Notes

Introduction

1. Purgatorio 27. 91–3.

2. Don Quixote, Part 1, Chapter 35.

3. Meineke 1839, vol. 4, fr. 1, line 1.

4. See, e.g., Calabi 1984; Brown 1986; Byl 1998; Strobl 2002 and several articles in Dowden and Wiedemann 2003. More references will be given where relevant. Sleep and sleeplessness in modern fictional literatures have also received significant critical attention: see, e.g. Chandler 1955; Pachet 1988; Mabin 1992; Risset 2008; Iranzo et al. 2004.

5. See Chapter 1.

6. See Chapter 1.

7. See Chapter 2.

8. See Chapter 5.

9. See Chapters 2 and 5, respectively.

10. I make an exception for comedy, which is treated comprehensively for lack of a sustained presence of sleep and sleeplessness in the development of individual plots.

Chapter 1 The Iliad

1. In the Iliad only the sleep of death bears a negative epithet, ‘brazen’ (11. 241). On the Odyssey, see Chapter 2.

2. See McAlpine 1987: 122–4.

3. See Il. 14. 359, where Hypnos calls ‘soft’ the unconscious state in which he has unwrapped Zeus.

4. See Dowden 2003: 142–5. The phrase is his.

5. Il. 2. 1; 10. 1; 24. 677.

6. Thus the phrase ‘They took the boon of sleep’ (7. 482; 9. 713). Contrast Od. 16. 481 and 19. 427, where the phrase describes undisturbed sleep.

7. Agamemnon: 2. 19–23; Achilles: 23. 62–3 (see 69); 23. 232–5; Priam: 24. 673 (see 683). On Achilles' undisturbed sleep in Books 9 and 24 and on Zeus' in Book 14, see below.

8. Od. 3. 404–5=4. 306–7=8. 1–2. See also 23. 348. Translations are mine unless otherwise stated.

9. Il. 7. 282; 7. 293; 8. 502. Night is almost always perceived as the limit to action: see Ferrini 1985: 32.

10. In the Odyssey all the assemblies are held in the morning, normally after a good night's sleep. This is true even during Odysseus' perilous journey (9. 170–1; 10. 187–8).

11. Il. 8. 502–3; 9. 65–7. See also Il. 7. 282 and 293. At Od. 12. 291, though, the phrase conveys a desire for sleep.

12. Il. 9. 325; Od. 19. 340. Achilles might be alluding to fighting, while Odysseus could be referring also to his wanderings.

13. For further discussion, see Chapter 2.

14. On sleep in ancient warfare, see Wiedemann 2003a: XIV. Caesar, he notes, felt he had to report that he allowed the army to rest before reaching Gergovia (B Gall. 7. 41. 1). Cyrus in Xenophon's Cyropaedia (2. 4. 26–7; 4. 2. 41; 5. 3. 44) is likewise sensitized to the army's need for sleep.

15. The days of actual fighting are four (Taplin 1992: 15–8). I add the two in which the Achaeans and the Trojans bury their dead and the Achaeans build their wall (in Book 7).

16. See note 28 below.

17. When Achilles dozes off (23. 62), Patroclus' ghost instantly awakens him.

18. For further discussion, see Chapter 3.

19. See CI, vol. 1, on 1. 475–83. Line 479 (‘and far-darting Apollo sent them a favourable wind’) in its core is identical with Od. 2. 420 (‘and grey-eyed Athena sent them a favourable wind’). See also Od. 15. 34–5.

20. Il. 2. 1–4. For Lévy (1982: 26, n. 44) the phrase ‘sweet slumber was not holding Zeus’ means ‘Zeus never slept’. This reading, though, undermines the sense of peacefulness at the end of the feast. Kirk (CI, vol. 1, on 2. 1–2) interprets: ‘sleep did not continue to hold’ Zeus. On the motif of the lonely vigil, see Leeman 1985; Wöhrli 1995, Chapter 4.

21. See Strobl 2002: 17.

22. Il. 10. 40–1; 10. 141–2; 24. 362–3. Night belongs to the gods: see Hes. Op. 730, with M. West 1982b, on 10; Moreux 1967: 269; Stanley 1993: 237–40. Interpretations of ἀμβρόσιoς vary: see Moreux 1967: 269, n. 184; Dué and Abbott 2010: 254–6. On other possible meanings of the epithet when applied to sleep, see CI, vol. 1, on 2. 19; vol. 3, on 10. 41.

23. Il. 1. 173–5. See Taplin 1992: 65.

24. See Stanley 1993: 331.

25. On the symbolism of light and darkness in the Iliad, see Schadewaldt 1938: 117; Moreux 1967; Griffin 1980: 162, 170–2; Taplin 1992: 166–7, 191; Constantinidou 2010.

26. See also Latacz 1999: 472–3.

27. So read a scholiast (Il. 10. 3–4) and Eustathius (Il. 3. 2. 4–5).

28. The comparison is more meaningful if Book 10 originally belonged in the Iliad, as some scholars now argue. They point out that the night raid is not un-heroic because ambush is as much a test for heroism as open war (Dué and Abbott 2010, Chapter 2), that the episode and its preparations are a response to the problem of how to find a substitute for Achilles (Heiden 2008: 28) and that Book 10 is essential for the themes developed in Books 8 to 17 (Stanley 1993: 118–28). It is also noted that the μῆτις Nestor comes up with in the counsel in which the Achaeans ‘devise a μῆτις together’ (10. 197) responds to Achilles' exhortation to them that they should find a ‘better μῆτις’ (9. 423, with Dué and Abbott 2010: 102–3). At the same time, a possible indication (among others) that Book 10 is a later addition is the dissonance between Agamemnon's despair and the confidence and optimism with which the Greeks go to rest at the end of Book 9: see CI, vol. 3, 152 and on 10. 1–4. The contrast structurally repeats the transition from sleep to sleeplessness between Books 1 and 2, but does not seem to be as motivated. Whether Book 10 was added or not, however, ancient commentators invite us to read the two episodes of sleeplessness together by doing the same: they explain Agamemnon's insomnia as the result of the dream's reproach to him in Book 2. See the previous note.

29. See Dowden 2003: 144. Scholars debate the nature of Rhesus' vision. Fenik (1964: 44–52) thinks that in a preexisting myth Rhesus had a nightmare foreboding his death, and that Iliad 10 refers to the dream ironically. His hard breathing has been taken to suggest that he is awake (Brillante 1990), but the placement of the vision, over his head, is typical of dreams. See further CI, vol. 3, on 10. 496–7.

30. A current trend is to date the Homeric poems later than the second half of the eighth century. See, e.g., Burgess 2006: 153, n. 12.

31. See Dowden 2010.

32. See Hanson and Ober, respectively, in Krentz 2000: 172.

33. In my opinion the Iliad does not condemn the raid as the Mahabharata does in a parallel narrative and as Garbutt (2006), along with other scholars, thinks. The villain of the story is Dolon, the greedy spy, whereas the actions of Odysseus and Diomedes are supported by Athena. In addition, the alleged chauvinism of Book 10, which is one of the arguments raised against its ‘authenticity’, implies that Odysseus' methods could appear praiseworthy enough to put the Greeks in a good light.

34. See Krentz 2000.

35. See Vidal-Naquet 1986: 113.

36. See also Hdt. 1. 103; 5. 121; 6. 45; 8. 27.

37. See Krentz 2000: 183–99. For Rome, see Wiedemann 2003b: 133–4.

38. Krentz (2000: 177) refers to Thuc. 7. 43–4. See also Hdt. 5. 121.

39. See Dowden 2010.

40. The first story Odysseus tells on Ithaca contains the narrative of a nocturnal ambush (Od. 13. 268–70). See also Od. 14. 217, 469. Fenik (1964: 13) considers Odysseus' night activity ‘a common theme’.

41. Figures of μῆτις move in the night: see Detienne and Vernant 1978: 30–1.

42. Il. 21. 35–40, above. Achilles participates in ambushes (Il. 1. 227).

43. Hesychius, κ, 4825; Hippoc. Epid. 7. 1. 5. 22.

44. See Wiesmann (1972: 7: Ausschaltung des vollen Bewusstseins) and Page (in Wiesmann: 6, n. 17), respectively. Barker's reading (2003: 117–22) is closer to Page's, while Meier-Brügger's (1993) to Wiesmann's.

45. See Meier-Brügger 1993: 126.

46. κῶμα can appear alongside ὕπνoς, as in AP 9. 338. 5–6 (Wiesmann 1972: 10), or even in opposition to ὕπνoς (Hippoc. Epid. 3. 3. 6. 11).

47. See Barker 2003: 117. Hesychius' explanation links κῶμα and sleep with an etymological wordplay: ‘soft κῶμα: gentle κoίμημα’ (μ, 152). See also π, 1744; Eust. Il 3. 661. 16–7.

48. See Barker 2003: 116.

49. Od. 18. 201. See Chapter 2.

50. Hes. Theog. 765–6 and Soph. Aj. 675–6, respectively. There can hardly be any doubt that Sophocles is alluding to and complementing Hesiod: see ἔχει […] λάβῃσιν in Hesiod and oὐδ' […] λαβὼν ἔχει in Sophocles.

51. See Vermeule 1979: 147.

52. Il. 24. 5; Od. 9. 373. Stafford (2003: 75) suggests that Hypnos' love for Pasithea (Il. 14. 275–6), ‘All-Goddess’, further enhances his status.

53. See Stafford 1991: 106, 114.

54. See Ramnoux 1959: 105; Vermeule 1979: 145, 154; Vernant 1991: 100 (on Eros). λυσιμελής is a common epithet of Eros in archaic poetry (see, e.g., Hes. Theog. 121, 911), though not in Homer. For sleep, see Od. 20. 57; 23. 343.

55. Detienne and Vernant (1978: 115) are mistaken in thinking that Hypnos has no power over Zeus. The episode in Iliad 14 proves the opposite. Their claim seems based on a misreading of Hypnos' words at Il. 14. 247–8, which do not mean ‘Zeus […] I can neither approach nor send to sleep even if he himself orders me to do so’, but ‘Zeus […] I could not approach or send to sleep unless he should order me to do so’. See also Meleager in AP 5. 174. 3.

56. Note the repetition of 2. 5, which launches Zeus' plan, at 14. 161, when Hera launches hers.

57. The equation of course is not exclusively Greek (or Roman). It is central to the epic of Gilgamesh, for one. Some scholars think that in Greece the idea that death is a kind of sleep spread in the Hellenistic period as a literary convention. So Ogle 1933, followed by McAlpine 1987: 141–4. I rather agree with McNally (1985: 166) and Stafford (2003) that the idea is older and has deeper roots, as suggested by archaic and classical paintings featuring Hypnos and Thanatos (Beazley 1963, s.v. Hypnos; Shapiro 1993: 132–47). The kinship of the two is also well attested in tragedy, where several characters express a wish for perennial sleep: see Aesch. Ag. 1450–1; Soph. Aj. 832; OC 1578; Eur. Hipp. 1387–8. See also Soph. OT 961; Ant. 804–5; 810, and for further discussion, Chapter 5.

58. See also Hes. Theog. 756.

59. Il. 24. 343 and 13. 435.

60. See Cerutti 1986: 133–4.

61. Schol. Ap. Rhod. 4. 57–8. Theocritus conflates sleep and death beautifully in Endymion's ‘unbendable slumber’ (Id. 3. 48): see Hunter 1999, ad loc.

62. See Eur. Hec. 473; Plut. Mor. 420A; 941E.

63. See Vernant 1991: 46, n. 29. On the duration of this κῶμα, see Brown 1994: 97–8.

64. Though the verb δάμνημι is predicated also of natural sleep, Homer uses the aorist participle only for death or cowardice.

65. So Vermeule 1979: 147.

66. For Taplin (1992: 171) Zeus' description ‘comes close to mocking the language of death in battle’.

67. Taplin (1992: 142) calls the reassertion of Zeus' plan ‘a kind of resumption, almost a second start’.

68. Procl. In R. 1. 133–6, with Dowden 2003: 162.

69. Origen, C. Cels. 6. 61–2. See Sissa and Detienne 2000: 125.

70. [Plut.] De placitis 881C.

71. See, e.g., AP 16. 211, 212. In later Roman art, however, slumbering Eros tends to be humanized: see Dowdle 2013, with further references.

72. Epimenides (DK B 8), with Vernant 1991: 46, n. 29; 146–7.

73. Soph. Ant. 605–10. The meaning of παντoγήρως (‘which makes everything age’) is, however, disputed, and the text probably is corrupt.

74. Il. 10. 98–9; 10. 471; Od. 5. 472; 5. 493; 6. 2; 10. 142–3; 12. 281; 13. 282.

75. Aesch. Eum. 68, 79, 127, 133. For further discussion, see Chapter 3.

76. λιμός (‘hunger’) never explains a god's eating, whereas τέρπειν (‘to take delight’) does (Od. 5. 201. Contrast 5. 165: Calypso will provide food to protect Odysseus from λιμός).

77. Mimnermus, though, primarily has lovemaking in mind.

78. The image of Helios going to bed reappears in Soph. Trach. 95, where it is night that ‘lays him to rest’.

79. Schol. Il. 1. 475, with Ferrini 1985: 22.

80. See McAlpine 1987, Chapter 6.

81. See Vermeule 1979: 147.

82. In Homer gods manipulate the course of day and night (Il. 18. 239–40; Od. 23. 243), but they do so for the sake of mortals, not for their own use.

83. At the end of Iliad 1 Hera supposedly rests but her sleep is not emphasized.

84. See Clay 1989: 103–4.

85. The poet of the Hymn used these stories: see Parry 1986: 261–2. For this scholar, in both the Hymn and Iliad 14 sleep illustrates the danger of sex for a male seduced by an erotic female. The sleep of the two males, however, is not only natural but also comes from outside, from the deities who assert their power over them.

86. Further parallels are in Louden 2006: 99.

87. The scholia explain lines 316–7 thus: ‘they will not be able to be together on account of the chains’ or ‘they will not want to come together again for fear of the chains’. There is no mention of literal sleep.

88. This is the only time in the Iliad that πανδαμάτωρ modifies sleep.

89. See Fantuzzi 2012: 197.

90. See Fantuzzi 2012: 198: ‘the audience may […] be left with the impression that if something bad happens to either member of the couple […], that equilibrium will fade away’.

91. See Wöhrle 1995: 39.

92. The scholiasts (Il. 23. 63b) mention Achilles' tiredness to justify his sleep, which would otherwise be undignified: see Scaffai 2004: 57.

93. The dream, nonetheless, accords with Achilles' desire (Kessels 1978: 54; Lévy 1982: 29). Though Patroclus' reproach underscores Achilles' selfish absorption in his suffering (Schein 1984: 155), the burial had already taken priority in his mind (23. 43–53).

94. Menelaus, who says that the memory of Odysseus makes him hate sleep and food, provides a faint parallel (Od. 4. 105–6).

95. I have skipped 24. 6–9, which elaborate on Achilles' memory, because editors generally delete them, following Hellenistic scholars. On their objections, see CI, vol. 6, on 24. 5–11; Fantuzzi 2012: 211–5.

96. Both Penelope and Achilles display uncompromising behaviour caused by their attachment to another being: see Papadopoulou-Belmehdi 1994: 59–60.

97. See Minchin 1985; Gibson 1996: 459.

98. Eust. Il. 4. 973. 15–7.

99. See also Minchin 1985.

100. See Chapter 5.

101. See Minchin 1985; Lynn-George 1988: 230; Taplin 1992: 260; Fernández Contreras 2000: 13.

102. See Minchin 1985: 272.

103. See Lynn-George 1988: 230; Heiden 2008: 35.

104. While in the sequel to 1. 490–2 Thetis responds to Achilles' prayer by supplicating Zeus, Achilles' insomniac despair in Book 24 builds no communication between men and gods.

105. This function of sleeplessness in the narrative is yet another correspondence-in-reverse between the beginning and the end of the epic. Critics have noted a number of them: see, e.g., Macleod 1982a: 16–35; Schein 1984: 31–2.

106. For further discussion, see Chapter 2.

107. See Macleod 1982a: 33.

108. See, however, already 20. 21 (with CI, vol. 5, on 20. 20–30; but see Griffin 1980: 183) and 19. 340. On Zeus' increased pity for mortals in Book 24, I follow Macleod 1982a: 14–5; Zanker 1996: 4–7, 147; Heiden 2008: 208. Other scholars do not note a significant change: Burkert 1955: 75–85; Lloyd-Jones 1971, Chapter 1; Griffin 1980, Chapters 5 and 6; Schein 1984: 60–2.

109. See Dué and Abbott 2010: 86–7.

110. See Stanley 1993: 237–40, with further references.

111. I am not suggesting that this line or any Homeric line that resemble another quotes its close parallel (the applicability of this kind of intertextuality to oral poetry in an evolving tradition is questionable: see Nagy 1999: 42; Burgess 2006: 177; Danek 2002: 17), but that audiences at some point in the tradition would connect passages from hearing their resemblance. Here audiences would hear an echo of Il. 24. 3 because of the line's relative proximity.

112. See Macleod 1982a: 35; Taplin 1992: 80–2, 216. The ‘innermost part’ of a house is where married couples retire for the night: see E. West 2010: 26.

113. See Arend 1933: 101–5; Murnaghan 2011: 84; E. West 2010; Purves 2014.

114. Often noted: see, e.g., Fusillo 1997: 213, with further references; Murnaghan 1997.

115. I cannot agree with Moreux's claim (1967: 270) that ‘L'Iliade se termine sur une nuit d'apaisement’.

116. See De Jong 1990: 24.

117. Taplin 1992: 293.

118. Il. 24. 401–2, 658, 670. Priam's words, ‘on the twelfth day we shall fight, if it is necessary’ (24. 667) are more likely to express his inability to make sense of the war (Griffin 1980: 100) than his belief that it could be stopped.

119. On Zeus' plan I follow Murnaghan 1997, though it has been variously read: see Schein 1984: 59; Lynn-George 1988: 39 and 279, n. 29; Nagy 1999: 81; Heiden 2008: 28.

Chapter 2 The Odyssey

1. Six (5, 7, 14, 16, 18, 19) versus three in the Iliad (1, 7, 9).

2. See Fantuzzi 1988: 129. For this scholar, book divisions coinciding with night and sleep follow the rhapsodes' probable practice of ending episodes with night and sleep.

3. See also Od. 7. 188–90; 9. 168–71; 10. 185–8; 13. 17–9; 19. 426–9.

4. The identity (but for one adverb) of Il. 2. 50–2 with Od. 2. 6–8 invites the comparison.

5. See Austin 1975: 87–8; Ferrari 1983.

6. See Austin 1975: 88, 226, n. 7.

7. Od. 1. 12; 5. 224; 8. 183; 13. 91.

8. Od. 5. 388; 10. 28; 10. 80; 15. 476; 9. 74; 10. 142.

9. On Aeolus' plot-ending conveyance, see Purves 2010a: 334.

10. The standard phrase is ‘I was carried nine days’ (7. 253=12. 447; 9. 82; 14. 314). Though counting days starting from the nights is common in primitive time reckoning worldwide (Summers-Bremmer 2008: 16, with further references), the phrase ‘nights and days’ describes ‘actions prosecuted beyond normal human endeavour’ (Dyer 1974: 31). Odysseus' formula is even more emphatic.

11. Od. 10. 77=9. 105=9. 565=10. 133. On the absence of spatial coordinates in the early phase of Odysseus' wanderings, see Hunter 2008: 140.

12. See De Jong 2001: 250, on 10. 1–79.

13. De Jong 2001: 224.

14. The length of Odysseus' sleep caught the imagination of the Italian poet Giovanni Pascoli (1855–1912), who further prolongs it in Il sonno di Odisseo to take Odysseus' ship around Ithaca without him knowing. Sleep builds the background for a tour of the island, followed by the readers and the crew but not Odysseus. The evocation of his lasting slumber ends each stanza as a monotone, lulling refrain: ‘but his heart, deep in sleep, did not see, did not hear’. The harbour, the sacred olive, his palace appear, but Odysseus' heart, buried in sleep, does not see them; Eumaeus' pigs and his woodwork make noise, but Odysseus' heart, deep in sleep, does not hear them. He keeps slumbering even after his companions release the winds and the ship is carried back seaward. Then Argus barks, but Odysseus' heart does not hear him; Laertes' fields and garden show in the growing distance and so does Laertes himself, looking at the ship, but Odysseus' heart does not see them. When he awakes, he looks at the land vanishing away and hopes to see and hear the sights and voices that passed by while he was sleeping, but sees only an amorphous black thing in the distance.

15. Arend (1933: 100) finds it significant that κoιμηθήμεν (‘we slept’) is replaced by κείμεθ' (‘we lay down’). Tiredness and sorrow keep the travellers from moving two nights and two days already after the episode of the Cicones (Od. 9. 74–5).

16. On this growing distance, see Segal 1994: 34.

17. See also Od. 9. 558–9.

18. Arend (1933: 99) notes that this eventful night is described in atypical ways: Odysseus' comrades do not ‘take’ sleep. But it still comes upon them.

19. Stanford 1996, on 12. 333–4.

20. This is the much-debated Zielinski's rule. I found Fenik's discussion (1974: 61–104) illuminating. Delebecque (1980a) rephrases it as ‘la loi des temps morts’ or ‘la loi de succession’ (1980b). Both Fenik (76) and Delebecque (78) discuss Odysseus' sleep on Trinacria in light of the rule.

21. See De Jong 2001, on 12. 327–96.

22. See De Jong 2001, on 12. 327–96.

23. On the corporeality of night, see Pârvulescu 1985; of sleep, Eust. Od. 1. 233. 42.

24. Even if we discount the book divisions (see above), ἀμφικαλύψας ends a full narrative sequence.

25. See Moreux 1967.

26. See Purves 2010a: 336–7.

27. See also Purves 2010a: 339.

28. ‘Boundless slumber’ is a unique combination: see De Jong 2001: 185.

29. Stanford 1996, on 7. 288–9.

30. Hainsworth in CO, vol. 1, on 7. 288–9.

31. Od. 2. 393–5; 4. 795–6; 5. 382–4; 6. 112–5; 18. 187–8; 23. 242–3; 23. 344–8.

32. ‘Even sleep is not mindless for a wise man. At least Telemachus pondered in his mind what Athena put before him. He, too, thought that “a man who makes decisions should not sleep all night”’ (Eust. Od. 1. 76. 2–3).

33. See Marks 2008.

34. When Odysseus says that ‘a god’ put him pitilessly to sleep on Trinacria, the primary narrator does not back this up, whereas he does when Odysseus says the same about his beneficial slumber on Scheria (7. 286; see 5. 491).

35. See Vagnone 1987: 95; Fernández Contreras 2000: 12.

36. ‘Black evening’ occurs only here and at 18. 306. On blackness as a mirror of the suitors' folly, see Van Sickle 1984: 130.

37. On Telemachus' adolescence, see Felson 1994, Chapter 4. Katz (1991: 63–72) shows that Telemachus' fame is bound up with his father's.

38. Van Sickle's contention (1984: 130) that Telemachus is still a child disregards his wakefulness.

39. Significantly, Laertes' recovery of status is heralded by Odysseus' observation that ‘you look like one who […] would sleep comfortably’ (24. 254–5). See Murnaghan 2011: 21.

40. Though Menelaus' household is not free of tensions: see Foley 1978: 18.

41. So in 19 instances out of 22. In the other three sleep follows.

42. The only other time that the line ‘They threw their hands on the food laid before them’ stands alone and is followed by an abrupt move is at 20. 256–7, where the focus shifts from the suitors to Telemachus and Odysseus.

43. On retardation in this episode, see Fenik 1974: 84.

44. Marks (2008: 77) notes that Helen's drug ‘suppresses memories associated with other epics so that memories of thematic significance to the Odyssey can surface’, but also that the drug wears off. Its only partial success could intimate that the stories Helen and Menelaus tell under its influence are still Trojan-War material, not as strongly connected to the plot of the Odyssey as the account of Menelaus ambushing Proteus.

45. Segal (1994: 68) thinks that sleep becomes positive for Odysseus only when he reaches Scheria.

46. For Stanford (1996, on 11. 328), Odysseus is eager to leave. See also De Jong 1990.

47. See Eust. Od. 1. 422. 22: παρoιμιῶδες.

48. Il. 9. 658; Od. 3. 397; 7. 335; 14. 518–9.

49. Alcinous' emphasis on the night's length could also suggest that it is winter: see Austin 1975, Chapter 5.

50. See Ambühl 2010: 262.

51. See Taplin 1992, Chapter 1.

52. Taplin considers Book 10 spurious.

53. Taplin (1992: 31), who reads Alcinous' comment along these lines, thinks that it would have come at about 4:00 a.m.

54. πρυμνῆς· ἂν δὲ καὶ αὐτὸς ἐβήσετo καὶ κατέλεκτo/ σιγῇ· τoὶ δὲ καθῖζoν ἐπὶ κληῖσιν ἕκαστoι/ κόσμῳ, πεῖσμα δ᾽ ἔλυσαν ἀπὸ τρητoῖo λίθoιo.

55. Joannes Doxopatres, Comm. in Hermogenis περὶ ἰδεῶν 492. 13–6. There is an oversight: Tυδέoς should be Ἀτρέoς (Il. 2. 23 and 60).

56. See De Jong 2001, on 13. 73–92.

57. See Schol. Od. 13. 119; Plut. Mor. 27E; Eust. Od. 2. 38. 34–40. 36.

58. Likewise Segal (1994: 47) calls Odysseus' sleep ‘restorative’.

59. Giovanni Pascoli, in another poem dedicated to Odysseus' journey, is sensitive to this meaning of sleep: ‘L'eroe dormiva, e non sapea più nulla/ dei molti affanni che patì nel cuore;/ e dal suo mite sonno era lontano/ il fragor di battaglie e di tempeste’. (‘The hero slept, and no longer knew the many sorrows he had suffered in his heart, but far from his gentle slumber was the din of battles and storms’, Il ritorno 14–7).

60. For the first point, see Maronitis and Polkas 2007: 160–1; for the second, Taplin 1992: 30–1, and above.

61. See also Il. 15. 4.

62. See Dowden 2003: 146; Segal 1994, Chapter 2. Hartog (2001: 21–6) maps the Homeric world into three zones, from the most familiar to the most outlandish.

63. See Segal 1994: 69.

64. See Purves 2010a: 339.

65. Od. 13. 74, 80. In later literature νήγρετoν is used for death (see, e.g., AP 7. 338; 7. 305).

66. See Purves 2010a: 339.

67. See Vernant 1991: 108–9.

68. On sleep and mortality in Gilgamesh, see McAlpine 1987: 138–9; Summers-Bremmer 2008: 19–23.

69. Austin 1975: 94; see also 97.

70. See Dyer 1974.

71. See Segal 1994: 15–6.

72. Likewise Telemachus' journey back to Ithaca begins at night and ends at dawn, and the one to Pylus takes all night and ends at dawn. The pattern, though, has exceptions (3. 178; 12. 429; 14. 314–5) and does not apply to land journeys: Telemachus arrives at Menelaus' palace in the evening, and so does Odysseus at Alcinous'.

73. See Fenik 1974: 161–2. A disorientating slumber also plays into Elpenor's death (10. 62–4).

74. In Monteverdi's Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria the disorientating effects of Odysseus' slumber are intensified. His first question is ‘Do I still sleep, or am I awake?’ (Act 1, Scene 7) and Minerva teases him not for lying but for being still half asleep: ‘You slumbered for so long that you still talk of shades and recount dreams’ (Scene 8).

75. De Jong (2001, on 14. 524–33) notes that Odysseus' appreciation for Eumaeus' husbandry is stronger than the narrator's at the beginning of the book (14. 2–3). On Eumaeus' sleeping habits, see also 15. 556–7.

76. See Arend 1933: 103.

77. See Edwards 1992, following Arend.

78. Eumaeus, like Alcinous, might be pointing to the duration of winter nights: see Austin 1975 and already Eust. Od. 2. 104. 1–2. Delebecque (1980a: 5) thinks that Odysseus returns in autumn.

79. Odysseus' stories ‘bewitch’ Eumaeus (17. 514).

80. See Stanford 1996, on 15. 395–6.

81. See especially Segal 1994: 24–5, 119–22.

82. This equilibrium is at the core of Homeric poetics: see Macleod 2001. Segal (1994: 27, 119–22 and 165) contrasts Odysseus' involved listening and the Phaeacians' detachment.

83. See Segal 1994: 130.

84. Foley (1978: 15) notes that Odysseus' recovery of his blood relations is relatively fast, whereas he has to renegotiate his social ones. Stories fulfill this function.

85. See also Od. 15. 292–4; 17. 148–9.

86. Od. 3. 487; 3. 497; 11. 121; 15. 185.

87. The only other case is 15. 471.

88. See De Jong 2001, on 15. 1–8.

89. Rose 1971: 510, quoted by Edwards 1992: 308.

90. See CO, vol. 2, on 15. 557; Stanford 1996, on 15. 556–7. ἐνιαύειν means ‘to spend the night’ rather than strictly ‘to sleep’.

91. On Penelope's dissimulation, see Papadopoulou-Belmehdi 1994: 42. The story might have been inspired by the familiar folk motif of ‘undoing by night what was done by day’: see McCartney 1953. If so, the Greek poet stresses Penelope's cunning and stamina by making her both the daytime doer and the night-time un-doer, whereas in the standard tale the nightly destruction is carried out by devils, giants or witches.

92. See Foley 1978: 10; Katz 1991; Papadopoulou-Belmehdi 1994. Murnaghan (2011, Chapter 4) is more skeptical.

93. Segal (1994: 70) sees in Penelope's sleep ‘a sign of her reduced life and the static condition of her world without Odysseus’.

94. Odysseus' nostos depends on Penelope's memory as much as it does on his own: see Papadopoulou-Belmehdi 1994.

95. Foley 1978: 10.

96. Hecuba and Andromache do so in Homer. In Apollonius of Rhodes, Alcimede gives Jason a mother's guilt trip over his departure.

97. On κῶμα, see Chapter 1.

98. See De Jong 2001, on 18. 187–99.

99. I think that at this juncture the plot is entirely Athena's. For discussion, see Katz 1991: 78–93; Emlyn-Jones 1984: 10–1.

100. See Stanford 1996, on 13. 187.

101. Il. 7. 482; 9. 713. I stress finality in the meaning of ‘closure’ (following Morgan 1989b: 318), though the term has been the object of a lively debate: see, e.g., Torgovnick 1981; Mortimer 1985 and, for classical literature, the articles in Roberts et al. 1997.

102. See Detienne and Vernant 1978: 31.

103. See Gantz 1993: 420. A red-figure cup attributed to the Nicosthenes Painter (around 510) shows Athena to the right of Hypnos, who crouches on the giant's body while Heracles attacks him from the left. Alcyoneus' sleep is not in literature, and is possibly the painter's invention: McNally 1985: 155; Shapiro 1993: 149. Sleep may be implied, however, in the short narrative of Alcyoneus' killing in Pind. Isthm. 6. 31 (Hazzikostas 1990: 47–8) or it may have featured in a lost Heracles saga (Shapiro 1993: 148–51). On the episode, see also Stafford 2003: 81–3.

104. See Chapter 4.

105. Apollod. Bibl. 2. 41–4. See Gantz 1993: 305–6.

106. Od. 4. 400–34. Similarly Heracles is advised to go seek Nereus, but whether he is following instructions when he grabs the sea god in his sleep is not specified (Apollod. Bibl. 2. 115).

107. See Murnaghan 2011: 62.

108. Arend (1933: 10) thinks that even Od. 9. 151 and 12. 7 do not describe sleep. At Il. 11. 723, though, the phrase might imply rest.

109. In the course of the conversation, however, the figure of Odysseus recedes while the stranger gets nearer to Penelope: see Vester 1968: 420–1.

110. See CO, vol. 3, 106.

111. Russo in CO, vol. 3, on 19. 336–48.

112. Penelope strives to maintain appropriate standards of hospitality: see Foley 1978: 9–10. Slightly differently, Murnaghan (2011, Chapter 3) thinks that Penelope's impulses towards hospitality have been lying dormant during the suitors' occupation, until Odysseus reactivates them.

113. Fenik (1974: 155–7) considers the meeting with Eumaeus a doublet of the conversation between Odysseus and Penelope in Book 19.

114. See also Murnaghan 2011: 84.

115. See Wöhrle 1995: 94.

116. See De Jong 2001, on 20. 1–57.

117. See Russo 1968: 291–2; De Jong 2001, on 20. 1–57. For Fusillo (2008: 151) the monologue is not deliberative.

118. Athena's observation reverses Eumaeus' claim that there is surfeit in sleep (15. 394).

119. See De Jong 2001, on 20. 30–57.

120. Murnaghan (2011: 94) speaks of ‘Athena's particularly intrusive interventions in Books 18 and 19’.

121. The Odyssean norm in scenes of μερμηρίζειν is that the human agent decides alone, as earlier in this very scene (20. 10). See Russo 1968: 290.

122. This is ‘Jørgensen's law’: see De Jong 2001, on 7. 240–97. Marks (2008: 41) notes that in Odysseus' narration the gods play a lesser role than in the authorial narrative because Odysseus is not omniscient.

123. See also Russo 1982: 12.

124. Athena is disguised as a woman (20. 29), but is recognized as a goddess (37) and reveals that she is one (47).

125. See Brillante 1990.

126. For De Jong (2001, on 15. 1–47) Athena is disguised, while the editors of the CO (vol. 2, on 15. 9) think that she is not. In any case she does not name herself.

127. See Russo 1982; Stanford 1996, on 20. 92 ff.; CO, vol. 3, on 20. 93–4.

128. See Arist. Parv. nat. 462a 10–1, quoted by Russo (1982: 16) in connection with Odysseus' vision. The Erinyes are in a ‘twilight state’ (Rousseau 1963: 130) when they stir at the beginning of Aeschylus' Eumenides. Aelius Aristides records that he had visions of Asclepius while between sleeping and waking (Dodds 1963: 113), and Macrobius (In Somn. 1. 3. 7) calls ‘apparition’ the vision occurring ‘in the first cloud of slumber, when we think to be still awake’.

129. Monro in Stanford's phrasing (1996, on 20. 92 ff.). Lévy (1982: 23) calls the vision a ‘rêverie éveillée’.

130. However far we stretch the meaning of the verb (as does CO, vol. 3, on 93–4), it denotes a conscious mental process. Amory (1963: 108) minimizes the difference between a true dream and an in-between-state vision, but this fails to account for Odysseus' μερμηρίζειν.

131. Amory 1966: 56 (see also 1963: 104), followed by Russo 1982.

132. See Emlyn-Jones 1984; Murnaghan 2011: 101–2.

133. See Doods 1963: 106 (on Penelope's first dream); Emlyn-Jones 1984: 4. Harris (2009: 50) calls Penelope's second dream of Odysseus plainly ‘erotic’. παρέδραθεν (‘he lay by [me]’, 20. 88) has sexual connotations (the only other instance in Homer is Il. 14. 163).

134. See Lévy 1982: 30–1.

135. See Emlyn-Jones 1984: 5.

136. See Papadopoulou-Belmehdi 1994: 136.

137. See Lévy 1982: 30–1.

138. See Lévy 1982: 30.

139. De Jong (2001: 407) notes that the Odyssey slows down towards the end, with days 39 (17. 1 to 20. 90) and 40 (20. 90 to 23. 341). Day 33, however, or rather night 33, when Odysseus narrates his adventures, is even longer (2,834 lines): see Delebecque 1980a: 7.

140. ἐγρόμεναι (20. 123). The other variant is ἀγρόμεναι (‘assembled’). Editors are divided: the Oxford Classical Text prints ἀγρόμεναι, the Teubner ἐγρόμεναι.

141. So is Antinous' request to bring the best goats on the morrow (21. 265–6): see Saïd 1979: 11.

142. An audience will remark the exceptionality of this feast, which does not end with the suitors' departure: see Saïd 1979: 12.

143. Od. 3. 342; 3. 395; 7. 184; 7. 228; 18. 427.

144. An attentive audience will take the two episodes together because the expression ‘accompaniments of a feast’ occurs nowhere else. The substitution of ‘dance’ with ‘lyre’ or rather φόρμιγξ foreshadows the suitors' killing, for Odysseus handling the bow has just been compared to a competent musician handling a φόρμιγξ (21. 406).

145. Van Sickle (1984: 130) notes the ironic point of this invitation.

146. See Od. 18. 201–5; 20. 57–90.

147. See Hölscher 1991: 392; De Jong 2001, on 23. 16–9.

148. See De Jong 2001, on 21. 350–8; Hölscher 1991: 391. Telemachus' intervention (21. 350) responds to the same narrative need, for Penelope would not willingly have left the halls where her remarriage was being decided: see Vester 1968: 430.

149. Hölscher calls this sleep ‘Ein episches Hilfsmotiv’ (1991: 391).

150. Ap. 40d–e, summarized. See also Plat. Resp. 571c–572b, with van der Eijk 2003; Plut. Mor. 686B. In Roman literature, see Plaut. Rud. 593–5.

151. In the formulaic ὕπνoν ἡδύν, noun and adjective are never separate.

152. See Murnaghan 2011: 32; Foley 1978.

153. Austin 1975: 141.

154. Foley 1978: 17. On the simile, see also Purves 2010b: 91.

155. See Segal 1994: 70.

156. Hölscher (1991) relates Penelope's sleep to her misjudgement of the situation.

157. See E. West 2010: 23.

158. Upon disclosing his identity, Odysseus promised to the two loyal servants that, in case of victory, ‘you both will be friends and brothers of Telemachus’ (21. 215–6). In sleeping in the same place as he, they are already acting like his brothers.

159. See CO, vol. 3, on 23. 241–6 (the editors also defend the lines' authenticity).

160. See AP 5. 172, 223, 583; Ov. Am. 1. 13. Already Sappho developed the motif, according to Libanius (12. 99. 5): ‘Nothing stopped Sappho of Lesbos from praying that the night be doubled for her’.

161. In Plautus' Amphitryon the night is lengthened so that Jupiter can have voluptatem with Alcmena (114). He leaves in a hurry before dawn, though Alcmena says that he was feeling drowsy and that they went to sleep (806–7). In Lucian, Hermes asks Helios to stay away for three days so that Zeus can enjoy Alcmena's company (Dial. D. 14). Ovid (Am. 1. 13), in cursing dawn for its hasty rising, names sleep as one of the perks of night, but in a general statement (7). Propertius (2. 15) recounts the delights of love in the course of a night in which no sleep is allowed (7–8). In several of Chaucer's tales (starting with Troilus and Criseyde) the lovers are ‘busy’ with love at night and exhausted in the morning: see Scattergood 1987.

162. See Maronitis 2004: 58.

163. See Felson 1994: 62.

164. In the second Eurynome also participates. The pair of maids is symbolic of the couple's reunion: see Karydas 1998: 50.

165. See Purves 2010b: 76.

Chapter 3 Drama

1. Arist. Poet. 1448b12–20, with Fantuzzi 1990: 19–20. For comedy, see Van Steen 2011.

2. For further discussion, see Fantuzzi 1990. On night scenes in drama, see also Donelan 2014 (though it is unfortunate that this author does not know Fantuzzi's article).

3. See Mace 2002 and 2004. My analysis is indebted to this scholar's, but I do not agree with all her conclusions.

4. Mace 2002 and 2004.

5. κoιμώμενoς (2) here does not mean ‘sleeping’: see Fraenkel 1950 and Denniston-Page 1957, ad loc. Contra: Mace 2002: 38.

6. On the meaning of this Aeschylean coinage, see Fraenkel 1950 and Denniston-Page 1957, ad loc.

7. See De Romilly 1958: 13, n. 4. Contra: Mace 2002: 39, n. 13.

8. Mace 2002: 40.

9. Most editors print ἔν θ᾽ ὕπνῳ (Page, Mazon, Thomson), not ἄνθ᾽ ὕπνoυ (‘instead of sleep’) as defended by Fraenkel (1950, ad loc., followed by Mace 2002: 42) and printed by Denniston-Page 1957.

10. στάζει may also suggest the oozing of a wound (Fraenkel 1950, ad loc.; Mazon 1983, ad loc.), but I agree with Fraenkel that the idea of constant dripping is preferable.

11. Schol. Ag. 180a. Modern readings of the passage widely differ: see Mace 2002: 42–3.

12. ἀπαλλαχθέντες (‘having got rid’) harks back to the watcher's hope for ἀπαλλαγὴ πόνων, and δρόσων (‘dews’) to his complaint of an ἔνδρoσoν bed (12): see Mace 2002: 46, n. 52.

13. Eur. Hec. 916–38; Verg. Aen. 2. 250–67; Petron. Sat. 89. 54–66; Quint. Smyrn. 12. 45; 13. 26–43, 122–32; Apollod. Epit. 5. 19a–21a. To my knowledge, the only other narrative of the night after the sack is in Quintus of Smyrna: see Conclusions.

14. ἐγρηγoρός is a generally accepted emendation for ἐγρήγoρoν. Fraenkel (1950, ad loc.) rejects it, based on the strain that the required meaning would put on the ‘if’, which would have to be concessive (even if calamity has not yet hit). A concessive reading, however, does not seem necessary. Mazon (1983) translates: ‘s'il ne s'est pas déjà trahi par des coups immédiats’.

15. See Mazon 1983, ad. loc. Mace (2002: 47) spots also a foreshadowing of Aegisthus' revenge and of Orestes'.

16. The ambivalence is noted by Denniston-Page 1957, ad loc.

17. The adjective refers only to him in the play (see also 1303).

18. The contrasting experiences are poignantly brought out in the stichomythia at 538–50.

19. See Mace 2002: 49.

20. See Garner 1990: 37.

21. See Rousseau 1963: 111–2.

22. See McClure 1997: 125.

23. Agamemnon is pervaded by ‘a fear of naming fear’, as Goldhill (1984: 52) puts it. See also Montiglio 2000: 212.

24. Ag. 36–9; 97–9; 253; 548; 1025–34, with Thalmann 1985.

25. The translation of this intricate passage follows Pattoni 2009: 4, to which I refer for discussion of the dream.

26. See Rousseau 1963: 104–13.

27. See Rousseau 1963: 121; Mace 2004: 40.

28. See Mace 2004: 43, n. 19.

29. Mace (2004: 45) thinks that Hermes seizes Scylla and that her death adumbrates Clytemnestra's. This would be neat, but it seems more natural to refer the pronoun μιν to Nisos.

30. The suitors are concerned with their sleep, not Odysseus', for they do not practise hospitality. But otherwise the sequence is similar. See Chapter 2.

31. Mace 2004: 47.

32. See Garner 1990: 39.

33. Il. 22. 502–4. See Chapter 1.

34. Simon. 38. 21–2 (Page 1962) and Eur. Tro. 1188, respectively. A touching modern rendering of the motif is Frances Cornford's Mother to Child Asleep, where the child's slumber makes his mother think of his sailing through life alone when she will be no more.

35. See Rousseau 1963: 124. Differently Mace 2004: 47.

36. See Sommerstein 1989, on 64–93. Contra: Taplin (1977: 365–74), who thinks that the Erinyes become visible only when they awaken (140).

37. On the origin of the Erinyes' sleep I follow the scholia on 94a and b. See also Sommerstein 1989, on 67; Jouanna 1981: 53, n. 10.

38. Mace 2004: 50.

39. So Patroclus appearing to Achilles, a dream that the Erinyes' imitates closely: see Sommerstein 1989, on 94–9.

40. Lines 104–5 (‘In sleep the mind shines with eyes, while in the day the lot of mortals is to have no vision’) explicitly equate the Erinyes with humans, though the lines are likely interpolated: see Thomson 1966, on 104–6; Lévy 1981: 146; Sommerstein 1989, on 104–5.

41. See Sommerstein 1989, on 64–93.

42. See also Mace 2004: 52.

43. See Buxton 1982: 109–14.

44. See Macleod 1982b: 135.

45. The terms for ‘charm’ in all the instances quoted here are derived from the verb θέλγειν. On θέλγειν as an effect of persuasion, see Buxton 1982: 108–11. The manner of Athena's action does not suggest that ‘The idea that “sleep” can metaphorically signal a permanent neutralization of retaliatory μένoς is flawed’ (Mace 2004: 53), for the metaphor is effectively employed to foster the permanent lulling of the Erinyes' rage. Athena uses κoιμάω, ‘put to sleep’, not σβέννυμι, ‘put out’. The Erinyes' admission of being under her charm amounts to recognizing that their anger is going to sleep also because θέλγειν is hypnotic (Hom. Il. 24. 343; Od. 5. 47; 24. 3; Pind. Pyth. 1. 21; Eur. IA 140; Ap. Rhod. 4. 147). For the Erinyes to lull their anger to rest, however, the methods employed had to change from violence to persuasion and the target had to be reduced from anger at large to its pernicious applications: on the last point, see Mace 2004: 55–6.

46. See Mace 2004: 54.

47. On the ideological implications of the ambiguity encoded in ἀστῶν φόβoς (691), fear ‘for’ or ‘of’ the citizens, see Sommerstein 1989, on 690–2.

48. The citation is from Macleod 1982b: 135. De Romilly (1958: 112) calls this fear ‘la bonne crainte’. Macleod (1982b: 129) compares the Areopagus to the Hindu Laws of Manu (vii 18): ‘Punishment rules all the people, Punishment alone protects them, Punishment is awake while they sleep’.

49. See Macleod 1982b: 129.

50. See also Macleod 1982b: 129.

51. On the commonplace of the tyrant's fear, see Lanza 1977: 45–9.

52. The date of Trachiniae is unknown, but is certainly earlier than Orestes and Philoctetes and probably Heracles: see Easterling 1982: 19–23. Dieterich (1891) contends that Sophocles borrowed the sleep scene from Heracles, where it would be more organically integrated into the dramatic development. Whether we agree with this judgement or not, the dating does not seem to fit and the assumption that the model is by definition superior to the imitation is questionable.

53. Taplin 1977: 84, 124–5. See further Fowler 1999: 162–5; Davidson 2003.

54. See Davidson 2003: 520. Garner (1990: 100–2) spots numerous allusions to the Odyssey, but not to Penelope's insomnia.

55. Easterling's translation (1982).

56. The scholion suggests either the nightingale or the halcyon, but the former is typically associated with a woman's unceasing lament in Greek poetry, including Sophocles': see, e.g., El. 107, 92–3.

57. See Easterling 1982, on 149–50.

58. See Easterling 1982, on 915–6.

59. Davidson (2003: 522) further notes that Hyllus' cry replicates Odysseus' (Ὤ μoι ἐγώ).

60. Commentators tend to privilege Od. 6: so Easterling 1982, on 984–5; Davidson 2003: 522. But see Reinhardt 1979: 246, n. 21.

61. See Chapter 2.

62. See Biggs 1966: 228.

63. See, e.g., Eur. Alc. 690; IA 1218; Ap. Rhod. 3. 815, where the contrast with Hades is explicit (810).

64. Reinhardt 1979: 57.

65. See Hartigan 1987: 127. Heracles' madness, though, stems also from his violent nature: so Papadopoulou 2005.

66. See Bond 1981, on 1004.

67. See Burnett 1971: 171.

68. See Willink 1988: 87–8; Papadopoulou 2005: 79.

69. Line 1061 is corrupt. I follow Diggle's Oxford Classical Text. Willink's proposal (1988) to emend ὕπνoν with πόνoν is ingenious, but his main objection to ὕπνoν ὀλόμενoν, namely that the adjective would make little sense, does not seem compelling: Bond (1981, ad loc.) takes ὀλόμενoν to mean ‘accursed’ or ‘pestilential’. In addition, sleep is ruinous because it translates Heracles to sanity and with it to thoughts of death.

70. Picked up also at Soph. El. 41–2, which Bond (1981) cites in connection with Her. 1052.

71. Bond (1981, on 1049) thinks that ὑπνώδεα means ‘sleep bound’, but Amphitryon has just said that Heracles is asleep (1043–4).

72. See Bond 1981, on 1089–145. For Willink (1986, on 140–207) the men of the chorus remain in the orchestra. The fact that Amphitryon asks, ‘Old men, shall I go near him?’ (1109) before reentering supports this view. If they are onstage, the question creates a link with the offstage, as often happens in drama. But their answer, ‘I also will come with you’, speaks strongly in favour of their absence, unless we imagine them to be far removed from Heracles, which is not much different from being absent altogether.

73. Garner 1990: 115.

74. Soph. Aj. 21, 47, 141, 209, 217.

75. Eur. Bacch. 683–6, 692 (θαλερός). Dodds (1944) translates the adjective ‘in its flower’, ‘deep’. But ‘refreshing’ or ‘vitalizing’, which he mentions as possible alternatives, better accord with the supernatural vitality displayed by the Bacchants upon awakening.

76. Critics are divided over the exact circumstance that triggers Neoptolemus' change. Reinhardt (1979: 181) considers Philoctetes' awakening the decisive factor, while Whitman (1951: 176) reads in Neoptolemus' condemnation of deception during the sick man's sleep (842) his ‘first moment of conscious moral action’. Schein (2013, on 839–42) criticizes this view, though he concedes that Neoptolemus ‘might be represented as having mixed feelings’ at this point. For Austin (2011: 103, 122) he is already in a moral quandary at 639–40. More references are in Fulkerson 2013: 69. Whatever the case, the sleep scene marks the point after which Neoptolemus acts honestly.

77. The translation of line 160 is Schein's (2013).

78. See Jouanna 1981: 55.

79. A prevalence of vowels, and especially long vowels, marks the invocation's beginning (827–31). Waern (1960: 4) lists the song among Greek literary lullabies, though euphonic sound patterns are generally typical of paeans (Schein 2013: 249).

80. αἴγλαν (literally ‘divine luminosity’) has given critics trouble, for it seems at odds with sleep. Jebb translates ‘dream light’ (2004, ad loc.) while Webster (1970, ad loc.) notes that Aigla is Asclepius' daughter and glosses: ‘the gleam of serenity which the god of healing brings’. See also Austin 2011: 126; Schein 2013, ad loc.

81. See Schein 2003: 95.

82. See Webster 1970, on 833; Jouanna 1981: 57; Ussher 2001, on 829.

83. See Jones 1949; Garner 1990: 148.

84. ἀδεής, ‘fearless’, is a possible emendation of the transmitted ἀλεής, which primarily means ‘protecting from danger’ (and secondarily ‘from the cold’): see Jouanna 1981: 57.

85. See Jouanna 1981: 62.

86. See also Phil. 882–5.

87. To stay within Sophocles, see Aj. 859; Ant. 808; Trach. 1144.

88. See Schein 2012: 432.

89. See Reinhardt 1979: 182.

90. This is generally noted.

91. See further Willink 1986, on 140–207 and 210; Garner 1990: 149.

92. See Jouanna 1981: 56–7.

93. See Zeitlin 1980: 55. On the likelihood that Euripides has the Oresteia in mind, see also Wright 2008: 79–80.

94. See Zeitlin 1980: 55.

95. For the translation of ὀλεῖς, see Willink 1986, ad loc.

96. See Willink 1986, on 208–10.

97. A sane Orestes would clash with the received myth, but so does the entire plot of the play until the end.

98. See Burnett 1971: 184, 195–6.

99. The actor who plays Electra must play Menelaus or Tyndareus in the next episode.

100. See also Burnett 1971: 198.

101. Seaford 1984, on 591–2.

102. See P. Arnott 1961: 168–9.

103. Ussher (1978, on 599–602) reads the darkness of death into ‘black Night’. Blackness is also consonant with the blinding that sleep allows.

104. This would speak in favour of a late dating of Cyclops, as defended especially by Seaford 1982 and 1984: 48–51, followed, e.g., by Garner 1990: 154–7.

105. See Konstan 2001: 8.

106. See Katsouris 1997: 21.

107. The line order in the prologue is a notorious crux. I follow Diggle's numbering for convenience, though the arguments raised by Willink (1971) in favour of an alternative sequence are attractive.

108. See Fantuzzi 1990: 25.

109. Willink 1971: 351.

110. See Walton 2000: 138.

111. So Parry 1964 and Fantuzzi 2006: 152.

112. See Walton 2000.

113. Though Mcleod (1988) correctly notes that the subsequent actions in the Greek camp bespeak fires, the return of Odysseus and Diomedes is heralded by noise only.

114. See Fantuzzi 1990: 27; Donelan 2014: 549.

115. Rh. 7–8 and Il. 10. 80, with Fantuzzi 2006: 149.

116. See also Fantuzzi 2006: 148.

117. Rh. 518. See Liapis 2012: xlix, quoting Burnett: Rhesus does not do much more than ‘allow himself to be led away to bed’.

118. More idiosyncratic features of the song are in Liapis 2012: 216.

119. Parry 1964: 293.

120. The goddess, though, has absolute control over the actions of Odysseus and Diomedes: see Fenik 1964: 23–4; Fantuzzi 2006: 159–68.

121. See Liapis 2012: 280.

122. See Fenik 1964.

123. See Jouanna 1981: 54.

124. Beta (1999: 138) suggests the threat of stoning (1491) as a parallel, though stoning madmen was normal practice: see, e.g., Ar. Av. 525. If it is parodied in Wasps, Heracles must be earlier than 422: see Beta 150–1.

125. Bdelycleon is asleep on the roof (68), awakens (136–7), but dozes off again (336–7) until the noise his father makes awakens him again (394). On the servants, see below.

126. ‘Sleeps in front of the court’ is Sommerstein's translation (1983).

127. Van Steen (2011: 798) suggests that Philocleon acted out the servant's description of his troubled sleep.

128. See Slater 1999: 362.

129. On the thematic importance of night in Wasps, see Donelan 2014: 539–40.

130. So Borthwick 1992: 274, commenting on line 8.

131. Paris' call in Rhesus does not awaken a sleeper: see above.

132. The wording specifically recalls Orestes 137.

133. On the meaning of the violation, see Lowe 1987 and Traill 2001.

134. Contrast the use of ‘alone’ at 30, 150, 869, and especially 329 and 331, to stress Cnemon's autarchy. The reversal is anticipated by a servant's threat: ‘you will lie down alone’ (874).

135. Menander must have exploited sleeplessness more than the extant evidence shows. A character in Kitharistes (fr. 1 Arnott 1996) talks about nights of ‘tossing up and down’ (3) because of financial distress, and extends sleep troubles to the rich as well, since life brings pain to all. See also Introduction, n. 3.

136. Phasma 9–18. Translation G. Arnott 2000.

137. Donatus On Terence Eunuchus 9. 3, in G. Arnott 2000: 408 (his translation).

138. See Turner 1969: 318; G. Arnott 2000: 368 and 385. A reference to Phidias' melancholy is at 57.

139. See Thomas 1979: 196; Barbieri 2001: 5, 7, 9, 53–4, 61, 65.

140. See Koch 1888: 154; Thomas 1979: 196; Barbieri 2001: 54, 61.

141. Barbieri (2001: 65) traces the motif back to Ibycus (fr. 257a Davies 1991). It might have appeared already in Sappho (fr. 168b Voigt 1971).

142. See Thomas 1979: 197.

143. See Plaut. Cur. 181–4; Poen. 323; Ter. Eunuchus 218–21.

144. Mis. 1–14. Translation G. Arnott 1996.

145. See Bornmann 1980: 161.

146. In a large number of erotic spells love and sleeplessness are inseparable. The kinship of the two was so keenly felt that it gave rise to a technical term: ‘Love spell of attraction through wakefulness’. See Preisendanz 1973, IV. 2943–66, 1496–595, 2441–621, 2708–84, 3272–3; VII. 374–6; VIII. 887–9; XII. 376–96; XXXVI. 147–53; Thomas 1979: 195; Faraone 1999: 26–7; 65–6; 145. This scholar (26, n. 114) points out that insomnia is a component of love spells also in ancient Mesopotamian and Spanish magic.

Chapter 4 Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica

1. Vagnone (1987) notes that references to eating or sleeping generally become less frequent in epic after Homer.

2. See Harder 1994: 17.

3. The interconnection between the coming of dawn and the Argonauts' discovery of their loss is brought up by the correlatives ‘when/then’ (ἦμος/τῆμoς): ‘At the time when dawn shines, rising from the east, and the paths stand out brightly and the dewy plain shines with a resplendent gleam, then they realized’ (1. 1280–3). Fantuzzi (1988: 141) notes that this dawn is the most luminous in the epic.

4. See Chapter 2.

5. See Carspecken 1952: 127; Beye 1982: 66; Hunter 1989: 39; Fantuzzi and Hunter 2004: 123; Fantuzzi 2008a. Differently Cairns 1998.

6. See Knight 1995: 133.

7. Apollonius plays with the Homeric vocabulary of sleep also by multiplying instances of the hapax κνώσσω (Od. 4. 809): 1. 1083; 1. 1096; 4. 111.

8. See also De Jong 1990: 23.

9. Beye 1982: 66.

10. See Vian 1974, on 1. 518.

11. Together with context, the fact that the term does not appear anywhere else (except in the lexicographers) proves that Apollonius is echoing Homer.

12. See Chapter 1.

13. The communality of the enterprise is announced in the first line: see Fantuzzi and Hunter 2004: 95. See also 1. 336–7; 2. 173.

14. See Knight 1995: 55. The ritual begins at 1. 447 in the Iliad and at 1. 411 in the Argonautica.

15. Wray 2000: 248.

16. Jason's announcement echoes lines 234–5: the ship is both times ἐπαρτέα (ready). The relatively close repetition is notable because the adjective appears only two more times in the epic, both far apart and in different contexts (2. 1177; 3. 299).

17. See Wray 2000: 250; Clare 2002: 43.

18. Whether this version was a real edition or circulated informally is disputed: see Fantuzzi 1988: 87–95.

19. Schol. 1. 516–8. For extended comparison, see Fantuzzi 1988: 101–4 and 121–4.

20. Cairns (1998: 70) compares the departure from Iolcus with Odysseus' from Calypso, noting that numerous speeches precede both. Sleep is the narrative equivalent of the lovemaking in that episode. In both dawn rises expansively, filling an entire line, right after mention of lovemaking or slumber.

21. See Introduction.

22. Ap. Rhod. 4. 1689–90, where the Argonauts camp for the night. The journey, however, had already been interrupted by the appearance of Talus and his death. Though we might assume that the Argonauts sleep after they are cast on the Libyan shores, Apollonius only says that they sought a resting place, covered their heads, refused to eat and lay down all night and the next day waiting for death (4. 1293–6).

23. To Beye (1982: 99) the winds evoke sirocco.

24. Contrast the hero of Valerius Flaccus, who is wakeful alone on the night prior to the departure (Argonautica 1. 295–6).

25. See Knight 1995: 169–76. Tiresias' prophecy is also in the background, but the nocturnal setting of Phineus' privileges Circe as model.

26. Hunter (1993: 24–5) cites 3. 171–5, where Jason shares his plan and asks for approval and counsel, as ‘virtually a programmatic rejection of Odyssean behavior’. See also Fantuzzi and Hunter 2004: 128–9.

27. This is the case for Phrixus' sons. The Argonauts arrive earlier.

28. Knight (1995: 133–5; 185) spots the references.

29. See below.

30. See Fusillo 1985: 196–7.

31. See Hunter 2008: 138–40.

32. The last line of Book 2 was added to end Book 1: see Fantuzzi 2008a: 230.

33. Campbell (1983b: 155) thinks that Apollonius has this line in mind.

34. Van Sickle (1984: 131) fails to see this.

35. De Jong (1990: 29–30) thinks that the divisions do predate Aristarchus.

36. See Clare 2002: 164, commenting on Apollo's epiphany at 2. 669–79.

37. De Jong 1990: 23.

38. See Stevick 1970: 45–6, referenced by De Jong 1990: 23.

39. See Vian 1961, on 447.

40. The latter is often noted: see, e.g., Beye 1982: 136.

41. λιγέως as read by Hunter 1989, ad loc. The term describes a high-pitched voice.

42. See Hunter 1989: 164. This scholar notes an additional allusion to Penelope's complaint of sleep disturbances at Od. 19. 516–7. We could add Od. 4. 794 (=18. 189), which describes the troubled Penelope resting at last, about to find comfort in a dream sent by Athena.

43. Compare, in Homer, εὗδε δ' ἀ/νακλιν/θεῖσα,// λύ/θεν δέ oἱ/ ἅψεα/ πάντα and, in Apollonius, λέκτρῳ ἀ/νακλιν/θεῖσαν.// ἄ/φαρ δέ μιν/ ἠπερo/πῆες.

44. Hunter (1989: 164) thinks that the hand of Hera might be at work in Medea's sleep and dream. This is possible (the use of κατακνώσσoυσα for her sleep at 3. 690 could allude to Penelope's sleep at Od. 4. 809 [κνώσσoυσ᾽], which is filled by the dream Athena sends her), but is left unspecified.

45. See Hunter 1989, on 616–824.

46. One exception is Od. 14. 457, where the coming of night introduces Odysseus' story. Fantuzzi (1988: 125) notes that one of the most common Homeric phrases for nightfall, ‘the sun set and all the ways grew dark’, normally concludes a narrative unit.

47. Fr. 89 Page 1962. Alcman's poem might be at the origin of the motif: Livrea 1973, on 4. 1058.

48. See Gibson 1996: 460 and Fernández Contreras 2000: 16, both with further references.

49. Fr. 168b Voigt 1971. ‘The hour’ means ‘the time for sleep’: see Ferrari 1983.

50. See Chapter 3.

51. See Carrière 1959: 51–3; Beye 1982: 67–8; Campbell 1983a: 49; Fusillo 1985: 292; Hunter 1989, on 744–51.

52. See Carrière 1959: 53; Hunter 1989, on 746.

53. See Carrière 1959: 53. For Campbell (1983a: 49) the passage as a whole ‘is designed to exert a hypnotic effect on the reader’.

54. See Fusillo 1985: 292.

55. See Fantuzzi 1988: 145; Hurst 2012: 90.

56. See Chapter 1.

57. See Hunter 1989: 178: ‘There is a suggestion that the gods have relieved the mother's suffering with sleep, but there is no divinity to soothe Medea’. Later Hera intervenes to strengthen her decision to live, because it furthers the goddess' plan.

58. See Hunter 1989, ad loc.

59. Medea's speech to her sister, in which she states that she will not see dawn if she does not offer her help (3. 728–31) and that at dawn she will go to the temple to give Jason the drugs (737–9), foreshadows the two options with which she struggles in her sleepless night.

60. On the threshold's symbolic meaning, see Daniel-Müller 2012: 110–1.

61. See Hunter 1989: 177. Vian (1961, on 751–72) notes a contamination between Il. 10. 3–4 and Od. 15. 7–8 (Telemachus sleeplessly thinking of his father). It has also been suggested (Sanz Morales and Laguna Mariscal 2005) that Achilles' insomnia in Iliad 24 is behind the description of Medea's, but I share Fantuzzi's skepticism (2012: 235, n. 118). For Achilles comes to no decision whatsoever in his sleepless nights.

62. There is only one other possible borrowing (2. 407: ἥδυμoς). Otherwise sleep is un-Homerically ἀδινός (‘thick’, ‘deep’, 1. 1083; 3. 616; 3. 748) or without modifiers (1. 518; 2. 157; 4. 159; 4. 1110).

63. See Hunter 1989, on 744–51. The parallel of the light similes is noted by this scholar.

64. See Fantuzzi 2008b; Beye 1982: 142.

65. See Knight 1995: 281; Fantuzzi 2008b; Cariou 2012: 147–8.

66. The text is corrupt, but inactivity is certainly present in it.

67. See Hunter 1989, on 1171–2.

68. Livrea (1973, on 183), in comparing another description of dawn rising in Apollonius (4. 183) with its closest Homeric equivalents (Il. 8. 1=24. 695; 23. 227), notes that in Homer the description occupies the whole line but not in Apollonius.

69. Other instances of dawn rising abruptly at the end of a line are at 1. 651; 1. 1151; 4. 1622; 4. 1713.

70. To be precise, the Argonauts are about to sleep. Before they do so, Apollonius transfers the narrative to the more active theatre in a manner reminiscent of the Hylas episode.

71. The parallel is in Hunter 1988: 446.

72. See Hunter 1988: 446–7.

73. The reference is noted by all commentators.

74. See Hunter 1988: 445.

75. See Clare 2002: 81; Byre 2002: 41.

76. See above. The closest Homeric equivalent is Od. 9. 556–62. See also 10. 546–9.

77. See Fernández Contreras 2000: 19.

78. See Beye 1982: 84 referencing Lawall; Clare 2002: 171. Jason's commanding treatment of Alcimede on the eve of his departure (‘be quiet and stay inside the house with the maidservants’, 1. 303–4) recalls Telemachus' harshness towards Penelope on the eve of his.

79. See Hunter 1989, on 3. 1191–4, 1197. Vidal-Naquet (1986: 108) considers the Jason of Pindar's Pythian 4 an archetypical ephebe. As we shall see, the stealing of the fleece further emphasizes Jason's liminal status.

80. This does not mean, however, that the epic's true protagonist is Medea: see Clauss 1997.

81. Of the eleven instances of dawn in the nominative, there is only one other (4. 981) in which it is ‘early born’ and ‘sheds’ (βάλε) light.

82. See Hunter 1989, on 3. 1224.

83. See James 1978: 173; Fantuzzi 1988: 150.

84. See Chapter 1, and, for the parallel, Van Sickle 1984: 131. The end of Book 3 closely echoes Il. 7. 465: see Vian 1961, on 1407; Campbell 1983b: 155.

85. Or, better, the continuation of the first: one merges into the other.

86. See Knight 1995: 224–44; Clauss 1997 (among others).

87. See Knight 1995: 230.

88. The comparison is sketched by Fernández Contreras 2000: 19.

89. The time of the feat underscores its initiatory quality: see Hunter 1993: 17. On night-time hunting in coming-of-age rituals, see Vidal-Naquet 1986: 117–22.

90. The brisk dactylic rhythm of a line (2. 407) describing the dragon's watchfulness (oὐ κνέφας ἥδυμoς ὕπνoς ἀναιδέε δάμναται ὄσσε, ‘sweet slumber does not conquer its shameless eyes in the darkness’) conveys the failure of sleep to arrest it.

91. See Livrea 1973, on 4. 146.

92. See Chapter 1.

93. The dragon is deathless, whereas in other traditions it dies. Fantuzzi (2008b: 295–6) observes that by replacing the dragon's death with sleep, Apollonius structures the plot so that all the steps leading to the capture of the fleece are under the sign of Medea's magic.

94. The hypnotic force of Medea's voice is already felt in her promise to the Argonauts that she will ‘give them the golden fleece, having put [the serpent] to sleep’ (4. 87), a heavily spondaic line (δώσω δὲ χρύσειoν ἐγὼ δέρoς, εὐνήσασα).

95. Bacchyl. 19. 23 and Aesch. PV 575, respectively.

96. Fantuzzi (1988: 150) sees in the temporal periphrasis at 4. 109–13 a foreshadowing of the double dimension that characterizes Medea and Jason, both hunters and prey. See also Livrea 1973, on 4. 109.

97. See Knight 1995: 216–9.

98. See Knight 1995: 159; Clare 2002: 139–43.

99. Contrast 4. 352–4, where Medea takes Jason ‘apart from his comrades’ and supplicates him.

100. See Beye 1982: 155. Alcinous' instant and carefree slumber has suggested a comparison with Theocritus' Amphitryon (Id. 24. 35–41 and 63): see Hunter 1993: 161.

101. The reference is noticed by Hunter (1993: 71) and Knight (1995: 251).

102. See Knight 1995: 251.

103. So do Zeus, Hermes and Agamemnon in the Iliad and Telemachus in Odyssey 1. In Odyssey 20 Odysseus also tries to deliberate, but Athena cuts him short (see Chapter 2).

104. The exception is Cyzicus and Cleite, but they are newlyweds who die on their ‘honeymoon’.

105. See Hunter 1993: 71.

106. See Fantuzzi 1988: 146.

Chapter 5 The Novel

1. Ap. Rhod. 1. 774; Callirhoe 1. 1. 5, with Bowie 2000. Of course, the novelists' failure to cite Apollonius' epic is no definitive proof that they did not use it.

2. Xenophon probably alludes to the Odyssey at the beginning and end of his novel (1. 9. 3, 5. 15. 2); Achilles Tatius plays with the episode of the Cyclops (2. 22. 3); Heliodorus fills his novel with allusions to Homer and imitates the Odyssey's narrative patterns. The bibliography on the novels' exploitation of Homer is vast and ever growing: see, e.g., Biraud 1985; Fusillo 1990; Robiano 2000; Hirschberger 2001; Létoublon 2008; Whitmarsh 2011, especially 112–5, 65, 233 (on the Odyssey) and, most recently, De Temmerman 2014 (see the entry ‘Homer’ in his Index).

3. See also Hdt. 2. 141; Xen. An. 3. 1. 3; 4. 3. 8.

4. See below.

5. We can assume that this book of Chariton's novel, like several books in Homer, ends with night because it is late when Theron brings Callirhoe to Leonas' hut (1. 14. 5) and because at the beginning of Book 2 the latter leaves ‘when it was still night’. Hägg (1971: 29) puts a question mark.

6. See also Od. 5. 472. Chariton again uses ὕπνoς ἐπῆλθε in another context that introduces a Homeric citation (2. 9. 6). ἐπελθεῖν is predicated of sleep by other authors only scantily: Hdt. 1. 141; [Arist.] Pr. 957a23; Hippoc. De flatibus 14. 9 (and nowhere else in the corpus). Neither Plato nor Xenophon uses the verb for sleep.

7. The superfluous αὔτῃ is deleted by Cobet, followed by Goold 1995 and Reardon 2004. The parallel with 2. 9. 6 (ταῦτα λoγιζoμένῃ…ὕπνoς ἐπῆλθε, ‘while she was considering these things […] sleep came upon her’) strongly supports the deletion.

8. See Cobet 1859: 265–6.

9. Compare τόσσα μιν ὁρμαίνoυσαν ἐπήλυθε νήδυμoς ὕπνoς and τoιαῦτα ὀδυρoμένῃ μόλις ὕπνoς ἐπῆλθεν.

10. On Plangon's manipulation of Callirhoe, see Egger 1990: 104–8 and De Temmerman 2014: 66–70. Egger, though, goes too far in undermining Callirhoe's agency, considering her entirely a puppet in the hands of the scheming slave. For Daude (2006: 203), Callirhoe's decision is ‘perfectly autonomous’. Her actions, however, like those of all the characters in Chariton's novel, must align with the scheme of Fortune in order to succeed (until Book 8, where Aphrodite takes over): see Montiglio 2010.

11. Whitmarsh (2009) discusses features of the book divisions in Callirhoe, but not sleep and wakefulness.

12. See Auger 1983: 41–6.

13. See Auger 1983: 43.

14. For further discussion, see Chapter 2.

15. This is illustrated by Hägg's chart (1971: 28–30), which provides the number of lines for individual segments of narrative, measured in days and nights. Days and nights are filled with narrative after Theron has his dream (Hägg's sections 12 to 14) and the greatest number of lines per day/night sequence in the part of the novel Hägg analyses are in the account of Dionysius' two meetings with Callirhoe (sections 19 and 20).

16. AP 5. 152. 3–4. See Fernández Contreras 2000: 28.

17. A noticeable exception is the Latin novel The Story of Apollonius King of Tyre (17–8), where Apollonius' future bride is in love with him while he is not, and accordingly he sleeps soundly while she remains awake. Comprehensive studies of the motif of love-induced insomnia in Greek literature surprisingly neglect the novels (so Fernández Contreras 2000, Strobl 2002), and sleeplessness does not appear as one of the symptoms of love shared by novels and epigrams in Maehler 1990.

18. Chariton is citing Menander's Misoumenos.

19. See also Achilles Tatius, Leucippe and Clitophon 1. 6, below; Heliodorus 1. 8. 1.

20. For further discussion, see Chapter 4. The stereotype of the wakeful leader appears also in Plutarch (Caes. 69. 8; Brut. 36; Alex. 32) and in Roman sources, on which see Woodman 1983: 198–9 (on 2. 79. 1); Dowden 2003: 153–4.

21. See, e.g., schol. Aesch. Sept. 3b.

22. Hermogenes 4. 4 and 4. 32, quoted by Leeman 1985: 225; Dowden 2003: 142; Scaffai 2004: 55. Scaffai also gives Latin evidence for the popularity of the dictum. See also Eust. Il. 1. 227. 7–8; 1. 250. 31; 1. 252. 4; 1. 258. 29–33; 1. 259. 17–20; 2. 129. 7; 3. 2. 4.

23. The belief is already in Phocylides: ‘Deliberate at night; at night a man's mind is sharper’ (8. 1–2 Diehl 1949).

24. Eust. Il. 1. 259. 5; Od. 1. 117. 46. Modern scholars prefer a euphemistic explanation (‘good minded’): see LSJ, ad loc.; Ramnoux 1959: 14; M. West 1982a, on 224.

25. See Sanz Morales and Laguna Mariscal 2003.

26. The Homeric citation also gives Artaxerxes prominence, raising him to the same level of importance as Chaereas and Dionysius: see Fusillo 1990: 37.

27. Hdt. 9. 209. 4, with Harris 2009: 50; Dodds 1963: 109; Auger 1983: 40.

28. See below.

29. Chaereas can fully marry only after proving his manliness (ἀνδρεία) in war: see Lalanne 2006: 90–3.

30. See Chapter 2.

31. Penelope has slept deeply not long before she dozes off again.

32. See below.

33. Egger's contention (1990: 186) that Chaereas' aretalogy ‘comes to an end the very minute that he finds his wife again’ needs qualification.

34. See Schmeling 1980: 91–3; Ruiz-Montero 1988: 154.

35. With the majority of scholars, I believe that the novel is not an epitome.

36. This highlights Habrocomes' passivity (on which see Lalanne 2006: 159–61; Montiglio 2013: 61–2). Even sexually, the girl is more enterprising!

37. The protagonists' erotic eagerness is implied after their first dispute (1. 3. 7) and explained as the reason for Callirhoe's pregnancy (2. 8. 4). But in the only account of them satisfying their passion, on the night of the reunion, lovemaking is stifled by the Homeric citation.

38. Fusillo (1989: 36) speaks of a ‘topos rovesciato’ because the deaths of novelistic heroines always turn out to be false.

39. See 1. 12. 4; 2. 8. 2; 5. 8. 5.

40. See Oikonomou 2010: 67–8.

41. This combination could be added to the index of Xenophon's formulaic expressions compiled by O' Sullivan 1995: 179–87.

42. The Odyssey scene is behind the novelistic one according to Capra 2009: 41–2.

43. Though Clitophon's story is reported in turn. The complex narrative stance of this novel impinges on issues of reliability (is the report accurate? Is Clitophon telling the truth about himself?) and voice (who is speaking?), on which I can only touch briefly here. Interested readers will find an in-depth and updated discussion in De Temmerman 2014, Chapter 3, especially 152–61.

44. See especially Morales 2004: 96–151.

45. See also Pl. Ti. 52b–c, discussed below.

46. For the second phrase, see also Pl. Phd. 64c6; 64c7; 65c7; 65d1; 67a1; 67c7; 67d1; 79d4.

47. AP 5. 237; 9. 286; Anacreontea 9, with Fernández Contreras 2000: 30.

48. On Clitophon's care to look good in generic terms, see Brethes 2007: 109–12; Morgan 2007: 107.

49. De Temmerman (2014: 161–76) discusses Clitophon's keenness on non-committal sex, though not the dream.

50. See Repath 2005.

51. See also Xenophon 1. 13. 4; Heliodorus 4. 17. 3; 9. 11. 2 (attacks and flights helped by natural sleep).

52. Natural sleep removes an obstacle at 2. 35. 1: Leucippe is dozing in a corner of the ship while the men engage in a jeu d'amour.

53. Often noted: see Lalanne 2006: 168–72; Brethes 2007: 202–12. On another occasion Clitophon escapes while everyone is sleeping naturally (3. 16. 2), but his goal is to kill himself.

54. See De Temmerman 2014: 173–4.

55. Thompson 1955, D 1965 and D 1965. 1.

56. P. Oxy. 413.

57. On these sources, see Questa 1979: 67; Fusillo 1989: 34. The motif is also in Apul. Met. 7. 12 and 8. 11, the latter a reenactment (admittedly tragic) of the Cyclops' blinding.

58. The phrase appears in an almost identical form among the Sententiae attributed to Menander (783).

59. Hippoc. Morb. 2. 22, with Jouanna 1981: 54–5.

60. Or ‘these feverish words’, depending on whether we adopt Lobeck's emendation ὀνειρoπoλoυμένη or the manuscript reading πυρπoλoυμένην.

61. See McNally 1985; Hazzikostas 1990.

62. See Imag. 1. 15. 3 (below); AP 16. 210, 211, 212; 9. 826, 827.

63. See Hunter 1983: 56–7; Morgan 2004, on 1. 25; Repath 2010: 107–8.

64. Longus alludes to Plato by choosing κατανυστάξασα to describe Chloe dozing off. See Phdr. 259e3 (νυστάζoντας).

65. See Repath 2010.

66. Though, as Repath (2010: 108) points out, the flocks in Longus do not necessarily sleep.

67. See Montiglio 2012.

68. On the ‘first-time’ motif in Longos, see De Temmerman 2014: 219, with further references.

69. Morales 2004: 35.

70. Chloe also ‘looked at (ἑώρα) Daphnis’ (1. 13. 4), but the verb is not βλέπειν.

71. AP 5. 275, 1–9. Paton's translation in the Loeb edition.

72. See Morgan 2004, on 1. 25.

73. See Sorabella 2010.

74. In antiquity the swallow and the cicada were considered the prototypical predator and prey: see Morgan 2004, on 1. 26.

75. See Borgeaud 1988: 111; Caillois 1991, Chapter 4. Noon is also the general hour of epiphanies in Longus. The Nymphs like noon, and Eros appears at noon to Philetas. But, as I hope to show, internal and external evidence invites us to read Pan's presence into the nap scene. On Pan's noontime epiphanies, see also Morgan 2004: 154, and Epstein 2002: 32–3. This scholar points out that Lamon's discovery of Daphnis at noon (1. 2. 2) offers a suggestion of a special affinity between the child suckled by a goat and the goat-footed god.

76. Id. 1. 15–8. Translation Verity 2002, slightly modified.

77. See already 1. 23. 3, with Morgan 2004.

78. The sources are in Borgeaud 1988: 111.

79. See Borgeaud 1988: 83.

80. On Pan as Daphnis' educator, see Epstein 2002; Lalanne 2006: 191–2.

81. Merkelbach (1962: 209) is mistaken to think that the Methymnian dreams at midnight.

82. For the novelistic victims of Scheintod the alternative would have been a real death. Furthermore, in the case of Anthia, deathlike slumber simply substitutes one obstacle (unwanted marriage) with another (capture by tomb robbers).

83. The nymphs, though, initiate this dream, as they do the first one in the novel. They are the main plot writers: see Liviabella Furiani 1999.

84. See also 3. 27, where the nymphs appear to the helpless Daphnis in his sleep and answer his prayer.

85. Love's symptoms appear also in medical literature (for sources, see Hunter 1999: 224) but retain a fictional quality. This is suggested by Plutarch's story of Antiochus, who grew sick from loving his stepmother. When the doctor summoned to diagnose the disease reveals that it is love, he appeals to Sappho, the symptoms' ‘inventor’, as his source, not to medical knowledge (Dem. 38. 2–4).

86. Longus plays a similar game around the symbolic meaning of throwing apples: while the protagonists innocently pelt each other with them, the reader knows that this game has erotic overtones in bucolic poetry: see Goldhill 1995: 5.

87. Philetas' name conjures up the elegiac poet Philitas of Cos.

88. De Temmerman (2014: 214–5) thinks that the emotion ‘is not made explicit […] because the protagonists themselves have not experience of [it] and so cannot give it a name’. Their desire to see each other, however, is made explicit, even though they might not know that it is called longing (‘They prayed and looked for a way to see each other’.)

89. See Torgovnick 1981: 11, referencing the Russian Formalist Boris Eikhenbaum. See also Fusillo 1997: 218–9.

90. On the winter night in Chloe's house they are in separate rooms.

91. 2. 15. 2 (κῶμα).

92. See 5. 34. 1; 6. 9. 1.

93. For further discussion, see Chapter 2.

94. Compare μνωoμένω, ‘as we remember’, at Od. 15. 400. Heliodorus' explicit reference, though, is to the women mourning Patroclus overtly, but in fact weeping for themselves.

95. The author comes out in the next sentence: ‘And if the story told is that of Chariclea and Theagenes, who would be so insensitive as […] not to be spellbound’? My reading of Cnemon's behaviour as an audience supports Morgan's positive characterization of him in this role (1989a: 106) rather than Winkler's more negative one (1982: 138–44). The recurrent mentions of sleep as a competitor that loses to storytelling suggest that Heliodorus expects his readers to be as willing to forsake sleep as Cnemon (or Theagenes and Chariclea) and to read the novel on and on. See also below.

96. See, e.g., 5. 1. 1; 5. 18. 1; 5. 23. 2 (with a Homeric allusion); 5. 27. 1. A clever, if frigid, use of a Homeric formula describing the time of day is at 3. 4. 1: Chariclea, appearing from the temple, is like rosy-fingered dawn.

97. There was an asp called thermouthis, whose bite was supposed to be fatal only to evil people: see Morgan in Reardon 2008: 392. Perhaps Heliodorus knew a poem by Statyllius Flaccus (first century BC) in which an exhausted traveller cast ashore by a storm plunges into his ‘last sleep’, bitten by a viper (AP 7. 290).

98. See Morgan in Reardon 2008: 393.

99. See Brethes 2007: 185.

100. Hes. fr. 278 Merkelbach-West 1967.

101. Ap. Rhod. 2. 856: Verg. Aen. 5. 854–6.

102. Il. 16. 454–5, 672–3, with Vermeule 1979: 145. Sarpedon's post-mortem conveyance is, however, exceptional and ‘marks the hero's fate as a kindly one’ (M. West 1982b, on 116).

103. Plat. Ap. 41 (see Chapter 2). I cannot agree with McAlpine (1987: 141) that Socrates rejects this suggestion. He does not pronounce on the nature of death, leaving the options open.

104. Mor. 107 D–E (Babbitt's translation in the Loeb edition, slightly modified).

105. See Van der Eijk 2003.

106. Orph. 85. 7–8. The same idea appears in a Sententia attributed to Menander (782). Sleep is a teacher of death also for Anaxagoras (DK A 34).

107. On the Orphic Hymn and the passage from Plutarch, see Boyancé 1928: 98–101. I agree with him that the god psychopompos at Mor. 758B is not Hermes but Hypnos, ‘the offspring of Night’. In statues Hypnos carries the caduceus: see Stafford 2003: 115.

108. See also Plut. Mor. 764E-F.

109. For Plotinus, the soul is truly awake only in the other world: see Enn. 1. 8. 13, with Dowden 1998: 18.

110. The last epitaph is in Lattimore 1962: 164 (his translation, modified). See also AP 7. 451 (‘Here Saon, son of Dicon of Acanthos, sleeps a holy slumber. Do not say that good people die’), with Cerutti 1986: 138. In a particularly felicitous epigram playing with the commonplace (AP 7. 260), the dead man contentedly looks back at his long life, during which he had the good fortune of lulling many grandchildren to sleep in his arms, until he himself went to ‘sleep a sweet slumber’. More such epigrams are in Stafford 2003: 73, n. 7. See also Ogle 1933.

111. According to Valerius Maximus (9. 12. 7), Pindar likewise died while resting on his lover's lap.

112. Plut. Mor. 107E–F. Similar words are attributed to Gorgias (DK A 15).

113. Another parallel is the death of Trophonius and Agamedes as reported by Cicero (Tusc.1. 114) and Plutarch (Mor. 109A).

114. For discussion, see especially Dowden 1996.

115. Calasiris and Chariclea are both also wakeful on the previous night (3. 11. 4; 3. 18. 2).

116. In Euripides, though, sleeplessness is not a symptom of Phaedra's passion, as it is in Seneca (Phaedra 368–9). Fantham (1975) thinks that the Roman author borrowed the symptom from Virgil's Dido.

117. Paraphrasing Homer is Heliodorus' practice: see Fusillo 1990.

118. See 7. 6. 1; 7. 8. 6; 7. 9. 2.

119. Longus, who ends his novel with a wakeful night, inserts a strongly closural tag line (‘Daphnis did to Chloe…’).

120. Bowie (1998: 5, n. 285) argues that Heliodorus' frequent intertextualities with Homer ‘persistently invite us to question how like and how unlike the Odyssey this story is going to be’. The transition-in-sleeplessness from Book 5 to Book 6 is both like and unlike the corresponding transition-in-sleep in Homer.

121. See 2. 35. 5; 5. 22. 3.

122. The intimations of the future that the protagonists receive two books later (8. 11. 3–5) are not as transparent.

123. See Chapters 2 and 4.

124. Achilles Tatius does exploit sleep as blank space (see above), but in a context, the lovers' reunion, that keeps the readers from dozing off.

125. The nocturnal ending of Book 6, with the death of the Egyptian sorceress, is more closural.

126. These book endings have an ‘anticipatory cadence’ (Stevick 1970: 44), though the narrator does not explicitly say, ‘you will find this out in the next chapter’. A closural ending is that of Book 9, with the conclusion of the war.

127. This is clearly the case in the Odyssey. On the Iliad, see Chapter 1.

128. Fusillo (1997: 221) thinks that Heliodorus' closural strategy ‘perhaps [is] the strongest in ancient literature’. See also Morgan 1989b: 318: ‘A classic closed ending; no questions are left to be asked, the text closes because there is nothing more that could be told’.

Conclusions

1. A. Chekhov, Stories. Translated by R. Pevear and L. Volokhnosky. New York, Bantam Books 2000: 330.

2. On the insomnia motif in Statius’ poem see, e.g., Pomeroy 1986; Gibson 1996.

3. From Sleeping and Waking (in The Crack-Up [1945]).

4. See Summers-Bremmer 2008: 15; Byl 1998.

5. Calasiris (in Heliodorus) also tries to make decisions during sleepless nights but, as we saw, he seeks to understand and follow the roads of destiny, not to invent a plot.

6. For instance, Quintus begins a great number of books at dawn (2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14) and ends several at night (1, 5, 6, 7, 8), outdoing even Homer, but he also exploits sleep to prepare for climatic events (Penthesilea's fighting in Book 1, Memnon's in Book 2) by putting an end to the preliminaries, in a manner close to Apollonius’. Also reminiscent of Apollonius are the leisurely descriptions of nightfall that frame several lonely vigils (3. 656–8; 5. 346–50; 10. 256–8; 10. 436–9).

7. On Xenophon, see Chapter 5.

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