.
55.The implications of this are illustrated in an inscription from Rome showing that command of the Rhine and Danube fleets had been combined with that of the Classis Britannica, presumably pooling resources to support the British campaign. Birley 2005, 320: CIL 6. 1643.
56.E.g. South Shields, Corbridge and Vindolanda: Hodgson 2014, 36–8; Roach 2013, 107–8. See also Hekster and Zair 2008, 36.
57.Ottaway 1993, 58–61. See also Esmonde Cleary 1987, 166; Esmonde Cleary 2003.
58.S. Stevens 2017, 62.
59.Palmer 1980.
60.Bowden 2008, 286; S. Stevens 2017, 88–9; R. Wilson 2006.
61.Hdn. 3, 8, 2.
62.Birley 2005, 333–6; Birley 2007a, 46; Mennen 2011, 213; A. J. Graham 1966, 97–107; Hassall 1996, 23.
63.Wacher 1995, 167; Birley 2007a; Dondin-Payre and Loriot 2008, 156; Aur. Vict. Caes. 2027; Courteault 1921.
64.Dio Cass.78.9.5; Dig. 1.5.17.
65.Millar 1992, 171; Kehoe 2015a, 191; Broekart 2011; Lo Cascio 2015, 66–7; SHA Sev. 18, 3; Kehoe 2015b, 102–3; Verboven 2016, 188.
66.E.g. an enclosure where the London-Lewes road exits the Weald, see Millum and Wallace 2017, and salt-working and fish-processing enclosures at Stanford Wharf, see Biddulph et al. 2012, 158.
Chapter 24
1.Douglas et al. 2011: TOC02.
2.T. Johnson 1975, 278–80; Lakin 2002; D. Bird 2013; Gerrard 2011b: LD74.
3.RCHME 1928, 163; Cuming 1858, 37.
4.J. Bird 2011.
5.Gerrard 2011b, 168–70.
6.Pearson 2003, 105–7; Mason 2003, 140–3; B. Hoffmann 2013, 168; Philp 2005, 216.
7.Allen and Fulford 1999, 181.
8.Monteil 2005, 119; B. Richardson 1986b, 98; Swan and McBride 2002; Swan 2009, 85–91: NFW74. The mid-third-century pottery at New Fresh Wharf was mixed with earlier material, but a discrete assemblage c. ad 235 can be reassembled from the evidence.
9.Neal and Cosh 2009, 460: Mosaic 372.1.
10.Harward et al. 2015 137; D. Swift 2003, 8; Thomas et al. 1997, 11–13: SQU94.
11.Featherby 2002: HUD01.
12.Telfer 2010: SMD01.
13.Coombe et al. 2015, no. 17.
14.E.g. Pitt 2014, 167: EAE01.
15.E.g. Rhodes 1986, 95; for third-century tile manufacture see Betts 2017a, 108; Betts and Foot 1994.
16.Neal and Cosh 2009, 436; P. Johnson 1993, 159.
17.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 194: ONE94.
18.Neal and Cosh 2009, 422: Mosaics 370.56–60.
19.Marsden 1968b; Marsden 1980, 151–5: GM111. Adjacent town houses, probably built c. ad 200–230, have been recorded at Harp Lane and Pudding Lane. Hobley and Schofield 1977, 56: HL74; Milne 1985, 140: PDN81 Building 6.
20.E.g. BIS82. C. Maloney 1990, 60: LWA84.
21.Cowan et al. 2009, 25: 1STS74; 4STS82; 22BHS88; CW83; COSE84; BTJ93; 28PS84; 52SOS89; USA88.
22.Cowan et al. 2009, 76: CHWH83, TYT98.b.
23.Grimes 1968, 98–118; Shepherd 1998; MOLA 2017: GM256; BZY10.
24.Shepherd 1998, 47.
25.See Porph. De Antr. Nymph. 6.
26.RIB 3: Collingwood and Wright 1965.
27.Toynbee 1986, 55–6; Shepherd 1998, 109; Coombe et al. 2015.
28.Other third-century sculptures, in limestone from the Costwolds and Lincolnshire, included a depiction of rider gods, a relief of one of the torchbearer companions of Mithras identified as Cautopates, and one of the Dioscuri.
29.Liebeschuetz 1979, 233.
30.Francis 1926; Henig 1984b, 110–11.
31.Hall and Shepherd 2008, 37; Coombe et al. 2015 Nos. 66, 69 and 87; Hall and Wardle 2005; J. Bird 1996; J. Bird 2008; Arthur 1977, 367.
32.Hall and Shepherd 2008, 35.
33.Neal and Cosh 2009 lists various pavements with peacocks and canthari, and two showing Bacchus himself.
34.GHT00.
35.Jones and Sherlock 1996.
36.Bispham 2008, 226–9.
37.Athanassiadi and Frede 1999.
38.Brigham 1990a, 73–4: LCT84.
39.Brigham 1990a, 82: LCT84; Schofield 1998, 287–8: WIV88.
40.These timbers were re-used in a construction otherwise dated c. ad 270. Bateman et al. 2008: GAG87. Coincidentally this refurbishment was contemporary with a restoration of the Colosseum indicated by coins of Gordian III.
41.Harward et al. 2015, 66–8.
42.Ranieri and Telfer 2017, 38, 65–73: XSM10.
43.In medieval folklore the shrub was believed to offer protection from evil forces on the journey to the otherworld: S. Hunt 2016; Cole 1656; Zohary and Hopf 2000.
44.Cowan et al. 2009, 76; L. Wheeler 2009, 76: GHL89.
45.SHA Gord. 28.2; Mennen 2011, 138–9.
46.Ranieri and Telfer 2017, 84.
47.RIB 17: Collingwood and Wright 1965; Coombe et al. 2015, no. 79.
48.RIB 11: Collingwood and Wright 1965.
49.See also RIB 3003: Tomlin et al. 2009.
50.J. Pearce 2011.
51.Hall 1996, 58–64; BAR79; ATC97; BAA87; WES89.
52.Barber and Bowsher 2000; Ellis 1985: SCS83; WTN84; TTL85; HAY86; MSL87; MST87; ETN88; HOO88; MNL88; PRE89; PCO06.
53.McKenzie and Thomas 2020; Barber and Hall 2000; Sankey and Connell 2007; Sudds and Douglas 2014, 3; D. Swift 2003; Daykin 2017; Stow 1603, 152–3; Schofield 1998, 234, 299: CUT78; STO86; COT88; HSD89; CCT90; BGB98; SRP98; CPN01; SSZ05; HLW06; PPL11.
54.Hall 1996, 75–83; Cowan et al. 2009, 164; Ridgeway et al. 2013, 106: AMA01; SBK03; GDV96; LTU03; TIY07; HRE16.
55.I. Morris 1992, 31; Philpott 1991, 53–7; J. Pearce 2013, 146–7; E. Graham 2015.
56.McKenzie and Thomas 2020.
57.Burial 69.
58.J. Pearce 2013, 24; Redfern et al. 2017, 175.
59.Redfern et al. 2016, Table 3: LTU03.
60.McKenzie and Thomas 2020, 87. The eastern cemetery had a male: female ratio of 1.7:1 including later burials when the gender imbalance may have been less pronounced: Barber and Bowsher 2000, 311–13.
61.Ridgeway et al. 2013, 110–12; Philpott 1991, 231; McKenzie and Thomas 2020, 118.
62.Whytehead 1986, 33, 62–4; Eckardt and Crummy 2008, 82–3: WTN84.
63.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 319–20: MSL87.
64.McKenzie and Thomas 2020, 72.
65.E. Graham 2015, 41.
66.R. Jones 1987, 816.
67.Tert. Adv. Iudaeos 7.4; Origen Hom. Ez. 4.1.
68.Irenaeus Adv. Haereses.
Chapter 25
1.Brigham 1990b, 139; 158–60; Miller et al. 1986, 30–2; Tatton-Brown 1974; Parry 1994: NFW74; SH74; SWA81; BIG82; DGH86; TEX88; UPT90; SGA12.
2.Brigham 1990b, 140: CUS73.
3.I am grateful to Damian Goodburn for pointing this out.
4.Brigham 1990b, 132, 144: BC75; Wilkinson 1998: UPT90.
5.Rowsome 2008, 31.
6.Douglas et al. 2011, 4; Cowan et al. 2009, 32.
7.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 51–2.
8.D. Bird 2013.
9.Carreras Monfort 1998, 166.
10.Evans 2013, 520–1.
11.Wilmott 1982.
12.Carreras Monfort and Williams 2003, 68; Bourne 2000, 299.
13.Lewit 2013; Middleton 1979, 81; Middleton 1983, 80.
14.Hebblewhite 2017, 90; Bowman 2017, 37; Strobel 2007, 280.
15.Esmonde Cleary 2013, 310–11.
16.van der Veen et al. 2007.
17.Evans 2013; Mattingly 2006a, 500–17.
18.Mattingly 2006a, 386; Brodribb and Cleere 1988, 242–4; Cleere 1977, 18–19; A. Smith 2017, 180–3; Fulford and Allen 2017.
19.A nearby coin hoard included issues down to ad 268. Stuart-Hutcheson 2012.
20.E.g. Great Cansiron. Rudling 1986.
21.See Cunliffe 1988, 86 on the loss of maritime infrastructure around Romney Marsh, and Millum and Wallace 2017 on the dismantling of an enclosure commanding the London-Lewes road at Bridge Farm.
22.Lyne 2016, 84.
23.Niblett 2001, 126.
24.Cleere and Crossley 1995, 81; Hodgkinson 2008, 34.
25.Cleere 1977, 19; CIL 13.686.
26.Philp 1981, 115.
27.Argued by Milne 2017.
28.See Houston 1980 on arrangements for the command of the port and annona at Ostia, where authority resided with a procurator rather than fleet command.
29.Monaghan 1987, 221; Biddulph et al. 2012, 171–4.
30.Symonds and Tomber 1991, 71: LCT84. Evans 2013.
31.Gerrard 2011d.
32.I. Tyers 2008a; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 204: ONE94. A near contemporary well at Drapers’ Gardens was lined with timber felled in the winter of ad 250: DGT06.
33.Williams 1993, 101; Hillam 1993, 97: PET81.
34.A military retreat from managing industrial production is implied by the mid-third-century cessation of legionary tile production: Warry 2010, 144.
35.Marsden 1970, 2–6: GM131.
36.Hall 2014b, 180: BYQ98.
37.Hall 2014b: BLM87.
38.For turrets housing military metalworking see Allason-Jones and Dungworth 1997.
39.Reece 2002, 45–6.
40.Tomlin 2016: .
41.Harward et al. 2015, 33–4.
42.Hammerson 2011, 518: ONE94.
43.Bluer and Brigham 2006, 49–56: FCC95 Period 5 Phases 1–2.
44.Brigham 1990a, 75, 81: LCT84.
45.FEN83; IME83/LIM83.
46.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 211: ONE94.
47.Schofield 1998, 277, 283–4: VAL88.
48.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 123–4: BGH95.
49.Hekster and Zair 2008, 84; de Blois 2002, 210; Liebeschuetz 2007, 17–18; Woolf 2012, 191.
50.de Blois 2018; de Blois 1976, 6–7.
51.Bourne 2000, 12; Birley 2007a, 49.
52.K. Butcher 2015, 183.
53.Liebeschuetz 1979, 306; Bourne 2000, 69.
54.Harper 2015, 224; Harper 2017, 138; de Blois et al. 2002, xvi; Euseb. Hist. eccl. 7; SHA Gall. 5.5.
55.Esmonde Cleary 2013, 18 explores the problems involved in attempting to answer this question.
56.Birley 2007a, 48.
57.Frere 1999, 179–80: CIL 13.6780.
58.Birley 2007a, 48–9.
59.Bidwell and Hodgson 2009, 33–4.
60.Depopulation perhaps influenced the decision to settle Burgundians and Vandals in Britain in ad 278, in much the way that Sarmatians were settled here ad 175. Birley 2007a, 48; Zos. 1.68.3.
61.Zos. 1.37.3.
62.S. Johnson 1976, 6–7.
63.Eutr. 9.9; de Blois 2018; Birley 2007a, 50; Mairat 2014; Pearson 2005.
Chapter 26
1.Brigham 1990b, 105–6: BIG82; SWA81 IV and V.
2.C. Hill et al. 1980, 57–64; Barker et al. 2018: MM74; PET81; RKH06; CUS73; NFW74; SGA12; TEQ10; TOL79-84.
3.Blocks of carved Hassock and ragstone with rebates and Lewis holes reused in the wall at Sugar Quay had been stripped from a large Antonine building.
4.Brigham 1990b, 106; Sheldon and Tyers 1983, 358–60; Hillam and Morgan 1986, 83–4. These incorporate a long sapwood allowance. It is possible that the Baynard’s Castle stretch was built before the rest of the wall.
5.Hillam 1990, 166: FRE78.
6.I am grateful to Sadie Watson for providing information in advance of publication.
7.RIB 2411.23: Collingwood and Wright 1990.
8.Milne 1985, 133–8: PDN82 Building 2.
9.Brigham 1990b, 130; Schofield 1998, 227; Williams 1991, 134: DGH86.
10.We cannot discount the possibility that works started before the fall of the Gallic Empire, although this seems improbable. It is likely that they were completed under Probus’ administration.
11.Dey 2011, 110–16.
12.S. Johnson 1983, 74; Rambaldi 2009; Dey 2011, 125–30.
13.S. Johnson 1976; Pearson 2002; 56–66, 125–38. As in London, these defences can be separated into two main phases, one early in the third century and another towards the end of that century.
14.J. Johnson 1970.
15.Frere et al. 1982, 17; Magilton 2003, 162–5; Fulford 2015b, 59–60; Niblett and Thompson 2005, 73.
16.Gerrard 2013, 48.
17.S. Johnson 1983, 69; Esmonde Cleary 2013, 75.
18.Mason 2003, 164.
19.Omissi 2018, 72.
20.Symonds and Tomber 1991.
21.Lyne and Jefferies 1979; Davies et al. 1994, 97–8.
22.Nail 2008, 27.
23.Ridgeway 2009, 43.
24.Betts 2017a, 108; Unger 2009.
25.A. Brown et al. 2001; Smith et al. 2016, 183. A policy of increasing wine production in late third century Britain is implied by Probus’ grant of permission to the Gauls, Spaniards and Britons to cultivate vineyards: SHA Probus, 18.8.
26.E.g. RIB 179 and 2066: Collingwood and Wright 1965; Birley 2005, 337.
27.Late third-century road repairs have been identified at LCT84 and SCS83. Few major street repairs took place after this date.
28.Bluer and Brigham 2006, 49–56: FCC95 Period 5 Phases 1- 2. Something similar might have taken place on the western side of the Southwark eyot, where CO87/CO88 Buildings 41–43 were built in the late third century: Hammer 2003, 84.
29.Marsden and West 1992; Symonds and Tomber 1991, 83.
30.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 124: FER97; Hill and Rowsome 2011: LHY88.
31.LIM83.
32.McKenzie 2011, 17: TEA98; Pitt 2006a: POU05; Pitt 2014: EAE01.
33.E.g. C. Maloney 1990, 68–9: CHL84; Rowsome 1987: KNG85.
34.Merrifield 1965, 54: Site 331; Merrifield 1955: GM96.
35.Hammerson 1996, 155; Walton and Moorhead 2016, 841–2; D. Walker 1988, 306; Bourne 2000, 257, 266.
36.de Blois 2002, 217.
37.Brigham 1990a, 75–82; Brigham 1992, 93–5: LCT 84.
38.Bateman et al. 2008, 86: GAG87.
39.Ridgeway et al. 2013, 79: LTU03; SBK03; DKN11.
40.Hunt and Shepherd 2009: PCO06.
41.J. Pearce 2013; J. Pearce 2016, 351.
42.E.g. WES89; Swain and Roberts 2001.
43.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 5–7; McKenzie and Thomas 2020.
44.Ramm 1971, 188–91; Philpott 1991, 90–1; J. Pearce 2013; J. Pearce 2015, 148; Barber and Bowsher 2000, 9.
45.Mackinder 2000, 27: Burial 26.
46.Ridgeway et al. 2013; Barber and Bowsher 2000, 101–3; McKenzie and Thomas 2020, 64.
47.McKenzie and Thomas 2020.
48.Ridgeway et al. 2013, 110.
49.McKenzie and Thomas 2020.
50.J. Pearce 2015, 156; Gowland and Redfern 2010; Pitts 2016, 726–34; Pitts and Griffin 2012.
51.Redfern et al. 2016.
52.Ridgeway et al. 2013; Redfern et al. 2017.
53.Shaw et al. 2016; Barber and Bowsher 2000, Burial 374: MSL87.
54.Birley 2007, 48; Zos. 1.68.3.
55.Redfern et al. 2017, 12–14; Barber and Bowsher 2000, Burial 604: MNL88.
Chapter 27
1.Birley 2007a, 51; Birley 2005, 367; Zonaras 12.2.
2.Davenport 2019; Birley 2005, 371–93; B. Hoffmann 2013, 177; Aur. Vict. Caes. 39.20; Pan. Lat. 8.5; Eutr. 9.21.
3.Casey 1994, 59; Walton and Moorhead 2016.
4.Williams 1991; Williams 1993; Bradley and Butler 2008: PET81; SUN86; QUV01.
5.A third temple might have occupied the space between the two.
6.Grainge 2005, 154; Fulford and Tyers 1995, 1013.
7.Leone 2013, 34.
8.Hijmans 2009; Casey 1994, 68.
9.L. Lavan 2011, xliii.
10.Williams 1993, 37.
11.Above p. 266. Williams 1993, 86–7.
12.B. Hoffmann 2013, 179; Pan. Lat. 8.11–19; Eutr. 9.22.2; Aur. Vict. Caes. 39.22.
13.Casey 2010.
14.Riley and Gomme 1912, 17–22; Marsden 1994, 125–8; Mason 2003, 53–5.
15.Marsden 1994, 126, 176–7.
16.Omissi 2018, 97; Pan. Lat. 8.12.1.
17.Pan. Lat. 8.5; B. Hoffmann 2013, 180.
18.Reece 2002, 55–6.
19.Birley 2005, 406; Omissi 2018, 104–5; B. Hoffmann 2013, 187; Pan. Lat. 7.6.
20.Cloke and Toone 2015; Casey 1978; Birley 2005, 411.
21.E.g. Schofield 1998, 272: LDL88; Milne 1985, 139–41: PDN81 Building 6; Merrifield 1965, Site 331: GM96; Sheldon 1978, 39–40; Hingley 2018, 227–8; Cowan et al. 2009, 25, 86–7: CW83, Building 2, AB78, Building 17; Hammer 2003, 87–8: CO88/CO87, Building 45; Heard 1989: USA88/USB88: Drummond Murray and Thompson 2002, 146: MSA92; Neal and Cosh 2009: Mosaic 371.4.
22.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 214–17; Neal and Cosh 2009: Mosaic 370.80.
23.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 128: FER97.
24.E.g. Bowden 2008, 276.
25.Cowan et al. 2009: 4STS82. A fourth-century basement at 20 Fenchurch Street may have been beneath another tower: FEU08 Building 48.
26.POU06 Building 11. These foundations might alternatively have supported a monumental gateway into the temple precinct around the amphitheatre.
27.RIB 4: Collingwood and Wright 1965; Shepherd 1998, 174–5.
28.Shepherd 1998, 84–7; Grimes 1968; Toynbee 1986.
29.Sauer 2003; Merrifield 1983, 211.
30.Henig 1998, 230.
31.Toynbee 1986, 42–52.
32.Merrifield 1977.
33.Neal and Cosh 2009, 400.
34.B. Hoffmann 2013, 188.
35.Birley 2005, 414; Lib. Or. 59.137–41. It is worth noting that London may have seen as many imperial visits in the first half of the fourth century as Rome itself: at four apiece.
36.RIB 2411.23: Collingwood and Wright 1990; Tomlin 2018a, 425–6.
37.A. Rogers 2011, 78–9: WIV88.
38.Marsden 1975, 73–9: GM25 Areas 5 and 6.
39.Cowan 1992, 53: 15SK80; Yule 2005, 85: WP83.
40.Fulford and Timby 2000, 577; White and Barker 1998, 73–74, 86; A. Rogers 2011, 78–9, 141; Mackreth 1987, 139.
41.Fulford 2008a.
42.P. S. Johnson 2012, 162.
43.Tyers and Vince 1983, 303–4.
44.Williams 1993, 52: PET81.
45.Swiętoń 2007; Esmonde Cleary 2013, 88.
46.Brigham 1990a, 79; M. Scott 2013, 44.
47.P. Brown 2012, 103.
48.Rossiter 2016. Ridgeway 2009, 54; Rielly 2008, 31: CO88; LLS02; DGT06.
49.Rhodes 1991.
50.Hammer 2003, 79–112: CO88/CO87.
51.Hingley 2018, 204–5: USA88; 8US74; 107BHS81; HIB79.
52.Hammerson 1978b; Gerrard 2011e, 558: SCC77.
53.Killock et al. 2015, 43, 195, 259; Hayward 2015, 185: LLS02.
54.Esmonde Cleary 2016, 142; Bowes 2010, 90–3.
55.Hassall 1996, 24; White 2007. The province of Britannia Prima was first mentioned in the Verona list compiled c. ad 312. Its location is uncertain.
56.Perring 2002, fig. 71 maps how distributions of wealthy late Roman villas, marked by ‘schools’ of mosaics, reproduce areas of political affiliation implied by distributions of late Iron Age coins. See Brindle 2017, 278 on different patterns of fourth-century coin loss between the south-east and south-west.
57.Black 1987, 35, Sites 84, 104 and 183; Meates 1979.
58.Smith et al. 2016, 18, 92.
59.Black 1987, 126–9.
60.Biddulph et al. 2012, 174; Germany 2003.
61.Douglas et al. 2011, 27.
62.D. Bird 2013.
63.Henig 2015; Coombe et al. 2015, no. 85.
64.Weever 1631, xxxi. We can provisionally identify nine early fourth-century suburban villas north of the river: St Martin-in-the-Fields, Thorney Island, St Bride’s, St Andrew Holborn, Artillery Ground, Spital Square, Shadwell, Ratcliffe, and Lower Clapton.
65.C. Thomas 2004: SRP98; Coombe et al. 2015, No 86; RCHME 1928, 157; S. Watson 2018, 384: HRE16.
66.Montgomery et al. 2010, 217–19; Eckardt and Müldner 2016, 213; Cool 2016, 419; Brettell et al. 2015, 643; McKenzie and Thomas 2020, 39: Burial 90.
67.G. Brown 2011; Sheldon 1971, 42–7; Allen 2017, 90–1.
68.Ridgeway 2009, 39: DGT06.
69.Ivens and Deal 1977, 64; Laws 1976, 182; Crouch and Shanks 1984, 3.
70.Allen and Lodwick 2017, 174–5; Millett 1990, 143–51.
71.Lakin 1999, 337: SWY97/SNY97.
Chapter 28
1.RCHME 1928, 99–106; J. Maloney 1983, 105–11; J. Maloney 1980, 70–4; Marsden 1980, 170–3; Merrifield 1965, 320–5; Merrifield 1983, 228–35; Hingley 2018, 218–19; J. Maloney 1979, 297; Sankey and Stephenson 1991, 122: XWL79; CRT89; BLM87. The surviving bastions were numbered sequentially, east to west, by the Royal Commission survey of Roman London. Subsequent discoveries are inserted into the series, such that Bastion 2A is between Bastions 2 and 3.
2.Marsden 1980, 172–3; J. Maloney 1983, 111: GM55; LH74; Butler 2001, 51: MRL98; Rowsome 2014a, 5: LUD82.
3.Elton 1996.
4.RCHME 1928: Bastion 6. Marsden 1980, 172: GM55; J. Maloney 1979, 295–7, J. Maloney 1983, 105–8: DUK77.
5.Frey 2016; Blagg 1983; Hingley 2018, 205, 232–4.
6.Barker et al. 2018.
7.Bateman et al. 2008, 92: GAG87.
8.Wilmott 2008, 55.
9.Cowan 1992, 54–8: 15SK80.
10.As in sixth-century Catania where city notables sought the government’s authority to remove stones from their ruined amphitheatre to repair the town walls: see Christie 2020, 335 drawing on Cassiod. Var. 3.49.
11.Merrifield 1965, 72; Lyon 2007, 47–52: KEW98.
12.Merrifield 1965, G8: GM5.
13.Harward et al. 2015, 66–8; Myers 2016, 292.
14.C. Hill et al. 1980, 57–64; Coombe et al. 2015, 74: BC75.
15.DHS75 Area E.
16.Sarantis 2013, 256; Intagliata et al. 2020; Rambaldi 2009; Crickmore 1984, 74–95.
17.Gerrard 2013, 47–9.
18.William Fitzstephen writing c. ad 1173 described towers along the riverside wall. The Lanthorn, Wakefield and Bell towers on the inner curtain wall of the Tower of London could stand over Roman bastions: Parnell 1985, 29.
19.Loseby 2000, 326.
20.Gerrard 2013, 47–8 summarizes the arguments.
21.Amm. Marc. 20.1.1. Corder 1955; Merrifield 1983, 235; Birley 2005, 425; Sarantis 2013, 265.
22.Casey 1983.
23.Birley 2005, 418; Frere 1999, 343.
24.B. Hoffmann 2013, 192; Amm. Marc. 27.8.1–6, 28.3.3.
25.Hammerson 1996, 156.
26.Amm. Marc. 28.3.1 ‘Augusta…quam veteres apellavere Lundinium’.
27.Kalafikis 2014; Collins and Weber 2015, 2–3; B. Hoffmann 2013, 198.
28.Esmonde Cleary 2020.
29.Rivet and Smith 1979, 216–25; Seeck 1876; Elton 2006, 201; Kulikowski 2000.
30.Not. Dign. occ. 11.37.
31.Hassall 2017, 220; Collins and Breeze 2014, 64; Bland et al. 2018, 125.
32.Cod. Theod. 7.8.5.
33.I am grateful to Andy Gardner for reminding me of London’s importance to Britain’s coastal frontier.
34.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 183–4, 305: MSL87 Burial 538; Collins 2017, 39–42; Shaw et al. 2016; J. Pearce 2013, 142; Cool 2016, 416.
35.Keller Type 6, drawing on dating by Pröttel 1988, cited by Collins 2017.
36.Parani 2007; P. Brown 2012, 27.
37.SUERC-67611. I am grateful to Rebecca Redfern for providing information ahead of publication and to Jim Stevenson and Lucy Allott for re-running results through Ox Cal 4.4 in 2020. This assemblage is the subject of ongoing research by Michael Marshall. The accepted date-range for the style of Crossbow brooch may need review and the scientific dating further scrutinized.
38.E. Swift 2000, 211. Michael Marshall advises that whilst the Mansell Street burial wore the trappings of power, the most powerful had dress items in gold and silver.
39.Cowie and Blackmore 2008, 128; Hawkes and Dunning 1961, 62.
40.Milne 1985, 33, 133–41: PDN82 Buildings 5 and 6.
41.Dunwoodie et al. 2015, 129: FER97. For broadly contemporary occupation elsewhere in the walled area see Williams 1993, 56: PET 81; S. Butcher 1982, 105; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 217–20: ONE94, Building 64.
42.Gerrard 2009b: DGT06.
43.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 221–4; 383, 447: ONE94, Building 72.
44.Neal and Cosh 2009: Mosaic 370.76.
45.D.J. Smith 1969; Cosh 1992.
46.Neal and Cosh 2009, 437.
47.K. Burns forthcoming; Friedman 2000; Stoyanov 2000, 30; Athanassiadi and Frede 1999; Bowersock 1990; SHA Sev. Alex. 39.3; Guthrie 1966, 253–5; Perring 2003.
48.Killock et al. 2015, 263: LLS02.
49.Rielly 2015, 223.
50.Killock et al. 2015, 57.
51.Rebillard 2009, 57.
52.R. Wheeler 1930, 25; Merrifield 1965, 61–2; Hall and Shepherd 2008, 36; Tomlin 2019, 510: BBO10. The unpublished Brentford Chi-Rho grafitto was identified in 2016 by volunteers at the Museum of London Archaeological Archive when processing pottery excavated in 1970.
53.RIB 2406.1–10: Collingwood and Wright 1990; Hall 2014a; Petts 2003, 109; Douglas et al. 2011, 164.
54.Inconsistent spelling leaves the identification with Augusta uncertain. Birley 1979, 152; Thacker 2004.
55.Munier 1963, 15 cited by A. Rogers 2011, 33; Petts 2016, 66.
56.Cantino Wataghin et al. 1996, 29; Esmonde Cleary 2013, 152–153, 175; Esmonde Cleary 2016, 143.
57.The certain example is Chrysanthus who was vicarius of Britain at the close of the fourth century before becoming the Novatianist Bishop of Constantinople, a post previously held by his father, where he was responsible for establishing and enlarging the churches of this Christian sect. Socrates Hist. eccl. 7.12.1; Salway 1981, 407–8.
58.Sankey 1998; Gerrard 2011a; Schofield 1998, 295; Petts 2016, 62–5: PEP89.
59.Betts 2017b, 381; Unger 2009, 113.
60.Cantino Wataghin 1999, 156.
61.Bowls of type CAM306. Gerrard 2011a. Also Haynes 2008; G. Hunt 2010, 57.
62.P. Brown 2012, 242; Esmonde Cleary 2013, 180.
63.Loseby 2000, 327.
64.See Reece 1982 for a critique of attempts to explain archaeological evidence through reference to the barbarian conspiracy.
65.Mattingly 2006a, 236.
66.Brigham 1990b, 148–9.
67.Symonds and Tomber 1991; Rayner and Seeley 2008; P. Tyers 1996b, 192–5; Evans 2013.
68.Fulford and Hodder 1974.
69.Gerrard 2011d; Lyne 2016, 89.
70.There is no evidence for supplies of new building timber reaching London after c. ad 302–34, see p. 354.
71.Evans 2013.
72.Esmonde Cleary 2013, 321; Esmonde Cleary 2016, 139–40; Fulford and Bird 1975.
Chapter 29
1.Gerrard 2011c; A. Rogers 2011, 14–26; Gibbon 1776.
2.Carneiro et al. 2020.
3.Reece 1980; Reece 1992.
4.Esmonde Cleary 1989, 82–3; Perring 1991, 128.
5.Frere 1983, 223–6: House 27.2.
6.Higham 2014; Constantius Vita Sancti Germani 12–18, 25–7.
7.Neal 2003; Faulkner and Neal 2009; Frere and Witts 2011.
8.I. Tyers 2008a.
9.Gerrard 2011c: DGT06. For a wider trend towards timber architecture in late antiquity, see Esmonde Cleary 2016, 143.
10.Hammerson 1996, 164.
11.Gardner 2016, 495; Going 1992, 102–3; Millett 1990, 224–7.
12.Gerrard 2011c.
13.E.g. HL74; EAE01; BIS82.
14.Marsden 1980, 169: GM96.
15.Some may have been built over by the fourth century, as Hill and Rowsome 2011, 238, 447: KNG85 Roads 2 and 6.
16.G. Brown 2008, 87: LEK95.
17.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 365: ONE94, Road 1.
18.Hill and Rowsome 2011, 386–7.
19.Cowan et al. 2009, 33: 84BHS75, AB78; Ridgeway et al. 2019, 133–134, fig. 5.18: BVX09.
20.Drummond-Murray and Thompson 2002, 59: BGH95; Ridgeway et al. 2019, 174: BVK11.
21.Dennis 1978; Killock et al. 2015, 265: 1STS74; 4TST82.
22.Hammer 2003, 102–3: CO88/CO87.
23.Cowan 1992, 53–9: 15SK80.
24.Cowan 2003, 70–3: COSE84.
25.LBN08.
26.Cowan et al. 2009, 250–4: GHR82; Killock et al. 2015, 69–70: LLS02.
27.Bateman et al. 2008, 91–3: GAG87.
28.S. Watson 2006, 64–5: PNS01; Hill and Rowsome 2011, 248: ONE94; Howe 2002, 23: BAX95.
29.Galinié and Zadora-Rio 1996.
30.Cantino Wataghin et al. 1996, 33; Cantino Wataghin 1999, 152–8; Le Masne de Chermont 1987.
31.Leone 2007, 168–89.
32.Frankfurter 2006, 550; Esmonde Cleary 2013, 160–4; J. Pearce 2015, 145.
33.Cod. Theod. 16.10.4, 16.10.24.
34.TIY07. See also Ridgeway et al. 2013, 26–7, 115: LTU03.
35.Barber and Bowsher 2000, 305: Burial 557.
36.Gerrard 2009b; Gerrard 2011e, 552; Ridgeway 2009, 52–3: DGT06.
37.By way of example Rome’s ritual underground shaft, the Mundus, was opened for offerings to the underworld on 24 August, 5 October, and 8 November: Warde Fowler 1912, 25; Rykwert 1976, 59; Woodward and Woodward 2004, 69–70. See also Fulford 2001.
38.Seeley and Wardle 2009; Hingley 2018: USA88 and 8US74.
39.Allen 2015, 181–2.
40.MoLA 2017: BZY10.
41.Hingley 2018, 231; Hammerson 1978b: SCC77; Hammer 2003, 113–15: CO87.
42.Killock et al. 2015, 66: LLS02.
43.D. Walsh 2020, 291.
44.Jerome Ep. 133.9; Birley 2005, 455; B. Hoffmann 2013, 198; Esmonde Cleary 2016, 135; Collins and Breeze 2014, 65–6.
45.Zos. 4.35; Sozom. Hist. eccl. 7.13; Birley 2005, 447–9; Halsall 2007, 196–8; Wijnendaele 2020.
46.RCHM 1928, 188. Coins carrying the mint-mark AVGOB and AVGPS are thought to refer to Augusta, although this is not universally accepted, see Tomlin 2006, 58–9 and Fuentes 1991, 333.
47.Gildas De Excidio 13.
48.Parnell 1985: TOL79-84.
49.RIB 2402.4: Collingwood and Wright 1990: Milles 1779; Painter 1981; Merrifield 1983, 241; Bland et al. 2018, 124.
50.Merrifield 1983, 226, 246.
51.PDN82, Building 6; GM111; S. Butcher 1982, see above p. 369.
52.C. Hill et al. 1980, 57–64: BC75.
Chapter 30
1.Marsden 1980, 180–1; Merrifield 1983, 247–55; Rowsome 1996; Symonds and Tomber 1991, no. 119: GM111.
2.B. Richardson 1986b, 129: NFW74.
3.Milne 1985, 33: PDN82; Shepherd 1998, 103: GM256.
4.Gerrard 2011c.
5.Faulkner 2004.
6.Esmonde Cleary 2016, 135.
7.Walton and Moorhead 2016, 844.
8.Gardner 2016, 495; Reece 2002, 62; Esmonde Cleary 2013, 348.
9.Esmonde Cleary 2013, 339.
10.Drinkwater 1998; Procop. Vand. 3.2.31, 37–8; Birley 2005, 463.
11.Zos. 6.5.2–6.1, 6.10.2; Gerrard 2016, 860–1.
12.E. Thompson 1983; Bartholemew 1982.
13.Esmonde Cleary 2016, 138–43; Loseby 2000, 336.
14.Douglas et al. 2011, 57–9; Lakin 2002, 24; Gerrard 2011b, 172: TOC02.
15.Gerrard 2011d, 68.
16.Sheldon 1971, 52.
17.RCHME 1928, 147.
18.Telfer 2010: SMD01. The intercept of the radiocarbon age with the calibrated result is ad 410.
19.Betts 2017a, 108.
20.Garcia 2010, 152–3; 210–12.
21.Esmonde Cleary 2013, 152–3.
22.Garcia 2010, 207.
23.Booth 2015, 336: PPL11.
24.Guest 2014.
25.Gerrard et al. 2019: BBO10.
26.Cowie 2008, 52; Sloane and Malcolm 2004, 20–3: JON89.
27.PLH97.
28.Cowie and Blackmore 2008, 19–21: WFG62; Butler 2005: HCO99/TCT99.
29.Ridgeway et al. 2013, 115: LTU03; TIY07.
30.Hammerson 1996, 164; Ridgeway et al. 2013, 50: BYQ98.
31.Cowie 2000, 177–8.
32.Gerrard 2011c, 190; Cowie 2008, 50; Cook 1969; Inker 2006, Type Bix: GM111.
33.Cowie 2008; Cowie and Blackmore 2008.
34.J. Morris 1973, 108.
35.Loseby 2000, 327–8.
36.Bowlt 2008; Castle 1975, 274; R. Wheeler 1935.
37.Bede Ecclesiastical History 1.29.
38.ASC sub anno 457.
39.Evison 1978, 270–1, fig. 2a; Bowsher et al. 2007, 300–1.
40.Gerrard 2016, 860–1.
41.A. Reynolds forthcoming.
42.Loseby 2000, 356; Naismith 2019, 14.
43.Haslam 2010.
Chapter 31
1.Following Tainter 1988, 148–52.
2.Ogilvie 2007; Zuiderhoek 2015, 10.
3.E.g. McAnany and Yoffee 2010, 10–11; Lindell 2013; Norris et al. 2008.
4.Summarized in Izdebski et al. 2018.
5.Hobson 2014, 19.