Biographies & Memoirs

NOTES

ABBREVIATIONS

Full publication data for modern works appears in the Sources section.

Aesch Prom		Aeschylus, Prometheus Unbound
App		Appian, Civil Wars
Res Gest		Augustus, Res Gestae
Barrett		Anthony A. Barrett, Livia
Aul Gell		Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae
Caes Gall		Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War
Carcopino		Jérôme Carcopino, Daily Life in Ancient Rome
Carter		J. M. Carter, The Battle of Actium
CAH		Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 10
Old CAH		Cambridge Ancient History (1923–1939), vol. 10
Castle		E. B. Castle, Ancient Education and Today
Dio		Cassius Dio, Roman History
Celsus		Celsus, De Medicina
Cic Att		Cicero, Letters to Atticus
Cic Brut		Cicero, Letters to Brutus
Cic De Or		Cicero, De Oratore
Cic Fam		Cicero, Letters to His Friends [ad Familiares]
Cic Phil		Cicero, Philippics
Connolly and Dodge		Peter Connolly and Hazel Dodge, The Ancient City, Life in Classical Athens and Rome
CIL		Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
Dupont		Florence Dupont, Daily Life in Ancient Rome
Florus		Florus, Epitome of Roman History
Fuller		J.F.C. Fuller, The Decisive Battles of the Ancient World and Their Influence on History
Grant Cleo		Michael Grant, Cleopatra
Grant Glad		Michael Grant, Gladiators: The Bloody Truth
Green		Peter Green, From Alexander to Actium
Green Erot		Peter Green (trans.), Ovid, The Erotic Poems
Hom Il		Homer, Iliad
Hom Od		Homer, Odyssey
van Hoof		Anton van Hoof, Autothanasia to Suicide: Self-killing in Classical Antiquity
Hor Cent		Horace, Centennial Hymn
Hor Ep		Horace, Epistles
Hor Odes		Horace, Odes
Hor Sat		Horace, Satires
ILS		Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, ed. H. Dessau
Jackson		Ralph Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire
Jos Ant		Josephus, Antiquities
Levick		Barbara Levick, Tiberius the Politician
Livy Per		Livy, Periochae
Livy		Livy, Preface
Macr		Macrobius, Saturnalia
Mart		Martial, Epigrams
Meijer		Fik Meijer, The Gladiators
Men Double		Menander, The Double Deceiver
Nic		Nicolaus, Life of Augustus
Ovid Am		Ovid, Amores
Ovid Ars Am		Ovid, Ars Amatoria
Ovid Pont		Ovid, Epistulae ex Ponto
Ovid Trist		Ovid, Tristia
Pliny		Pliny, Naturalis Historia
Plut Apo reg et imp		Plutarch, Moralia, Apophthegmata regum et imperatorum
Plut Aem Pau		Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus
Plut Ant Comp		Plutarch, Antony and Demetrius Comparison
Plut Brut		Plutarch, Brutus
Plut Cat Maj		Plutarch, Cato the Elder [Cato Major]
Plut Cat Min		Plutarch, Cato the Younger [Cato Minor]
Plut Cic		Plutarch, Cicero
Plut Ant		Plutarch, Mark Antony
Plut T & C Grac		Plutarch, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus
Plut Pomp		Plutarch, Pompey the Great
Powell/Welch		A. Powell and K. Welch, eds., Sextus Pompeius
Prop		Propertius, Carmina
Quint Inst Or		Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria
Sall Bell Cat		Sallust, Bellum Catilinae
Sen Contr 10 Praef		Seneca the Elder, Controversiae 10 Praefatio
Sen Suas		Seneca the Elder, Suasoriae
Sen Ep		Seneca the Younger, Epistles
Sen Clem		Seneca the Younger, De Clementia
Serv Ad Aen		Servius, Ad Aeneidem
Stambaugh		John E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City
Strabo		Strabo, Geography
Suet Aug		Suetonius, Life of Augustus
Suet Clau		————, Life of Claudius
Suet De Vir Ill		————, On Famous Men
Suet Gaius		————, Life of Gaius
Suet Galb		————, Life of Galba
Suet Caes		————, Life of Julius Caesar
Suet Nero		————, Life of Nero
Suet Tib		————, Life of Tiberius
Syme AA		Ronald Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy
Syme RR		Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution
Tac Ann		Tacitus, Annals
Tac Dial		Tacitus, Dialogus de Oratoribus
Val Max		Valerius Maximus, Memorable Doings and Sayings
Varro		Varro, Res Rusticae
Vell Pat		Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome
Virg Aen		Virgil, Aeneid
Virg Ecl		Virgil, Eclogues
Virg Geo		Virgil, Georgics

PREFACE

“most events began” Dio 53 19 3.

INTRODUCTION

The introduction is an imagined narration of Augustus’ death. I take as my premise the proposition that the sometimes extraordinary stories told by the ancient sources are broadly correct, and attempt as satisfactory an explanation as possible. My central assumption is that the regime was, over-whelmingly and rightly, determined to effect as painless a transition as possible from Augustus to his successor. I note that the regime’s obsession with maintaining its power was accompanied by an undeviating patriotism and a willingness to sacrifice personal interests. Although there are problems and implausibilities with the stories, the explanation I offer is, just about, credible. This is how it might have happened. I use Suetonius’ Life of Augustus, especially chapters 97 to 100; Tacitus 15, 6; Dio 56 29–30; Velleius 2102, 123.

“Poor Rome” Suet Tib 21 2.

I. SCENES FROM A PROVINCIAL CHILDHOOD

The main ancient sources for this chapter are Suetonius and Nicolaus. The stories classical writers tell of the childhood of famous men are unreliable. That of Augustus is no exception. Children were of little intrinsic interest to Roman adults and their doings were seldom recorded, so historians devised fictional beginnings appropriate to their subjects’ later lives and propaganda needs. I have tried to weed out obviously legendary material (to which I return when dealing with the period when it was probably invented). Nicolaus knew Augustus, who may have been the source of the more day-to-day events of his early life.

“coin-stained hands” Suet Aug 42.

“came from a rich old equestrian family” Ibid., 23.

bad prognosis This story, told with circumstantial detail in Dio 45 1, may be a later invention by historians and biographers wishing to create an appropriately interesting childhood for Augustus.

“a small room” Suet Aug 6.

“a dignified person” Vell Pat 2592.

“a talking instrument” Varro 117.

“I can prove” Suet Aug 71.

“justly and courageously” Ibid., 32.

many health hazards This paragraph draws on Jackson, especially pp. 37, 42–43, 46.

by his maternal grandmother Nic 3.

Atia won a reputation Ibid.

“We must apply to our fellow-countrymen” Cic De Or 3137.

“There was not a great difference” Castle, p. 129.

“a good man skilled in speech” Quint Inst Or 12 1.

“humble origin” Suet Gaius 23 1.

He may have come from Venetia Syme AA p. 44.

According to Aulus Gellius Aul Gell 16 16 1–4.

born in this perilous manner Pliny 745.

II. THE GREAT-UNCLE

Most of the personal characteristics I ascribe to Julius Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Cato, and Mark Antony are drawn from the accounts given in Plutarch and Suetonius. Again Nicolaus is useful. Caesar’s own history of the civil war is accurate but self-serving. Appian is valuable.

“From now onward” Vell Pat 233.

optimates I use the English form, for the Latin word can only be used in the plural.

“His dress was” Suet Caes 45 3.

“It was really very difficult” Plut Cat Min 12.

“That cannot be true” Ibid., 19 4.

“Caesar was the only sober man” Suet Caes 53.

“in common with Antony’s” Plut Ant 25.

“provoked by the sight of her” App 58.

“for he often helped others” Plut Ant 43.

they quietly sent Gaius Nic 4.

“Let the dice fly high!” Plut Pomp 60 2.

“the new style of conquest” Cic Att 174c (97c).

“He does not know” Suet Caes 36.

III. A POLITICAL MASTER CLASS

Nicolaus remains a source for anecdotes about Gaius. Plutarch’s and Suetonius’ lives of Caesar throw light on Caesar’s activities, as do Appian and the commentaries on the Alexandrian war and the African war, written by Caesarian supporters. Plutarch’s life of Cato recounts his suicide. Here and elsewhere I am indebted to Michael Grant’s Cleopatra.

“I shall have the whole Senatorial” Dio 45 2 5–6.

“with body and limbs” Suet Aug 79 2.

“He attracted many women” Nic 4.

“he was of age” Ibid.

“The year/Drags for orphan boys” Hor Ep 1121–22.

Alexander the Great’s Macedonian commanders For more on Alexander, see Green, Peter, Alexander of Macedon (London: Penguin, 1974), and on his successors the same author’s Alexander to Actium (London: Thames and Hudson, 1990).

“this little trick” Plut Caes 49 2.

“As far as they say” Plut Ant 27 2–3.

“Many rulers of Egypt” Plut Ant 27 3–4.

“enjoyed himself” App 290. Some modern historians discount the historicity of this jaunt, largely on the grounds that Caesar would not be so irresponsible. However, one of the features of his character was an arrogant carelessness. Also, Appian says that he provides more detail (now sadly lost) of this adventure in his Egyptian history, from which it is reasonable to assume that the journey was well attested.

“for a sight of the boy” Nic 4.

“he might bring on illness” Ibid., 6.

attitude toward suicide This section is indebted to van Hoof.

“had hard work to withstand” Caes Gall 61.

“take any cruel action” Dio 43 15 2.

“The Republic is nothing” Suet Caes 77.

IV. UNFINISHED BUSINESS

Appian and Dio provide the basic historical narrative, Nicolaus, Plutarch, and Suetonius color and anecdote.

On the day of the triumph Some generic details are taken from Plutarch’s description of Aemilius Paullus’ triumph (Plut Aem Pau 32–35).

The most popular attraction This section is indebted to Carcopino, Grant Glad, and Meijer.

“He took care” Nic 8.

“according to my uncle’s instructions” Ibid., 10.

“I have often fought” Plut Caes 56 3.

“He made a point” Nic 11.

“nothing womanly about her” Vell Pat 2742.

It is probable that Octavius When Nicolaus reports that he asked for, and received, permission to go home and see his mother, he does not make it clear where Octavius was at the time of the request. It would make more sense if he was at Labici than en route to Italy (otherwise, why would he have asked leave to go to his journey’s obvious destination?).

“sexual gratification” Nic 15.

“should sail” Celsus 111. It is worth noting that in later life, Octavius lived abstemiously, a habit that may well have been developed in his youth.

V. A BOY WITH A NAME

Nicolaus gives most information about Octavian’s stay at Apollonia and his return to Italy. He, Plutarch, and Suetonius give accounts of the Ides of March.

“great and important city” Cic Phil 11 26.

“You must show yourself” Nic 16.

another letter from Atia The implication when App 39–10 and Nic 16 are compared suggests that Atia wrote with the immediate news and then followed up with a second letter from her and Philippus; but the references could be to the same letter.

knew that the assassination Plut Ant 13 1.

“Why, this is violence!” Suet Caes 82 1.

like a wild animal App 2117.

“already had his eyes” Nic 18.

“followers call him Caesar” Cic Att 366 (14 12).

major eruption R. Stothers, 2002: “Cloudy and Clear Stratospheres Before A.D. 1000 Inferred from Written Sources,” J. Geophysical Research, Vol. 107, No. D23.

“wars that grow in the dark” Virg Geo 464–68.

stars could be seen Pliny 22798.

“everything to his name” Cic Phil 13 11 25.

“Heap as many insults” App 328.

“Could anything be” Cic Att 388 15 10.

“Octavian…does not lack” Ibid., 3901512.

“On the very day” Pliny 22393–94. Octavian wrote his autobiography, now lost, in 25 B.C. The discussion of the games is indebted to J. Ramsey and A. Lewis Licht, The Comet of 44 B.C. and Caesar’s Funeral Games (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), pp. 236f.

“Mad with anger” This paragraph and the following, including the quotations, are drawn from App 339.

VI. FROM VICTORY, DEFEAT

Appian’s and Cicero’s speeches against Antony, the Philippics, are the best sources. Dio also covers the subject.

“You will learn” App 343.

“He is very much a boy” Cic Att 420 (16 11).

“a blowout” Cic Phil 3820.

“If your are successful” Macr 23 12.

“The Ides of March was a fine deed” Cic Att 366 (14 12).

“Gaius Caesar is a young man” Cic Phil, 323.

“this heaven-sent youth” Ibid., 51643.

“I promise, I undertake” Ibid., 18 51.

“praised, honoured—and raised up” Cic Fam 401 11 20.

“He reflected on the way” App 364.

In the first week or so of April My description seeks to reconcile differences among the sources—App 366–72, Cic Fam 378 10 30, and Dio 37–38.

“they put the survivors” App 370.

“He did not reappear” Suet Aug 10 4.

“Though bleeding and wounded” Ibid., 10 4.

“It is quite incredible” Cic Brut 12 2 (1 6 2).

“Nature forbids me” App 373.

“I have given plenty of hints” Ibid., 380.

“this abominable war” Cic Fam 384 10 14.

“spineless readiness to serve” App 392.

twelve vultures It can be argued that this story is a fiction put about by Octavian’s propagandists. It seems unlikely, though, that such a public event was invented when thousands of Romans could give it the lie.

VII. KILLING FIELDS

Appian provides a detailed narrative, and Dio also covers this period. Plutarch and Suetonius evoke the impact of Philippi on individuals. The discussion of Sextus Pompeius is indebted to Sextus Pompeius, Anton Powell and Kathryn Welch, eds.

“he carried it out more ruthlessly” Suet Aug 27 1.

he let his own uncle Plut Ant Comp 51.

“Many people were murdered” App 413.

One tragic tale Ibid., 430.

A funerary inscription Laudatio Turiae, ILS.

“You provided abundantly” Ibid., 2a.

A year later That is, after the battle of Philippi.

“That matter was soon” Laudatio Turiae 11, ILS.

“I did not take my father’s line” Suet Aug 70 2.

still a very young man App 5133. For Sextus’ age, see Powell/Welch, pp. 105–6.

“Whoever makes his journey” Quoted, from an unidentified play, by App 285.

“With his greater mobility” Ibid., 483.

“His small boats” Ibid., 436.

“for the sake of ensuring harmony” Vell Pat 2623.

According to Agrippa and Maecenas Pliny 745.

“[Octavian] heard of the situation” Dio 47 37.

“fog of war” The phrase originated in the Napoleonic Wars and referred to the clouds of smoke produced by black gunpowder. The Prussian military thinker Karl von Clausewitz used the term to refer to the difficulty of getting reliable information, even of the most basic sort, during a war.

“returned looking more like porters” App 4 112.

“Tell him I wish him” Ibid.

“gave orders” Val Max 171.

spent three days skulking Pliny 7 148.

“Some committed suicide” App 4 115–16. Perhaps a generic description.

“like women, inactive and afraid” Ibid., 4123.

“as though they were tipping over” Ibid., 4128.

“O wretched valour” Dio 47 49 2.

“Yes, that’s right, but with our hands” Plut Brut 52 3.

“a singularly gentle nature” Ibid., 29 3.

“That’s a matter for the carrion birds” Suet Aug 13 2.

Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus He is the Enobarbus of Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra.

“We two once beat a swift retreat” Hor Odes 27. Some have argued that leaving one’s shield on a battlefield was a familiar literary device. Maybe, but it must often have happened in real life. There is no reason to disbelieve the often autobiographical poet.

VIII. DIVIDED WORLD

Appian and Dio are the main sources. Plutarch’s life of Mark Antony is important, especially his famous account of Antony and Cleopatra’s meeting at Tarsus.

“People came in groups” App 512.

“From what other source” Dio 48 8.

“He learned from actual experience” Ibid.

“They came very near to killing” Ibid., 48 9.

“The civilian population” App 518.

“entirely clearing pirates” Plut Pomp 26 4.

“To most people” Plut Ant 24 4.

“circus-rider of the civil wars” Sen Suas 17.

“[She] was in a barge” Plut Ant 26 1–2.

“for the happiness of Asia” Ibid., 26 3.

“the soldier rather than the courtier” Ibid., 27 1.

“had earnestly devoted himself” Dio 48 27 2.

“And why should anyone” Ibid., 48 10 4.

surprised by a sudden sortie Suet Aug 14.

“I seek Fulvia’s clitoris” For these messages, see CIL 11 2.1 1901.

“[Octavian] took vengeance” Suet Aug 15.

“our fatherland’s Perusian graves” Prop 1223–4.

“Because Antony fucks Glaphyra” Mart 11 20.

Octavian was accused of loose living For the anecdotes that follow, see Suet Aug 68–70.

“Look how the queen’s finger beats the drum!” Ibid., 68.

“aggravated her illness deliberately” App 559.

“deeply attached to his sister” Plut Ant 31 1.

“in military and Roman fashion” Dio 48 30 1.

“Antony did not win general approval” App 565.

IX. GOLDEN AGE

Appian and Dio are the main sources, with material from Suetonius. Plutarch’s life of Antony describes the encounter at Misenum in some detail. Two of Virgil’s eclogues and passages in the Georgics cast light on the political scene.

“He was tall” Suet De Vir Ill, Life of Virgil 8–11.

“The Firstborn” Virg Ecl 47–10.

about to leave politics It is possible that the poem was written a year earlier, in 41 B.C., before Pollio’s consulship in 40 B.C.

“For my part” Macr 2421.

As soon as the crowd For this account, see App 568.

“My only ancestral home” Plut Ant 32 3.

“Shall I cut the cables” Ibid., 32 4–5.

gravis femina Sen Ep 870.

“I couldn’t bear the way” Suet Aug 62 2.

“friendship gone mad” Sen Ep 19.

the sex of her child Suet Tib 14 2, Pliny 10 75 154–5.

Livia and the baby Suet Tib 62.

“What are you doing” Dio 48 44 3.

“How fortunate” Suet Clau 11.

The Roman marriage ceremony I am indebted to Carcopino, pp. 87–88, and to Smith, p. 252, for my account of Livia’s wedding.

an eagle flew by Suet Galb 1.

White Poultry Ad Gallinas Albas was rediscovered at Prima Porta outside Rome in the nineteenth century. Extensive ruins of the villa remain, although they are not open to the public. See La villa di Livia a Prima Porta (Rome, 1984), published by Messineo with coauthor Carmelo Calci in the series Lavori e studi di archeologia, pubblicati dalla soprintendenza archeologica di Roma.

X. FIGHTING NEPTUNE

This chapter depends mainly on Appian’s militarily astute account of the Sicilian war in Book 5 of his Civil Wars, with some support from Dio and anecdotes from Suetonius.

“At daybreak, as he looked out” App 588.

According to Homer Hom Od 12 86ff.

“as broad as a wagon road” Strabo 545.

“If the worst” Plut Ant 35.

“Come and see me” Hor Ep 1415–16.

“Of small build” Ibid., 120.

“If I don’t love you” Suet De Vir Ill (Life of Horace).

a lighthearted poem The section that follows is based on Hor Sat 15.

“second Rome” Cic Phil 12 3 7.

“for ball-games” Hor Sat 1549.

“Here, like an utter fool” Ibid., 1582–85.

“I will win this war” Suet Aug 16 2.

“He took a beating” Ibid., 70 2.

“to steal over” App 5 109.

believing he was about to be captured Pliny 7147–49.

“terribly distressed” Dio 49 5 4.

“On the eve of the battle” Suet Aug 16 2.

“bringing with him” Vell Pat 2803.

“was hit on the breastplate” App 5 125.

“You will when you’re dead” Ibid.

142…Antony’s approval Ibid., 5144.

XI. PARTHIAN SHOTS

Appian and Dio are complemented by Plutarch, who in his life of Mark Antony covers the Parthian expedition in detail.

tribunicia sacrosanctitas There is confusion in the sources. Appian wrongly says Octavian became tribune for life, whereas Dio asserts simply sacrosanctitas. Dio gives two separate dates when Octavian was given full tribunician power or potestas, 30 and 23; he may not have accepted the offer on the first occasion, or perhaps only certain powers. He first used potestas in 23.

“jealous of [Ventidius]” Dio 49 21 1.

nobody saw anything especially scandalous When Plut Ant 36 2 speaks of “deep resentment among the Romans,” this almost certainly reflects later propaganda about Cleopatra’s evil influence over Antony.

expelled a man from the Senate Plut Cat 17 7.

“When your organ is stiff” Hor Sat 1 2 116ff.

Horace had his bedroom: Suet De Vir Ill (Life of Horace).

“every woman’s man” Suet Caes 52 3.

he prepared for suicide Florus 22010.

“greeted him” Plut Ant 43 1.

“truly noble devotion” Ibid., 54 2.

XII. EAST IS EAST AND WEST IS WEST

Dio’s and Appian’s histories of the Illyrian wars cover Augustus’ campaigning. Dio’s and Plutarch’s lives of Mark Antony describe the Donations of Alexandria. Strabo provides topographical information.

“considered to be the bravest” Dio 49 36 3.

one leg and both arms Suet Aug 20.

“beauty of person” Florus 223; Florus (c. A.D. 70 to c. A.D. 140) wrote a history of Rome based on Livy.

Armenia was turned into a Roman province Within a couple of years the political situation went into reverse, and both Armenia and Media returned to the Parthian fold.

“He had no complaint” Dio 49 36 1.

Antony issued a coin See Grant, Cleo, p. 169.

“give judgement on the Capitol” Dio 5054.

“And the Alexandrians thronged” C. P. Cavafy, “Alexandrian Kings.” In Edmund Keeley and Philip Sherrard, trans., Collected Poems (London: The Hogarth Press, 1975).

XIII. THE PHONY WAR

For the city of Rome, see Stambaugh, Dupont, and Connolly & Dodge. Dio, and Plutarch’s life of Mark Antony, with support from Suetonius, are the main narrative sources.

Near it stood a hut The bases together with post holes of three huts were recorded during excavations of this part of the Palatine in 1907. They can be dated to the eighth century B.C., about the time of the legendary foundation of the city.

Agrippa took up the post of aedile For his activities, see Dio 49 42.

“failed to conduct himself” Suet Aug 17 1.

The Triumvirate’s second term There is some dispute about the timing of triumviral terms. Appian says that the Triumvirate was due to expire at the end of 32 B.C. However, some argue that that would imply an unevidenced break at the end of 37 B.C. for one year. Augustus claims in Res Gestaean unbroken ten years as triumvir. On balance, the end of 33 B.C. seems the most likely date.

“a madman” Suet Aug 86 3.

“What’s come over you?” Ibid., 69 2. I follow Michael Grant’s opinion that “uxor mea est” is the question “Is she my wife?,” not the statement “She is my wife.” See Grant Cleo, pp. 185–86. Some scholars believe that in 37 or perhaps 33 Antony agreed to become Cleopatra’s prince consort. As I write (pp. 156–57), this is unlikely.

“Your soldiers have no claim” Plut Ant 55 2.

“Domitius and Sosius” Dio 49 41 4.

“himself with a bodyguard” Ibid., 50 5–6.

“As they did not dare” Ibid., 50 2 5–6.

XIV. SHOWDOWN

Dio’s and Plutarch’s lives of Antony are the main sources. Carter gives the authoritative modern account of Actium.

the path to success Jos Ant 15 [6, 6] 191.

a kind of personal plebiscite The chronology is uncertain. I follow Syme RR, pp. 284ff.

“The whole of Italy” Res Gest 25.

lodged his will with the Vestal Virgins Some argue (for example, Grant Cleo, p. 193) that Antony would not be so stupid as to do this and that the document was a forgery. I disagree. Was Julius Caesar being stupid when he did the same thing before his planned departure for the east? There was a general assumption that people would play by the rules and avoid sacrilege.

Octavian read through the document in private If the will was forged, or at least those parts of it that Octavian made public, why are there no reports of a rebuttal by Antony or his supporters?

“extraordinary and intolerable” Plut Ant 58 4.

the promontory of Actium My treatment of the battle of Actium, which follows, is indebted to John M. Carter’s The Battle of Actium, an authoritative account. The ancient writers often describe accurately enough what took place, but without understanding why, and leaving out important incidents that have to be inferred. Nevertheless the broad outline of the battle is clear enough.

“My services to Antony” Vell Pat 2864.

“What is so terrible” Plut Ant 62 3.

“press-ganging travellers” Ibid., 62 1.

“Antony, although he was deeply grieved” Ibid., 63 2–3.

“The fighting took on” Ibid., 66 2.

XV. A LONG FAREWELL

Plutarch’s life of Antony is the main source for Antony’s and Cleopatra’s last days, supported by Dio. Peter Green’s From Alexander to Actium gives background on Hellenistic culture and Ptolemaic Egypt.

“all the solitude he could desire” Plut Ant 69 1.

“A young man” Vell Pat 2881.

“actually kill” Dio 51 6.

his seal ring This ring was later replaced by one with the head of Alexander the Great. His last seal ring showed Augustus’ head and was used by his successors.

his fifty-fourth year Three years have been proposed for the date of Antony’s birth: 86, 83, and 81. I assume 83, the most popular date among modern scholars.

“Cleopatra and Antony now dissolved” Plut Ant 71 3.

“There are many different ways” Ibid., 75 1.

“about the hour of midnight” Ibid., 75 3–4.

“clinging with both hands” Ibid., 77 3.

“greatest emporium” Strabo 17 1 13.

“No Latin ruler” Ernle Bradford, Cleopatra (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1971), p. 49.

“she had abandoned” Plut Ant 83 1.

“by no means insensible” Ibid., 84 1.

“So here it is”: Ibid., 86 1.

“lying dead upon a golden couch” Ibid., 85 3–4.

“no one knows clearly” Dio 51 14 1. For a helpful discussion of asp bites, see Sunday Times of London article, “Cleopatra and the Asp” by Richard Girling. November 28, 2004. www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2099-1362193,00.htm.

It is possible For this theory, see W. R. Johnson, Arion (Boston: Boston University Press, 1967), p. 393 n. 16.

he was no looter Suet Aug 71 1.

“Would you now like” Ibid., 18 2.

Julius Caesar was accused Green, p. 667 n. 151.

“indiscreet talk when drunk” Ovid Trist 2446.

“I am the only man in Rome” Suet Aug 66 2.

having sexual intercourse Pliny 7 184.

a bridge over the stream See L. A. Holland, Janus and the Bridge, Papers and Monographs, American Academy in Rome. 21, 1961.

XVI. ABDICATION

The quality of the ancient literary sources now declines sharply, and many episodes are only known about in general and partial terms. Sometimes years pass without explicit incident. This chapter draws on Suetonius, Velleius Paterculus, and (above all) Dio Cassius. The archaeological record is of considerable but occasional assistance. The description of the Palatine is indebted to the official guidebook, The Palatine (Milan: Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma, pub. Electa, 1998).

“Wars, both civil and foreign” Res Gest 13.

“Plotting destruction to” Hor Odes 1376–12.

“High up on the poop” Virgil Aen 8 678–81.

“Atia’s [his mother’s] emphatic declaration” Dio 45 1 2–5; also the source for other episodes in this section.

“Romans, you shall have an end” Plut Cic 44 3.

“cheerful in mind and disposition” Vell Pat 2932.

minimum ages of officeholders See Syme RR, p. 369.

physical incompatibility Pliny 757.

“more a rustic at heart” Ibid., 35 26.

a collector on a grand scale Ibid., 35 26 and 34 62.

“outdo a woman” Vell Pat 2882.

heated swimming pool Dio 5576.

“Goodbye, my ebony of Medullia” Macr 24.

“was…well-disciplined” Vell Pat 2791.

is said to have worn a sword Suet Aug 35 1–2.

“I lay down my office” Dio 53 4 3–4.

presumably with proconsular authority There has been much scholarly debate about the nature of Octavian’s powers. Some say that they were proconsular (cf. Pompey’s governorship of Spain in the fifties B.C.), others that his imperium as consul was sufficient. The difficulty with the latter explanation is that a consul’s imperium lasted only one year. Even though Octavian had developed the habit of assuming the consulship annually, that could not guarantee authority over his provincia for a decade.

“in recognition of my valour” Res Gest 34.

“When I had put an end” Ibid.

“After this time” Ibid.

XVII. WHOM THE GODS LOVE

Dio is the main narrative source, with contributions from Suetonius and Virgil.

Whom the Gods Love [die young] Men Double, Fragment 4.

The princeps was superstitious Suet Aug 92 1.

On a night march Ibid., 29 3.

“from the fatigue and anxiety” Dio 53 25 7.

Livia accompanied her husband Tac Ann 334. Livia’s grandson Drusus made this claim in A.D. 21.

Livia was an able businesswoman For Livia’s business interests, see Barrett, chapter 9.

Marcus Primus, the governor of Macedonia Dio dates this episode and the Caepio plot to 22 B.C.; but Augustus’ presence is required and in that year he was abroad. Also by that time he had imperium maius and was entitled to interfere where he wished.

“The loftiest pines” Hor Odes 2104–8, 21–22. It is possible that the poem was written after Murena’s fall, but presented as prophetic.

The praetor, or presiding judge Dio 54 3 3.

“since he was notoriously rough-tongued” Ibid., 34.

abscesses on the liver Suet Aug 81 1.

“severe pain in the right part” Celsus 415.

“all cold things” Ibid.

It has been suggested See John Buchan, Augustus (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1937), p. 161.

a general and overriding proconsular authority There is a dispute whether this was maius imperium proconsulare, “greater proconsular authority,” allowing him to override or give orders to governors of the senatorial provinces, or aequum imperium proconsulare, “equal proconsular authority,” which would allow him to raise matters with governors but not to command them. The former is perhaps more probable (because of the discovery of five edicts from Cyrene that show Augustus intervening directly in provincial business: Ehrenberg and Jones Documents n 311, translated in Lewis and Rheinhold, Roman Civilization 236ff); if the latter, Augustus would have had to get his way by deploying his prestige, or auctoritas.

“secret coup d’état” Syme RR, p. 345.

“had felt that Augustus” Suet Aug 66 3.

Marcellus was not well disposed Dio 53 32 1.

“scandalous sending away of Agrippa” Pliny 7149.

“Fate shall allow the earth” Virg Aen 6 869–70, 882–86.

“sweet and strangely seductive” Suet Virg 32.

It was whispered that Livia Dio 53 33 4.

“You have made him” Ibid., 54 6 5.

“stepmother to ships” Aesch Prom 727.

poison had been sprinkled Tac Ann 110.

Nonius Asprenas Suet Aug 56 3.

XVIII. EXERCISING POWER

Dio is the main source, with Suetonius (his life of Augustus now being supplemented by that of Tiberius).

He was strongly and heavily built This description of Tiberius’ appearance and personality is drawn from Suet Tib 68. Contemporary statues and busts of him have also been used.

abstruse and unanswerable questions Suet Tib 70 3.

“I compelled the Parthians” Res Gest 29.

“better qualified to be a gladiator” Vell Pat 2913.

an ingenious scheme Dio 54 13.

“I don’t understand that!” Suet Aug 54.

In his official memoir For these expenses see Res Gest 16.

XIX. THE CULT OF VIRTUE

Dio provides the basic information. Virgil and Horace embody the Augustan regime’s aspirations in verse.

“Of late years” Livy.

“praised Pompey so warmly” Tac Ann 434.

“fashionable designations” Ibid.

“the righteous are set apart” Virg Aen 8 670.

“Turn not your country’s hand” Ibid., 6833.

“to seek to keep the constitution” Macr 2418.

“rule an Italy” Virg Aen 4 228–30.

“And here, here” Ibid., 6 791–94.

“large inconvenience of wealth” Hor Odes 3148.

“Family pride” Ibid., 32419–22.

“If we could get on without a wife” Aul Gell 16.

According to Suetonius Suet Aug 71 1.

“guide and command” Dio 54 16 4.

“Let us turn our minds” Ibid., 16 6.

the general population was rising Suet Aug 29 1, 46 1.

“preserve a significant distinction” Dio 56 33 3.

In later years The lex Fufia Caninia was passed in 2 B.C. and the lex Aelia Sentia in A.D. 4.

“You shall pay” Hor Odes 361–5.

“After a sacrifice was completed” Old CAH, p. 477.

“Goddess [Diana], make strong our youth” Hor Cent 17–20.

“Now Faith and Peace” Ibid., 57–60.

XX. LIFE AT COURT

Most of the material in this chapter derives from anecdotes in Suetonius (with additional material about Livia from Barrett, and general information on daily life in ancient Rome from Carcopino, Dupont, and Smith). Suetonius seems usually reliable or at least plausible, for he had access to the imperial archives and quoted from documents, as well as to contemporary (but now lost) memoirs. Many of the anecdotes are undated and doubtless refer to different times in Augustus’ reign.

“remarkable neither for size” Suet Aug 72 1.

“Whenever he wanted” Ibid., 72 2.

“would hardly be considered fit” Ibid., 73 1.

“Anyone would think” Ibid., 53 3.

a court developed This section is indebted to Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, “The Imperial Court,” CAH, pp. 283–308.

they may have been loosely arranged This judgment is based on the departments known to have been established by later emperors.

“stink of far-fetched phrases” Suet Aug 86 1.

Letters of his seen by Suetonius Ibid., 87 1.

“What in the world has become of Ajax?” Ibid., 86 5.

the last letter “X” was the last letter for Latin words. “Y” was employed for foreign words; “Z” appeared in the earliest Roman alphabet, but ceased to be written. From the first century B.C. it returned into use when transliterating the letter ? in a Greek word.

“I take it, of course” Ibid., 33 1.

When appearing in public Ibid., 53 1–2.

“I had some bread” Ibid., 76 1.

“On the way back” Ibid., 76 2.

“He who has been engaged” Celsus 125–7.

“Don’t suppose you’ll ever catch her” Ovid Pont 31142.

a certain standard See Barrett, pp. 105–6. Livia’s personal servants are recorded late in her life, but there is little reason to suppose that her household was much different at an earlier date.

“simplex munditiis” Hor Odes 155.

the wine she habitually drank Pliny 14 60.

recipes for various ailments Barrett, pp. 110–12.

“noble and undaunted spirit” Plut T & C Grac 19 1.

“Among their number” Sall Bell Cat 23 3.

a feminine bully Tac Ann 14.

“to enjoy the fun” Suet Aug 45 1.

“modest enough” Ibid., 72 3.

the unappetizing Publius Vedius Pollio Dio 54 23.

“though refulgent with portraits” Ovid Trist 2 521–24.

dragging a former consul’s wife For this paragraph, see Suet Aug 69 1–2, 71 1.

“still to have harboured a passion” Ibid., 71 1.

when Cato vowed Plut Cat Min 56 4.

advisory inscription The inscription is at the “House of the Moralist.”

XXI. GROWING THE EMPIRE

Dio and Suetonius are the main sources, albeit somewhat thin.

“the existing number” Dio 54 9 1.

“I enlarged the territory” Res Gest 26.

“whose empire” Virg Aen 186–89.

“guard our young swarm” Hor Odes 13529–32.

This three-part plan of action This strategic analysis is indebted to J.F.C. Fuller’s classic study, The Decisive Battles of the Western World. See vol. 1 of the abridged edition (1970), pp. 167ff. For a more ad hoc–ist interpretation, see Erich S. Gruen, “The Expansion of the Empire Under Augustus,” CAH, pp. 147–97.

“Your brother Drusus” Suet Aug 71 3.

“My state of health” Suet Tib 21 6.

a plot against the princeps This is one of those tiresome incidents that bedevil the literary sources for the second part of Augustus’ life. It is reported twice, in Sen Clem 19 and in Dio 55 14–22 (where Livia delivers a long curtain-lecture). Cinna’s first names are given differently; Seneca probably dates the episode to 16–13 B.C. and Dio to A.D. 4. The whole affair sounds as if it could simply be a rhetorical exercise mistaken for a historical event. The truth? We shall never know.

The length of a legionary’s service Decided in 13 B.C. on Augustus’ return to Rome.

“state of tranquillity” Strabo 469.

unendurable pain from gout Pliny 23 27.

he strongly disapproved of Julia Suet Tib 72–3.

A sharp-eyed great-grandson This was Gaius, nicknamed Caligula, Drusus’ youngest son, and later emperor (A.D. 37–41).

A great altar to Augustus Strabo 432.

he used to chase German chieftains Suet Clau 14.

Drusus had a riding accident Livy Per 142.

Tiberius heard the news Val Max 553 and Pliny 784.

“old Republican constitution” Suet Clau 14.

“In point of fact” Ibid., 15.

some truth in the claim See Levick, pp. 32–35.

“Cripple my hand” Sen Ep 101 10ff.

“The same day” Hor Odes 2178–12.

“my purest of pricks” All the anecdotes in this section about Augustus and Horace come from the life of Horace in Suet De Vir Ill.

XXII. A FAMILY AT WAR

The often mysterious events of these years are inadequately covered by Dio, some of whose text is missing; Suetonius (in the lives of both Augustus and Tiberius) makes a contribution. Tacitus offers a few barbed insights.

Their adoptive father devoted time and energy Suet Aug 64 3.

“They not only lived” Dio 55 9 1–2.

“provided they deserve” Suet Aug 56 2.

imperium maius This is not explicitly stated in the sources; I follow Levick, pp. 35–36 and endnote 24, p. 237.

a warning to the unruly Gaius and Lucius Dio 55 9 4.

“he was weary” Suet Tib 10 2.

“he greeted and chatted” Ibid., 11 1.

Many governors had friendly connections See Levick, pp. 42–44.

“his retirement was more worthy” Vell Pat 2994.

The eldest, Germanicus For this account of Germanicus, see Suet Gaius 31–1.

“a monster, not finished” Suet Clau 32.

“He’s as big a fool” Ibid.

“I have always chosen” Plut Brut 53 3.

“Caesar Augustus, the Senate agrees” Suet Aug 58 2.

“Fathers of the Senate” Ibid.

a naval battle Dio 55 10 7–8 and Res Gest 423.

Once when his father See Green, Erot, p. 19.

“All we need is your consent” Ovid Am 2265–66.

“not to say or do anything” Suet Aug 64 2.

“You have acted presumptuously” Ibid.

“This dress” Macr 255. Macrobius is a late source, but there is no reason to distrust his stories about Julia.

“Passengers are never allowed” Ibid., 259.

“I should have preferred” Suet Aug 65 2.

“should anything happen to her” Ibid., 101 3.

“solemn names” Tac Ann 324.

“unique depravity disguised” Vell Pat 2 100 5.

“This shrewd” Tac Ann 153.

an emblem of liberty Serv Ad Aen 320.

It may be no coincidence Dio 55 9 10, and 10 1.

“his daughter’s adultery” Pliny 7149.

Livia also seems See Barrett, p. 51.

“Fire will sooner” Dio 55 13 1.

“If you ever” Suet Aug 65 3.

XXIII. THE UNHAPPPY RETURN

Information on important events is scanty. Dio’s and Suetonius’ lives of Augustus and Tiberius are the main sources. The poet Ovid casts enigmatic light on the exile of the younger Julia and his own banishment.

He received a letter from his stepson For this paragraph and the next, see Suet Tib 11 and 12.

“companion and guide” Ibid., 12 2.

“fired by the fame of Arabia” Pliny 12 31.

“Dis aliter visum” Virgil Aen 258.

“Greetings, my Gaius” Aul Gell 1573.

Lollius had been taking bribes Vell Pat 2 102 1, Pliny 958.

“fetch back the exile’s head” Suet Tib 13 1.

While laying siege Florus 23244–45.

“defects” Vell Pat 2 102 3.

“through old age and sickness” Dio 55 13 1a.

“atrox fortuna” Suet Tib 23.

“secret diplomacy” Tac Ann 13.

“for reasons of state” Suet Tib 21 3.

“animal-like confidence” Tac Ann 13.

“because he was afraid” Dio 55 27 5.

“because [his] conduct” Suet Aug 65 4.

accused of plotting Ibid., 19 1, and Scholiast on Juvenal 6 158; see Green, Erot, p. 57.

“Ah, never to have married” Hom Il 340. Hector is speaking to Paris.

“my three boils” Suet Aug 65 4.

Augustus exiled Ovid See Green, Erot, pp. 44–58, for an excellent and full account, which I follow.

“Why did I see what I saw?” Ovid Trist 2103–6.

In Rome there was a severe famine For this section about discontent at Rome, see Dio 55 27.

“I never sought to procure” Ovid Trist 3545–48.

XXIV. THE BITTER END

For the last part of Augustus’ life, we depend on Dio (despite lacunae), on the overenthusiastic Velleius, and on Suetonius’ lives of Augustus and Tiberius. The site of the main ambush of Varus’ legions has been discovered at Kalkriese in Germany (see The Quest for the Lost Roman Legions: Discovering the Varus Battlefield, by Tony Clunn [New York and Spellmount, Staplehurst, UK: Savas Beatie, 2005]).

“The Pannonians possessed” Vell Pat 2 110 5.

“Your summer campaigns” Suet Tib 21 5.

his Romanized name of Arminius It was wrongly thought by Martin Luther and others that the German for “Arminius” is Hermann. It may have been Armin.

location for the ambush The site was identified in the 1990s near the modern German town of Bramsche between the Ems and Weser rivers.

“dreaded but unavoidable act” Dio 56 21 5.

“Quinctilius Varus, give me back my legions!” Suet Aug 23 2.

A record survives Pliny 748.

“blackened the characters” Tac Ann 172.

“republicanist” Sen Contr 10 Praef 4–8.

“You must not” Suet Aug 51 3.

stay within the empire’s current boundaries Tacitus (Ann 111) places this advice in the breviarium.

In the late spring Augustus’ remorse over Agrippa Postumus is told with varying levels of detail by Pliny 7150, Plutarch in his essay on talkativeness (although referring to a Fulvius rather than a Fabius), Dio 56 30, and Tac Ann 15.

“There [on Planasia]” Tac Ann 15.

Augustus’ last days Suet Aug 97–100.

During the ritual Suetonius says only “the nearby temple”; the main temple built and dedicated by Agrippa was the Pantheon, to which the historian was very probably referring.

“Augustus’ illness” Tac Ann 15.

“Livia was afraid” Dio 56 30 2.

According to Dio Ibid., 56 30 5.

But Suetonius claims Suet Aug 98 5.

commander of the island guard According to Suetonius (Tib 22 1), Tiberius did not announce Augustus’ death until he received the news of Postumus’ execution. This seems unlikely, for it would have entailed four or five days’ silence. It would also be unnecessary, for no uprising could have been organized in such a short space of time.

“repository of imperial secrets” Tac Ann 330.

“palace secrets” Ibid., 16.

recovery came too late When rulers or heads of state die in office, raison d’état has been known to stimulate ruthless 'margin-top:12.75pt;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom: 12.0pt;margin-left:29.0pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-14.4pt;line-height: normal'>“Some doubt remains” Suet Tib 22.

Augustus’ signet ring These were routine actions when a Roman died: see Smith, see under funus.

“Since fate has cruelly carried off” Suet Tib 23.

he adopted his wife For a full discussion of Livia’s adoption, see Barrett, Chapter 8 passim.

“she took a share” Dio 56 47 1.

The funeral of a leading Roman For this description of Augustus’ funeral I have added generic data about Roman funerals from Smith, funus, to the accounts of Dio and Suetonius.

INTO THE FUTURE

“let her waste away” Tac Ann 153.

“pilgrimage to far lands” Ibid., 324.

“On the open ground” Ibid., 161.

“no Charlemagne” Fuller, p. 181.

“Intelligent people praised” Tac Ann 19.

“filial duty” Ibid., 110.

“I am surprised” Plut Apo reg et imp 207D.

“faultily faultless” Tennyson, Alfred Lord Maul 2 6.

“May I achieve” Suet Aug 28 2.

SOURCES

ANCIENT SOURCES

The ancient literary sources for the life and times of Augustus are numerous, but all in their different ways flawed or limited. In general, much more information about the civil wars up to the deaths of Mark Antony and Cleopatra has survived. As noted in the preface, many important histories and memoirs have been lost.

Appian, a Greek from Alexandria who flourished about A.D. 160, wrote a detailed and usually dependable account of the civil wars, but he breaks off with the death of Sextus Pompeius. Cassius Dio, a leading politician who lived between about A.D. 150 and 235, was the author of a history of Rome in eighty books; only twenty-six survive, but fortunately these cover the period from 68 B.C. to A.D. 54, barring some lacunae. He is a diligent and careful writer, but anachronistically applies the political system of his day to the Augustan age.

Tacitus (c. A.D. 55–c. A.D. 117) was one of the greatest Roman historians, but his masterpiece, the Annals, discusses the reign of Augustus only summarily, for he is primarily concerned with the period from the accession of Tiberius to the death of Nero. His objectivity was affected by a strong animus against the imperial system.

Velleius Paterculus (c. 19 B.C.–after A.D. 31) served under Tiberius, whom he uncritically admired. His brief history of Rome is of uneven quality, but contains some valuable character sketches.

Toward the end of his life Augustus prepared an official record of his career, the Res Gestae. He tells no lies, but sometimes fails to tell the truth.

Plutarch, a Greek who lived between c. A.D. 46 and c. A.D. 120, wrote a series of Parallel Lives in which he recounts the life stories of eminent Greek politicians or generals and compares them with those of leading Romans, with whom he finds points of resemblance. He aims to bring out the moral character of his subjects rather than to narrate political events, and does so largely through anecdotes. His biographies of Brutus and Mark Antony are fine pieces of work, and throw much light on the period. However, he probably passes on propaganda against Antony without due skepticism, and sees Antony and Cleopatra’s relationship in overly romantic terms.

Suetonius, who lived from c. A.D. 70 to c. 160, was one of Trajan’s and Hadrian’s secretaries, and had access to the imperial archives. His lives of the Caesars run from Julius Caesar to Domitian. His biographies of Augustus and Tiberius are of particular importance. His work is anecdotal and thematic, rather than narrative, but, while reflecting the interests and attitudes of his time, contains valuable information.

Cicero’s letters and his great series of speeches against Mark Antony, the Philippics, are useful (if handled with caution) for the period up to his death in 43 B.C.

Nicolaus was a Greek historian who flourished at the end of the first century B.C.; a courtier of Herod the Great, he met Augustus and won his friendship. His fragmentary life of Augustus gives a detailed account of the conspiracy against Julius Caesar and his assassination, and includes plausible stories about Augustus’ childhood (perhaps told him by his subject).

Strabo, who lived from c. 64 B.C. to A.D. 19, was a near contemporary of Augustus. He came from Pontus and traveled widely. He wrote a geographical study of the known world which contains useful economic information as well as descriptions of places.

Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23 or 24–A.D. 79) was an industrious writer, whose Natural History was an attempt to sum up all human knowledge. It contains much fascinating (sometimes nonsensical and bizarre) information about the arts, sciences, and beliefs of the day (including material about Augustus and his contemporaries).

Relevant and usually plausible anecdotes can be found in Attic Nights by the Latin author Aulus Gellius (probably born early in the second century A.D.); in Saturnalia, a fictional dialogue in which a wide range of different subjects are discussed, by Macrobius, a Roman philosopher who flourished about A.D. 400; and in Memorable Facts and Sayings by Valerius Maximus, who lived about the time of Tiberius.

Poets such as Virgil and Horace commented on political issues and events in their work and celebrated the Augustan regime. Ovid fell foul of the authorities in a major political and sexual scandal that implicated Augustus’ granddaughter, and much of his later poetry took the form of appeals against his banishment.

The literary sources are complemented by an abundance of inscriptions, including Fasti (chronological lists of consuls and triumphatores) and Calendars, which cataloged festivals and other events by the days of the year. Octavian, Antony, and other leading personalities minted coins whose imagery conveyed important political messages. Octavian and Agrippa used architecture as a means of managing public opinion and asserting their political vision.

Translations of Appian’s The Civil Wars, Dio Cassius’ The Reign of Augustus, Horace’s Odes, Epistles, Epodes, and Satires, Livy’s History of Rome, Ovid’s Erotic Poems (Amores and Ars Amatoria), Poems of Exile (Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto), Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, selected lives by Plutarch, Suetonius’ Lives of the Caesars, Tacitus’ Annals, and Virgil’s Eclogues, Georgics, and Aeneid, have been published by Penguin Books, and editions of all the authors listed above, except for Macrobius and Nicolaus, are available in the original languages with facing-page English translations by the Loeb Classical Library of Harvard University Press. English translations of some texts can be found on the Lacus Curtius website (see below). Macrobius’ Saturnalia has been translated by D. P. Vaughan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), and Nicolaus’Life of Augustus by Jane Bellemore (Bristol, Eng.: Bristol Classical Press, 1984).