CHAPTER ONE
There have been kings in England for more than 2,000 years, and yet this realm has been a monarchy for little more than half that time. Up until the Dark Ages, kingship was basically tribal, invested in chieftains of Celtic or Romano-British stock. Then, in the middle of the 5th century, England began to feel the impact of the Barbarian invasions that were changing the face of Europe. Angles, Saxons and Jutes came to these shores, settled, and then colonised the land. There then evolved 7 kingdoms, known to historians as the Heptarchy. The earliest kingdom was established in Kent by Hengist, son of a Germanic chieftain, in around A.D. 455. The other kingdoms were Essex (the East Saxons), Sussex (the South Saxons), East Anglia (the East Angles), Lindsey, Bernicia, Deira, Mercia and Wessex (the West Saxons). Lindsey was centred around Lincoln; the names of its kings are not known to us, and it was very soon swallowed up by neighbouring kingdoms. Bernicia and Deira combined later on to form the kingdom of Northumbria, the first of the biggest three kingdoms to establish supremacy over the rest.
Christianity came to Kent in the late 6th century, and soon spread to the rest of the Heptarchy, although there were pagan influences still prevalent until the late middle ages. Not so welcome were the raids of the Vikings from Scandinavia, which were the scourge of England (and other countries also) from the 8th to the 11th centuries, and which attained their ultimate achievement in the Norman Conquest of 1066.
Northumbria was the first kingdom to achieve supremacy, and during the 7th century it was a centre for the arts and religion. Unfortunately, the light of learning was extinguished during the following century because of the Viking raids. At that time, Mercia was in the ascendant. This kingdom comprised the Midlands and some of the southern counties. At its peak of supremacy, Mercia was governed by King Offa (d.796), who established firm government and overseas alliances. However, after his death, the kingdom declined because of ineffective leadership, leaving Wessex in the ascendant.
The kingdom of Wessex had been founded in A.D. 519 by a chieftain called Cerdic, who came to Britain from Germany in 494/5. His descendants, proud to bear his name, called themselves ‘Cerdingas’. H.M. Queen Elizabeth II is a direct descendant of Cerdic. Later Saxon chroniclers would boastfully trace Cerdic’s descent from Adam and Eve, via a mythical son born to Noah in the Ark, but of course this is pure fiction, for Cerdic’s ancestors were in fact obscure tribal chieftains and elders.
Anglo-Saxon kingship was a blend of the mystical and the practical. The function of the king was to protect his people, by making war if necessary, and by giving them laws to obey. He was also sanctified by holy rites, which evolved into the coronation as we know it, the modern form of which dates from the crowning of King Edgar in 973. Anglo-Saxon kings of the House of Wessex had from time immemorial been crowned upon the ancient coronation stone at Kingston-upon-Thames, in a simple ritual which was not as complicated as the European ceremony adapted for Edgar by Archbishop Dunstan. Hence, the king, set apart by his anointing and crowning, and thereby invested with priestly attributes, was a champion of the Christian Church, who was deemed to hold his office from God.
The king was also expected to father sons for posterity, to ensure the succession and the stability of the kingdom. His wife was rarely accorded the title of ‘Queen’ in Wessex, but was usually styled ‘Lady’. Succession was by primogeniture, supporting the right of the eldest son, although on several occasions the right of conquest prevailed over this.
As late as the 11th century, the Danes were still attempting to invade and conquer a by then united England, and they were ultimately successful, which is why our line of Anglo-Saxon monarchs is broken by four Danish interlopers. As a result of this, the succession in the 11th century was an ongoing problem, which was not finally resolved until 1066. In 1100, when Henry I married a princess of Saxon descent, the old and the new royal houses at last joined in blood.
This handbook is about the monarchy, and it begins with the first ruler who properly may be accorded the title of monarch, Egbert of Wessex. Egbert was acknowledged in his time as an outstanding sovereign, who, by the end of his reign, was recognised by other, lesser, kings as overlord of most of England. For this reason, we must begin with Egbert. Unfortunately, his supremacy did not long survive his death, and the authority of his immediate descendants, the great Alfred included, was more or less confined to Wessex. It was not until more than a century after Egbert’s death that the monarchy was properly established in England under King Athelstan.
King Egbert
FATHER: Ealhmund, King of Kent.
He was the son of Eafa of Wessex by a Kentish princess, whose identity is unknown. Ealhmund is known to have been reigning in Kent in 784 or 786. He died in 786 (?).
MOTHER: Unknown.
SIBLINGS: St Alburga.
She was either the daughter of Ealhmund by his unknown wife, or the daughter of that wife by another husband. She is called the half-sister of Egbert.
Alburga married Wulfstan, who was perhaps Ealdorman of Wiltshire. Upon her widowhood, she entered her husband’s religious foundation at Wilton, which she is said to have converted into a nunnery. She died and was buried there in c.800 or c.810. Egbert did not have any brothers.
EGBERT
He was born around 769/80. He became ‘Subregulus’ of Kent in 790/96, and succeeded Beorhtric as King of Wessex in 802. There is no record of his coronation. From 825 onwards, he had established his supremacy over all other rulers in England, and was effective overlord of all the south-eastern kingdoms. In 829, he succeeded Wiglaf as King of Mercia, although he was expelled the following year.
Egbert married (although no record exists of the date or the place):
Redburga
She is said to have been the sister of the King of the Franks (who, at that time, was Charlemagne), but her identity is uncertain, and hardly anything is known about her.
Issue of marriage:
1 King Ethelwulf ( 
see here).
2 Athelstan
He became ‘Subregulus’ of Kent, Essex, Sussex and Surrey in 839, and also reigned as King of East Anglia. He died in c.851.
Athelstan married a lady about whom no information exists, and had issue:
(i) Ethelweard
He was ‘Subregulus’ of Kent. He died, probably unmarried, in 850.
3 Edith
She became a nun at Polesworth Abbey, Co. Warwick, where she later became Abbess. She died and was buried there, but the year is not recorded.
EGBERT
He died on 4 February (or after c.June), 839, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral. His bones are now in one of the mortuary chests there.
He was succeeded by his son Ethelwulf.
King Ethelwulf
FATHER: Egbert, King of Wessex ( see here).
MOTHER: Redburga ( see here).
SIBLINGS: ( see here).
ETHELWULF
He was born around 795/810. He became ‘Subregulus’ of Kent, Essex, Sussex and Surrey in 825 or 828, and succeeded his father as King of Wessex on 4 February, 839. He was crowned, probably that same year, at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey. In 855/6, he resigned Wessex to his son Ethelbald, and confined his own authority to Kent, Sussex and Essex as ‘Subregulus’.
Ethelwulf married firstly, in c.830 (although no record exists as to where):
Osburga
She was the daughter of Oslac of Hampshire or the Isle of Wight. She died in 846 or 852/5. (Osburga has sometimes been confused by historians with St Osburga, foundress of Coventry Abbey, who died c.1018).
Issue of marriage:
1 Athelstan (?)
Although some sources cite Athelstan as Ethelwulf’s eldest son, he has almost certainly been confused with Athelstan, son of King Egbert, as the details of his life are identical. It is therefore improbable that Ethelwulf actually had a son called Athelstan.
2 King Ethelbald ( see here).
3 King Ethelbert ( see here).
4 King Ethelbert I ( see here).
5 King Alfred ( see here).
6 Ethelswitha
She married, after 2 April, 853 (or 854/5), Burgred, King of Mercia (d.874) at the Palace of Chippenham, Wiltshire. Shortly after her widowhood in 874, she became a nun. She went on a pilgrimage to Rome in 888/9, but died in Paris on the way there. She was buried at either Pavia or Ticino in Italy.
Ethelwulf married secondly, on 1 or 15 October, 856, at Verberie sur Oise, France:
Judith
She was the daughter of Charles II, King of the Franks, by Ermentrude, daughter of Odo, Count of Orléans. She was born in c.843/4, and was crowned Queen of Wessex on her wedding day.
In 860, she married secondly her stepson, King Ethelbald ( see here), at Chester, but the marriage was annulled that same year on grounds of consanguinity. She had no issue from either of these marriages.
In c.863, she married thirdly Baldwin I, Count of Flanders (d.c.879), at Auxerre, France, and had issue:
1 Charles (died young).
2 Baldwin II, Count of Flanders (d.918), who married Elfrida of Wessex ( see here, under King Alfred), and had issue. One of their descendants was Matilda, wife of William I.
3 Rudolf, Count and Abbot of Cambrai.
4 Gunhilda, who married Wilfred I, Count of Barcelona (d.897).
Judith died in c.870.
ETHELWULF
He died on 13 January (or late in the year), 858, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral.
He was succeeded by his son Ethelbald.
King Ethelbald
FATHER: Ethelwulf, King of Wessex ( see here).
MOTHER: Osburga ( see here, under King Ethelwulf).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under King Ethelwulf).
ETHELBALD
He was born in c.834. He succeeded his father as King of Wessex on 13 January (or late in the year), 858, and was crowned soon afterwards at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey.
Ethelbald married, in 860 (although no record exists as to where):
Judith
She was his father’s widow, and the marriage was frowned upon. It was annulled that same year. There was no issue from it. (Judith’s details are given under King Ethelwulf, see here).
ETHELBALD
He died on 20 December, 860, and was buried in Sherborne Abbey, Dorset.
He was succeeded by his brother Ethelbert.
King Ethelbert
FATHER: Ethelwulf, King of Wessex ( see here).
MOTHER: Osburga ( see here, under King Ethelwulf).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under King Ethelwulf).
ETHELBERT
He was born in c.836. He became ‘Subregulus’ of Kent in 853 or 855, and succeeded his brother Ethelbald as King of Wessex on 20 December, 860. He was crowned soon afterwards at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey.
He died, unmarried and childless, in 865/6, and was buried in Sherborne Abbey, Dorset.
He was succeeded by his brother Ethelred.
Ethelred I
FATHER: Ethelwulf, King of Wessex ( see here).
MOTHER: Osburga ( see here, under King Ethelwulf).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under King Ethelwulf).
ETHELRED I
He was born in c.840. He succeeded his brother Ethelbert as King of Wessex in 865/6, and was crowned shortly afterwards at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey.
Ethelred I married, in c.868 (although no record exists as to where):
(?) Wulfrida
Nothing is known of her origin or dates.
Issue of marriage:
1 Ethelwald
He was born in c.868, and set himself up as King of York and Pretender to the throne of Wessex in 901, after the death of his uncle, King Alfred. He was killed defending his claims in 902/5 at the Battle of the Holm.
Ethelwald married a professed nun from Wimborne Minster, Dorset; her name is unknown.
2 Ethelhelm
He is perhaps to be identified with:
(a) an Ealdorman of Wiltshire, or
(b) an Archbishop of Canterbury who was consecrated in 919 and who died on 8 January, 923.
There is, unfortunately, no conclusive evidence to support either theory. It is possible that Ethelhelm died in 898.
ETHELRED I
He was killed on 23 April (after Easter), 871, at the Battle of Merton, and was buried at Wimborne Minster, Dorset, although some less reliable sources give his place of burial as Sherborne Abbey, Dorset. After his death, he was popularly reputed a saint.
He was succeeded by his brother Alfred.
King Alfred
FATHER: Ethelwulf, King of Wessex ( see here).
MOTHER: Osburga ( see here, under King Ethelwulf).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under King Ethelwulf).
ALFRED
Known as ‘the Great’, he was born in 846/9 at Wantage, Dorset. He succeeded his brother Ethelred I as King of Wessex and Danish Mercia on 23 April, 871, and was perhaps crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, although this is mere supposition, as there is no evidence for it.
Alfred married, in 868/9, at Winchester:
Ethelswitha
She was the daughter of Ethelred Mucel, Ealdorman of the Gainas (to be identified with Gainsborough, Lincolnshire?), by Edburga, a Princess of the Royal House of Mercia, perhaps the daughter of Coenwulf, King of Mercia, by his wife Elfrida.
After the death of King Alfred, Ethelswitha turned to religion, and became a nun at St Mary’s Abbey, Winchester, in c.901. She died in Winchester on 5 or 8 December, 905, and was buried there in St Mary’s Abbey; her remains were later removed to Winchester Cathedral. After her death, she was popularly reputed a saint.
Issue of marriage:
1 Ethelfleda
Born c.869, she married Ethelred, Ealdorman of Mercia (d.911), in 886/7 (certainly by the end of 889), and had issue:
1 Elfwynn (904?–after 919).
Ethelfleda was recognised as Lady of the Mercians in 911, after the death of her husband. She died on 12 June, 918, at Tamworth, Staffordshire, and was buried in Gloucester Cathedral.
2 Edmund
No dates are recorded, but he was possibly the eldest son, born around 870, as he was crowned in the lifetime of his father, following a European precedent set by Charlemagne. Asser, King Alfred’s biographer, says Edmund died in infancy.
3 King Edward the Elder ( see here).
4 Elfrida
She married Baldwin II, Count of Flanders (d.918), between 893 and 899, and had issue:
1 Arnulf, Count of Flanders (d.964), who married Adela of Vermandois, and had issue. One of their descendants was Matilda of Flanders, wife of William I.
2 Adelulf, Count of Boulogne (d.933).
3 Daughter.
4 Daughter.
Elfrida died on 7 June, 929 (?), in Flanders, and was buried in St Peter’s Abbey, Ghent.
5 Ethelgiva
She became a nun at Shaftesbury Abbey, Dorset, where she was elected the first Abbess in c.888. She died and was buried in Shaftesbury Abbey in c.896.
6 Ethelweard
Born c.880. Very little is known of his life. He died on 16 (?) or 26 October, 920/22.
Ethelweard married a lady about whom no information exists, and had issue:
(i) Elfwine
He was killed at the Battle of Brunanburgh in 937, and was buried in Malmesbury Abbey, Wilts.
(ii) Ethelwine
He was killed at the Battle of Brunanburgh in 937, and was buried in Malmesbury Abbey, Wilts.
(iii) Thurcytel
Born c.907, he became a monk at his own foundation at Croyland Abbey, Lincs., in c.946, and was later elected Abbot there. He died on 12 July, 975, at Croyland Abbey, and was buried there.
KING ALFRED
He died on 25, 26 or 28 October, 899, and was buried in Newminster Abbey, Winchester. His remains were later removed to Hyde Abbey, Winchester, which was destroyed during the Reformation. The present site of his grave is unknown. His bones may possibly lie in one of the mortuary chests in Winchester Cathedral.
He was succeeded by his son Edward.
King Edward the Elder
FATHER: King Alfred ( see here).
MOTHER: Ethelswitha ( see here, under King Alfred).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under King Alfred).
KING EDWARD
Known as ‘the Elder’, he was born in c.871/2. He succeeded his father as King of Wessex on 25, 26 or 28 October, 899, and was crowned on 31 May or 8 June, 900, at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey.
Edward married firstly (although no record exists of the date or the place):
Egwina
She is described as ‘a noblewoman’, although her origins are unknown. William of Malmesbury, writing in the 12th century, states that her children were illegitimate, thereby suggesting that her marriage to Edward was uncanonical, but this is unlikely in view of the fact that her son succeeded Edward as undisputed king. She died in c.901/2.
Issue of marriage:
1 King Athelstan ( see here).
2 Alfred
No dates are recorded, and very little is known about him. He may have died young.
3 St Edith
She married Sihtric Caoch, King of Northumbria (d.927), on 30 January, 925/6, at Tamworth, Staffordshire. After her widowhood, she became a nun at Polesworth Abbey, Warwickshire, in 927. That same year, she was transferred to Tamworth Abbey, Gloucestershire, where she was immediately elected Abbess. She died in c.927. After her death, she was canonised, and her Feast Day is 15 July.
Edward married secondly, in c.901/2 (although no record exists as to where):
Elfleda
She was the daughter of Ealdorman Ethelhelm by his wife Elswitha. She died in 920, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral.
Issue of marriage:
1 Edwin
He was perhaps ‘Subregulus’ of Kent. In 933, he drowned in the English Channel, perhaps murdered on the orders of his half-brother, King Athelstan. He was buried in St Bertin’s Abbey, Flanders.
2 Elfweard
Information about Elfweard is conflicting. One source states he married and had children, but gives no details. Another source, less trustworthy, states he was a hermit at Bridgenorth, Salop. What is certain is that he died on 1 August, 924, at Oxford, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral.
3 Edfleda
No dates are recorded. She was a nun, but her community is not named: it was perhaps Winchester. She was buried in Wilton Abbey, Wiltshire.
4 Edgiva (or Ogive)
She married Charles III, King of France (d.929), between 916 and 919, and had issue:
1 Louis IV, King of France (921?–954), who married Gerberga (d.984), daughter of Henry the Fowler of Saxony, Holy Roman Emperor, and had issue.
Edgiva married secondly, Heribert III, Count of Vermandois, Meaux, and Troyes (d.995), in c.951 at St Quentin, France, and had issue:
2 Stephen I, Count of Vermandois (b.952?–1021).
3 Agnes (b. 953).
Edgiva died in c. 953, perhaps in childbirth. Some sources state she died in 948, in which case her second marriage took place earlier than is generally supposed.
5 Edhilda
She married Hugh Capet, Count of Paris and Duke of the French (d.956), in 926/7, and had issue:
1 Hugh, King of France (938?–996), who married Adelaide (d.1004/5), daughter of William, Duke of Aquitaine, and had issue. Edhilda died on 26 January, 947. (Some sources state she died in c.938, or even earlier, but this is improbable.)
6 Edith
She married Otto I, Duke of Saxony and German Emperor (d.973), in c.925/30, and had issue:
1 Liudolf, Duke of Swabia (d.957), who married Ida, daughter of Hermann, Duke of Almayne, Swabia, and had issue.
2 Liutgarde, married Conrad, Duke of Lorraine.
Edith died on 26 January, c.946/7, in Germany, and was buried in the Cathedral of St Maurice, Magdeburg.
7 Elfleda
She became a nun at Winchester, where she died in c.963. She was buried in Wilton Abbey, Wilts.
8 Elgiva
No dates are recorded. She married ‘a Prince near the Alps’. He has recently been identified, with near certainty, as Boleslaw II, Duke of Bohemia (d.999). Other, less probable, identifications have been made with Conrad III, King of Burgundy (d.993); Alberic, son of Majolus, Count of Narbonne; and Charles Constantine, King of Arles, son of either the Emperor Louis the Blind or Louis II, King of Arles.
9 Ethelfleda
No dates are recorded. She was perhaps a nun at Romsey Abbey, Hampshire, and may have been elected Abbess of Romsey, where she was later buried.
10 Ethelhilda
No dates are recorded. She was a lay sister or recluse at Romsey Abbey, Hampshire. She was buried in Wilton Abbey, Wiltshire.
Edward married thirdly, in 920 (?) (although no record exists of the date or the place):
Edgiva
She was the daughter of Sigehelm, Ealdorman of Kent, and she was born before c.905. She died on 25 August, 968, and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral.
Issue of marriage:
1 Edmund I ( see here).
2 St Edburga
She became a nun at Nunnaminster Abbey, Winchester; she was possibly elected Abbess, but this is unlikely. She died on 15 June, 960, and was buried in Nunnaminster Abbey. After her canonisation, her remains were translated to Pershore Abbey, Worcs.
3 Edgiva
She was married in infancy to ‘Louis of Aquitaine, King of Arles’, before 923. Her husband has not been successfully identified. He may have been Louis II, King of Arles, in which case the issue of the marriage may have been:
1 Charles Constantine, King of Aries (whose parentage is uncertain).
Louis may also be identified, with less credibility, with Louis the Blind, King of Lower Burgundy and Holy Roman Emperor (d.928). Some authorities cite Ebehard, Count of Nordgau (d.c.960), as the husband of Edgiva.
4 King Edred ( see here).
5 Thyra
She is said to have been a daughter of Edward by Edgiva, but there is some doubt about this. No dates are recorded. She married Gorm the Old, king in North Jutland, and had issue:
1 Harold I, King of Denmark (d.986), who also married and had issue.
Edward is also reputed to have had the following illegitimate issue, although this is in dispute:
1 Gregory, Abbot of Einsiedlen in Germany.
KING EDWARD THE ELDER
He died on 17 July, 924/5, at Farndon-on-Dee, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral.
He was succeeded by his son Athelstan.
King Athelstan
FATHER: King Edward the Elder ( see here).
MOTHER: Egwina (King Edward the Elder, see here).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under King Edward the Elder).
ATHELSTAN
He was born in c.895. He succeeded his father as the first King of a united England on 17 July, 924/5, and was crowned on 4 September, 924/5, at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey. The monarchy in England may be said to have been properly established under King Athelstan. Athelstan never married, and had no issue. He died on 27 October, 939, at Gloucester, and was buried in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire (his tomb dates only from the fifteenth century).
He was succeeded by his half-brother Edmund.
Edmund I
FATHER: King Edward the Elder ( see here).
MOTHER: Edgiva of Kent ( see here, under King Edward the Elder).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under King Edward the Elder).
EDMUND I
Known as ‘the Magnificent’, he was born in c.920/22. He succeeded his half-brother King Athelstan as King of England on 27 October, 939, and was crowned on 29 November, 939, at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey. From 944 onwards, he was the effective ruler of the whole of England until his death.
Edmund I married firstly, in c.940 (although no record exists as to where):
St Elgiva
Her origins are unknown. She died in c.944 or 946 at Shaftesbury Abbey, Dorset, where she was probably buried (or, less probably, at Shipton Abbey). She has sometimes, erroneously, been described as Abbess of Wilton. After her death, she was popularly reputed a saint.
Issue of marriage:
1 King Edwy ( see here).
2 King Edgar ( see here).
3 Daughter (name not known), who married Baldwin, Count of Hesdin.
Edmund I married secondly, in c.946:
Ethelfleda
She was the daughter of Alfgar, Ealdorman of the Wilsaetas (Wiltshire?), and was perhaps born at Damerham, Wiltshire. After Edmund’s death, she perhaps married secondly Athelstan, an Ealdorman. She later became a nun at Shaftesbury Abbey, Dorset, where she died after 975, when her Will was dated. She was buried in Shaftesbury Abbey.
EDMUND I
He was murdered on 26 May, 946, at Pucklechurch, Dorset, when an outlaw named Liofa stabbed him whilst he was dining in his hall. He was buried in Glastonbury Abbey, Somerset.
He was succeeded by his brother Edred.
King Edred
FATHER: King Edward the Elder ( see here).
MOTHER: Edgiva of Kent (King Edward the Elder, see here).
SIBLINGS: (King Edward the Elder, see here).
KING EDRED
He was born in c.923/5, and succeeded his brother Edmund I as King of England on 26 May, 946. He was crowned on 16 August, 946, at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey. He expelled the Danes from England in 954, thereupon establishing his authority throughout England.
One authority states that Edred had issue, but gives no details. I have found no other evidence to support this. There is no record of his having been married.
KING EDRED
He died on 23 November, 955, at Frome, Somerset, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral. His bones are now in one of the mortuary chests there.
He was succeeded by his nephew Edwy.
King Edwy
FATHER: Edmund I ( see here).
MOTHER: St Elgiva ( see here, under Edmund I).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under Edmund I).
KING EDWY
Known as ‘the Fair’, he was born in c.941/3 (certainly before 943). He succeeded his uncle King Edred as King of England on 23 November, 955, and was crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames c.26 January, 956. He was a weak king, and his authority was confined to Wessex from 958, his younger brother Edgar taking over the government of Northumbria and Mercia.
Edwy married, during the winter of 955/6 (although no record exists as to where):
Elgiva
Her father is unknown; her mother, Ethelgiva, of unknown origin, is said by some sources to have been Edwy’s mistress. The marriage was certainly frowned upon by the Church. Late sources state that it was annulled around 958, and that Elgiva was banished from court, possibly to Ireland, but these sources may be too late to be reliable. Elgiva died around September, 959, at Gloucester.
KING EDWY
He died on 1 October, 959, at Gloucester, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral.
He was succeeded by his brother Edgar.
King Edgar
FATHER: Edmund I ( see here).
MOTHER: St Elgiva ( see here, under Edmund I).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under Edmund I).
KING EDGAR
Known as ‘the Peaceable’, he was born in 942/4. He took over the government of Northumbria and Mercia from his brother King Edwy in 958, and was styled King of those realms from that date. He succeeded Edwy on 1 October, 959, but was not crowned until 11 May, 973, as St Dunstan, the Archbishop of Canterbury, would not agree to crown Edgar until he amended his way of life. The coronation, which took place in Bath Abbey, followed the new form of service devised by St Dunstan and based on European models. This is the form of Coronation Rite used, with modifications, in the 20th century.
Edgar married firstly, in c.961/2 (although no record exists as to where):
Ethelfleda
Known as ‘the Fair’, she was the daughter of Ealdorman Ordmaer by his wife Ealda. Later sources allege that she was divorced by Edgar in c.964, so that he could marry his second wife, but this is probably a fabrication, and it is likely that Ethelfleda died inc.962/4, probably by 965 (although one unreliable source gives the date of her death as 972/3). She was buried in Wilton Abbey, Wiltshire, where she is said to have retired after her alleged divorce.
Issue of marriage:
1 King Edward the Martyr ( see here).
Edgar married secondly, in c.964/5 (perhaps earlier) (although no record exists as to where):
Elfrida
Alternatively known as Alstrita or Elstrudis, she was the daughter of Ordgar, Ealdorman of Devon. She was born in c.945 at Lydford Castle, Devon. She married firstly, in c.962/3, Ethelwald, Ealdorman of East Anglia (d.963), and had issue:
1 Edgar.
2 (?) Ethelfleda (963?–1016?), Abbess of Romsey. She may have been Ethelwald’s daughter by his first wife, although one account says she was his posthumous child.
Elfrida is said to have had an adulterous affair with King Edgar whilst still married to Ethelwald, and some sources allege that Ethelwald was murdered on Edgar’s orders. Elfrida was crowned with her husband on 11 May, 973, at Bath Abbey: this was the first instance of the coronation of a Queen of England. She became a nun in c.986 at Wherwell Abbey, Hampshire, where she died, possibly on 17 November, 1002 (?); she was alive in 999, but had died before the end of 1002. She was probably buried in Wherwell Abbey.
Issue of marriage:
1 Edmund
He was born in c.965, and died in 970/72. He was buried in Romsey Abbey, Hampshire.
2 Ethelred II ( see here).
King Edgar also had the following illegitimate issue:
By St Wulfrida (c.945–1000), Abbess of Wilton,
1 St Edith (962?–984), Abbess of Barking and Nunnaminster.
KING EDGAR
He died on 8 July, 975, at Winchester, and was buried in Glastonbury Abbey, Somerset.
He was succeeded by his son Edward.
King Edward the Martyr
FATHER: King Edgar ( see here).
MOTHER: Ethelfleda ( see here, under Edgar).
SIBLINGS: Edward did not have any full brothers or sisters.
KING EDWARD
Known as ‘the Martyr’, he was born in c.962/3. He succeeded his father as King of England on 8 July, 975, and was crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames that same year (the date is unspecified). He was murdered on 18 March, 978 (not 979, as is sometimes stated), at Corfe Castle, Dorset, probably on the orders of his stepmother, Elfrida of Devon. He was buried in Wareham Abbey, Dorset; later on, his remains were moved to Shaftesbury Abbey, Dorset.
He was succeeded by his half-brother Ethelred.
Ethelred II
FATHER: King Edgar ( see here).
MOTHER: Elfrida of Devon ( see here, under Edgar).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under Edgar).
ETHELRED II
Known as ‘the Unraed’ or ‘the Redeless’ (both of which mean ‘without counsel’), he was born in c.966/9. He succeeded his half-brother Edward as King of England on 18 March, 978, and was crowned on 4 April, 978 (or 4 May, 979), at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey. He abdicated in favour of King Sweyn in the autumn of 1013, and fled to Normandy, but was restored to the throne after Sweyn’s death on 3 February, 1014.
Ethelred II married firstly, in c.980/85 (although no record exists as to where):
Elgiva
Alternatively known as Elfleda, she was the daughter either of Ealdorman Ethelbert, or of Thored, Ealdorman of York, by his wife Hilda. She was born in c.963, and died in February, 1002, at Winchester.
Issue of marriage:
1 Athelstan
He was born in c.986, and was killed in battle, fighting the Danes, in c.1012/15. One writer, Thietmar of Merseberg, states that Athelstan was alive late in 1016, but he is an unreliable source, and it is thought that Athelstan was almost certainly dead by the end of 1015.
2 Edmund II ( see here).
3 Edgar
He died in 1012/15 (or, less probably, in c.1008).
4 Edred
He died in 1012/15.
5 Edric (?)
He has perhaps been confused with his brother Edred, and may not have existed. No dates are recorded.
6 Edward (?)
He is said to have died by c.1004. The evidence for his existence is very slender; charters said to have been attested by him have been proved spurious.
7 Edwy
He was murdered in 1017 on the orders of King Canute, and was buried in Tavistock Abbey, Devon.
8 Egbert
He died in c.1005.
9 Edith
She married Edric Streona, Ealdorman of Mercia (who was executed in 1017), in c.1007/9, and had issue:
1 Son; name not known (born before 1009).
Edith perhaps married secondly Thurcytel Thorgils Havi, a Danish Earl in England (who was killed in 1039), and perhaps had issue:
2 Harold, who married Gunhilda of Wendland, a granddaughter of King Sweyn. Harold died in 1042.
10 Elgiva
She married Uhtred, Earl of Northumbria (who was killed in 1016 or 1018), and had issue:
1 Edith ( see here, under Malcolm II, King of Scotland). She married Maldred of Scotland, Lord of Allerdale, and had issue.
11 Wulfhilda
She married Ulfcytel Snylling, Ealdorman of East Anglia (who was killed in 1016).
12 Daughter
Her name is not known. She married one Athelstan (who was killed in 1010).
13 Daughter
Her name is not known. She became Abbess of Wherwell, and died after 1051.
Ethelred II married secondly, on 5 April, 1002, at Winchester Cathedral:
Emma
She was the daughter of Richard I, Duke of Normandy, by his wife Gunnora, and she was born in c.985/7 in Normandy. In 1017, after the death of Ethelred II, she married secondly King Canute, and had issue ( see here, under King Canute). She died on 14 March, 1052, probably at Winchester, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral. Her bones now lie in one of the mortuary chests there.
Issue of marriage:
1 King Edward the Confessor ( see here).
2 Alfred
Born before 1012, he was styled ‘Atheling’. He was brutally murdered on 5 February, 1037 (or, less probably, 1036), at Ely, Cambridgeshire, probably on the orders of Earl Godwine ( see here, under Harold II). He was buried in Ely Cathedral.
3 Goda
Alternatively known as Godgifu, she was born between 1004 and 1014. She married firstly Drogo (or Dreux), Count of Mantes and the Vexin (d.1035), and had issue:
1 Ralph, Earl of Hereford (d.1057), who married Gytha, perhaps the daughter of Osgood Clapa, and had issue.
2 Walter III, Count of Mantes and the Vexin (d. after 1063), who married Biota, daughter of Herbert, Count of Maine.
3 Fulk, Bishop of Amiens (1030–1058).
Goda married secondly Eustace II, Count of Boulogne (d.1093), in c.1036. It is possible that there was a child of this union, probably a daughter who married and had issue. The only evidence pointing to this is the fact that Eustace of Boulogne had a grandson who was given as hostage to William I in 1067.
Goda was dead by 1049.
ETHELRED II
He died on 23 April, 1016, in London, and was buried in Old St Paul’s Cathedral, London. His tomb was lost in the Great Fire of 1666.
He was succeeded by his son Edmund.
King Sweyn
FATHER: Harold Bluetooth, King of Denmark.
MOTHER: Gunhilda, first wife of Harold, or Cyrid, his second wife, or Aesa, his concubine.
SIBLINGS:
Thyra
She married Thorgils Sprakalegg, and had issue:
1 Gytha, mother of Harold II ( see here).
KING SWEYN
Known as ‘Forkbeard’, he was born in c.960 in Denmark. He succeeded his father as King of Denmark on 1 November, 986. He is said by some sources to have been deposed in 987 and restored in 1000. He usurped the throne of England in the autumn of 1013, having defeated and deposed Ethelred II; he claimed the throne by right of conquest, but had no dynastic claim to it. He was never crowned.
Sweyn married firstly, in c.990 (although no record exists as to where):
Gunhilda
She was probably the daughter of Mjeczislas I, Duke of Poland, by Dubrawka, daughter of Boleslaw I, Duke of Bohemia, or, less probably, the daughter of Boleslaw, King of Wendland. Sweyn later divorced her, probably before 1000. She died in c.1015. One source gives the date of her death as 992, but this must be wrong.
Issue of marriage:
1 Harold
He was born in c.994 in Denmark. He succeeded his father as King of Denmark on 3 February, 1014, and died in 1018/19.
2 King Canute ( see here).
The following were possibly the children of Gunhilda, although they may have been the issue of Sweyn by his second wife ( below):
3 Gytha
She married Erik Hakonson, a Danish Earl in England, and Earl of Hlathir in Norway in 1013, and had issue:
1 Haakon, Earl of Worcester (d.1029/30), who married Gunhilda, daughter of Wytgeorn, King of Wendland ( below).
4 Santslaue
Alternatively called Svantoslava, she was born and died in Denmark. No dates are recorded.
5 Thyra
She is said to have been born in c.993 in Denmark – probably the eldest child of Sweyn and Gunhilda, although this is open to doubt. She married Godwine, later Earl of Wessex ( see here, under Harold II), and had issue, but no details of them are recorded. She died in 1018.
6 Daughter
Her name is not known. She married Wytgeorn, King of Wendland, and had issue:
1 Gunhilda; she married firstly Haakon, Earl of Worcester (d.1029/30) ( above), and secondly, Harold (d.1042), son of Edith, the daughter of Ethelred II.
Sweyn married secondly, probably before 1000 (although no record exists as to where):
Sigrid
Alternatively known as Sigrith or Syritha, and called ‘the Haughty’, she was the daughter of Skogul Toste of Sweden, and was born in Sweden. She married firstly Eric VI, King of Sweden (d.995), and had issue:
1 Olaf Svenski, King of Sweden (d.1022), who married a lady called Astrid, and had issue.
One source gives the date of Sigrid’s death as 995, but this is impossible. It is likely that she died before 1013, as she has never been referred to as Queen of England.
Issue of marriage:
1 Astrid
Alternatively called Estrith, or Margaret. She married either Richard II, Duke of Normandy (d.1027), or Robert II, Duke of Normandy ( see here, under William I), between 1017 and 1027. If her husband was Robert, then he repudiated her shortly after the marriage took place. She married secondly Ulf Thorgilson, a Danish Earl in England (d.1035; he was the brother of Gytha, mother of Harold II), and had issue:
1 Sweyn Estrithson, King of Denmark (d.1074/6), who married a lady called Gunhilda. He left illegitimate issue only.
2 Beorn, Earl of Danish Mercia. He was murdered in 1049.
3 Osbeorn (d.1086?).
Sigrid may also have been the mother of Sweyn’s four other daughters ( above).
KING SWEYN
He died on 3 February, 1014, at Gainsborough, Lincs., and was buried in England (location unknown). His remains were later moved to Roeskild Cathedral, Denmark.
He was succeeded by Ethelred II ( preceding chapter), who was in turn succeeded by Edmund, the son of Ethelred.
Edmund II
FATHER: Ethelred II ( see here).
MOTHER: Elgiva ( see here, under Ethelred II).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under Ethelred II).
EDMUND II
Known as ‘Ironside’, he was born between c.988 and 993. He succeeded his father as King of England on 23 April, 1016, and was crowned during the same month at Old St Paul’s Cathedral in London.
Edmund II married, in late summer (August?), 1015, at Malmesbury, Wiltshire:
Edith
Her origins are unknown. She married firstly Sigeferth (son of Earngrim), a Thane in East Anglia (he was murdered in 1015). The date of her death is not known.
Issue of marriage (who may have been twins):
1 Edward
He was born in 1016: he was aged 41 at his death. He was styled ‘Atheling’, but spent the greater part of his youth in exile in Hungary. He died in 1057, in London, where he was buried in Old St Paul’s Cathedral.
Edward married (no record exists of the date), in Hungary:
Agatha
She was probably the daughter of Bruno, Bishop of Augsburg, and brother of Henry III, Emperor of Germany. With less probability, she was the daughter of Stephen, King of Hungary, by Gisela, daughter of Conrad II, Emperor of Germany, and sister of the Emperor Henry III. She is described as ‘a kinswoman’ of the Emperor Henry III. Upon reaching old age, she became a nun at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, probably after the death of her daughter, Queen Margaret of Scotland, in 1093.
Issue of marriage:
(i) Edgar
He was born in c.1053 (certainly by 1058) in Hungary, and was styled ‘Atheling’. In October, 1066, the Witan in London elected him King of England upon hearing of the death of Harold II at Hastings. He was not crowned, and by December, 1066, he had submitted to William I and abandoned all claims to the throne. He died after 1125, perhaps in 1130 (?).
(ii) Margaret
( see here, under Malcolm III, King of Scotland).
(iii) Christina
Born in Hungary, she became a nun, firstly – according to some authorities – at Wilton Abbey, Wiltshire, and then, in c.1086, at Romsey Abbey in Hampshire. She is sometimes called Abbess of Romsey, but only on very slender evidence. She died before 1102 (?).
2 Edmund
He was born either in 1016, or in 1017. He was taken to Hungary by his family in childhood, where he later died. Some sources state that he died young, but he must have lived at least into his teens.
Edmund married (no record exists of the date) in Hungary:
Hedwig
She was either the daughter of Stephen I, King of Hungary, by Gisela, daughter of Conrad II, Emperor of Germany, or the daughter of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria.
After Edmund’s death, she married secondly Eppo, Count of Nellenburg.
EDMUND II
He died on 30 November, 1016, in Oxford or in London, and was buried in Glastonbury Abbey, Somerset.
He was succeeded by Canute, son of King Sweyn, who claimed the throne by right of conquest.
King Canute
FATHER: King Sweyn ( see here).
MOTHER: Gunhilda of Poland ( see here, under King Sweyn).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under King Sweyn).
KING CANUTE
Alternatively called Cnut or Knud, and known as ‘the Great’, he was born in c.995 in Denmark. He succeeded Edmund II as King of England on 30 November, 1016, claiming the throne by right of conquest, and is said to have been crowned on 6 January (?), 1017, at Old St Paul’s Cathedral in London, although there is no contemporary evidence for this. He succeeded his brother Harold as King of Denmark in 1018/19, and became King of Norway by right of conquest in 1028.
Canute married, on 2 July, 1017 (although no record exists as to where):
Emma
She was the widow of Ethelred II ( see here, under Ethelred II).
Issue of marriage:
1 King Harthacanute ( see here).
2 Gunhilda
Alternatively called Ethelfrida, she adopted the name Kunigunde upon her marriage. Born in c.1020, she married Henry III, Emperor of Germany (d.1056), on 10 June, 1036, at Nimeguen, Germany, and had issue:
1 Beatrice (b.1037), Abbess of Quedlinburg.
Gunhilda died on 16 or 18 July, 1038, on the Adriatic coast.
3 Daughter
Her name is not known; neither are her dates. She died aged about 8, and was buried in Bosham Church, Sussex.
Canute also had the following illegitimate issue:
By Elgiva (996?–1044?), daughter of Alfhelm, Ealdorman of Northampton, by his wife Wulfrun; some sources state that Elgiva was Canute’s ‘handfast’ wife, according to Danish custom; others state that she was his repudiated wife; at all events, their union was uncanonical. They had issue:
1 Sweyn, King of Norway (1015?–1036/7).
2 Harold I ( see here).
There were contemporary doubts in certain court circles that Canute was the father of Elgiva’s two sons.
KING CANUTE
He died on 12 November, 1035, at Shaftesbury, Dorset, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral. His bones now lie in one of the mortuary chests there.
He was succeeded by his son Harthacanute.
King Harthacanute
FATHER: King Canute ( see here).
MOTHER: Emma of Normandy ( see here, under King Canute).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under King Canute).
KING HARTHACANUTE
Alternatively called Hardicanute, he was born in c.1018, and was designated titular King of Denmark in 1028. He succeeded his father as King of Denmark on 12 November, 1035, and as King of England on the same day, in his absence from that country. He remained in Denmark, and his authority in England was usurped by his half-brother Harold I in 1037. He was restored to the English throne on 17 March, 1040, upon the death of Harold I. He is said to have been crowned in June, 1040, at Canterbury Cathedral, Kent, but no contemporary evidence exists to show that he was consecrated at all.
KING HARTHACANUTE
He died unmarried (and childless), on 8 June, 1042, at Lambeth in London, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral.
He was succeeded by his half-brother Edward, the son of Ethelred II.
Harold I
FATHER: King Canute (?) ( see here).
MOTHER: Elgiva of Northampton, Canute’s concubine or handfast wife.
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under King Canute).
HAROLD I
He was born in c.1016/17, perhaps at Northampton. He was probably illegitimate, but contemporary doubts as to his paternity were probably mere political propaganda. In 1037, when King Harthacanute was still in Denmark, Harold usurped the throne of England and was recognised as King, being crowned that same year at Oxford.
Harold I married (although no record exists of the date or the place):
Elgiva
Her origins are unknown, as are her dates.
Issue of marriage:
1 Elfwine
He was born in London, but no dates are recorded for his life. Some sources infer he was illegitimate, but they are unreliable. He became a monk at Sainte-Foi Abbey, Conques, Aquitaine, his own foundation.
HAROLD I
He died on 17 March, 1040, at Oxford, and was buried, according to a faint tradition, in the old Abbey Church of St Peter at Westminster. It is less probable that he was buried in Winchester Cathedral, as is sometimes stated. His body, after a dishonourable exhumation, was reburied, probably in St Clement Danes Church, Strand, London (less probably, in St Olave’s Church, Southwark, London). He was succeeded by his half-brother Harthacanute, whom he had once deposed ( previous chapter), who, in turn, was succeeded by Edward, son of Ethelred II.
King Edward the Confessor
FATHER: Ethelred II ( see here).
MOTHER: Emma of Normandy ( see here, under Ethelred II).
SIBLINGS: ( see here, under Ethelred II).
KING EDWARD
Known as ‘the Confessor’, he was born around c.1003/4 (by 1005) at Islip, Oxon. When he succeeded his half-brother King Harthacanute, on 8 June, 1042, the crown of England reverted from the usurping Danish dynasty to the line of Cerdic once more, and for the last time. Edward was crowned on 3 April, 1043, at Winchester Cathedral.
King Edward married, on 23 January, 1045 (although no record exists as to where):
Edith
She was the daughter of Godwine, Earl of Wessex, by his wife Gytha ( see here, under Harold II), and she was born in c.1020. Edith was perhaps anointed and crowned on her wedding day, but details of the ceremony have not been recorded. Her marriage to Edward was purely platonic, the King being unwilling, for religious reasons, to consummate it, hence there were no children. Edith died on 18 December, 1075, either at the Palace of Westminster or at Winchester, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
KING EDWARD
He died on 4/5 January, 1066, at the Palace of Westminster, and was buried in the new Westminster Abbey, built by his command and only recently consecrated.
He was succeeded by Harold, Earl of Wessex, his brother-in-law, to whom he left his throne, with the support of the Witan, there being no adult claimant to the crown of the line of Cerdic.
On 7 February, 1161, Edward the Confessor was canonised, thus becoming the only King of England to be made a saint.
Harold II
FATHER: Godwine
He was the son of Wulfnoth, Cyld of Sussex, and was born in c.987. He married firstly Thyra, daughter of King Sweyn, and secondly, in c.1019/20, Gytha ( below). He was first created Earl in 1018, but his earldom is unknown. He was created Earl of Wessex and Kent in 1020. He died on 15 April, 1053, at Winchester Castle, of apoplexy, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral.
MOTHER: Gytha
She was the daughter of Thorgils Sprakalegg by Thyra, daughter of Harold Bluetooth, King of Denmark (and sister of King Sweyn); some authorities state that Thorgils was the son of Thyra, not her husband. Gytha was born in Denmark. She married Earl Godwine in c.1019/20. She died in exile, perhaps in Flanders, after June, 1069.
SIBLINGS:
1 Edith
( see here, under King Edward the Confessor).
2 Sweyn
He was born in c.1023, and was created Earl of Mercia in 1043. He died on 29 September, 1052, in exile, at Lycia, near Constantinople, in Byzantium.
Sweyn had the following illegitimate issue:
By Edgiva, Abbess of Leominster, a nun whom he abducted and with whom he contracted an uncanonical marriage:
1 Haakon (b.1046/7).
2 Tostig.
3 Tostig
He was born in c.1026, and was created Earl of Northumbria in c.1055. In that year, or later, he was also created Earl of Northampton and Nottingham. He was deprived of his earldoms on 3 October, 1065. He was killed on 25 September, 1066, at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in Northumberland, fighting his brother Harold II in alliance with Harold Hardraada, King of Norway. Tostig was buried in York Minster.
Tostig married, in October, 1051 (although no record exists as to where):
Judith
Alternatively known as Fausta, she was the daughter of Baldwin IV, Count of Flanders, by Eleanor, daughter of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. After Tostig’s death, she married secondly Welf IV, Duke of Bavaria.
Issue of marriage:
(i) Skule
He grew up, married, and had issue. No further details are recorded.
(ii) Ketel
He grew up, married and had issue. No further details are recorded.
4 Gyrth
He was created Earl of East Anglia in 1057, and was killed on 14 October, 1066, at the Battle of Hastings, Sussex.
5 Leofwine
He was created Earl of Kent, Surrey, Middlesex, Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire in c.1057, and was killed on 14 October, 1066, at the Battle of Hastings, Sussex.
6 Wulfnoth
He died after 1087, either in Normandy, or at Salisbury, Wiltshire.
7 Alfgar
He is said to have been a monk at Rheims in France.
8 Edgiva
Nothing is known of her beyond her name.
9 Elgiva
She died in c.1066.
10 Gunhilda
She is said to have become a nun, either at St Omer in France, or at Bruges in Flanders. She died on 24 August, 1087, at Bruges, and was buried in Bruges Cathedral.
HAROLD II
Surnamed Godwineson, he was born in c.1020/22. He was created Earl of East Anglia in c.1045, and succeeded his father as Earl of Wessex on 15 April, 1053. He was created Earl of Hereford in 1058, and styled ‘Duke of the English’ from 1064. He succeeded Edward the Confessor as King of England on 6 January, 1066, having been chosen by the King as his successor with the support of the Witan. Harold II was crowned on 6 January, 1066, probably at St Paul’s Cathedral in London (some authorities state he was crowned at Westminster Abbey, but there is no evidence for this).
Harold II married, either in c.1064 or in March (?), 1066, at York:
Edith
She was the daughter of Alfgar, Earl of Mercia, by Edgiva or Elgiva Malet, or by Elfleda, daughter of Ealdred, Earl of Northumbria. She was born in c.1042. She married firstly Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, King of Wales (killed in 1063), either in c.1050 or inc.1056/7, and had issue:
1 Meredith (d.1070).
2 Idwal (d.1070).
3 Nesta, who married Osbern FitzRichard, Lord of Richard’s Castle and Byton, and had issue.
After the death of Harold, Edith went into exile on the Continent where she died after 1070.
Issue of marriage, who may have been twins:
1 Harold
He was born in December, 1066, in Chester. He grew up in exile on the Continent, and died after 1098.
2 Ulf
He was perhaps born in December, 1066, in Chester, although some authorities have stated that he was an illegitimate son of Harold by his mistress Edith Swanneshals ( below). Ulf is said by some chroniclers to have drowned at sea before 1070, but he is recorded as being alive in 1087 in Normandy, after which he disappears from the records.
Harold II also had the following illegitimate issue:
Probably by Edith Swanneshals (‘Swan Neck’):
1 Godwine.
2 Edmund.
3 Magnus.
4 Gunhilda; she became a nun at Wilton Abbey, Wiltshire.
5 Gytha; she married Vladimir II, Prince of Novgorod and Kiev (d.1125), and had issue. One of her descendants was Philippa, wife of Edward III.
6 Ulf ( see above). He may have been Harold’s legitimate son by his wife.
HAROLD II
He was killed on 14 October, 1066, at the Battle of Senlac (now known as the Battle of Hastings, although it took place eleven miles away at Battle in Sussex). Harold may have been felled by an arrow between his eyes, although this theory may be based upon a misinterpretation of the Bayeux Tapestry, in which case he was probably struck down by a sword stroke dealt by a mounted Norman knight. Harold was buried either on the battlefield or, less probably, on the seashore at Hastings. Later on, his remains were removed to Waltham Abbey, Essex.
He was succeeded by William, Duke of Normandy, the victor of Hastings.