(1) After returning home and praying to ancestral Hestia, ancestral Zeus, and the other gods, Cyrus set out on the expedition, and his father joined him in escort. There is said to have been auspicious lightning and thunder for him as soon as they were outside of the house. After these appearances, they traveled on without taking any further auguries, on the grounds that none could rescind the signs of the greatest god.
(2) As Cyrus went forward, his father began a discussion such as follows: “That the gods send you forth propitiously and favorably is clear, son,54 both in the sacrifices and from the heavenly signs. You understand it yourself, for I purposely taught you this so that you would not learn the counsels of the gods through other interpreters. Both seeing what is to be seen and hearing what is to be heard, you would understand these things yourself and not be dependent on the prophets, in case they should wish to deceive you by telling you something different from the signals of the gods. Moreover, in case you should ever be without a prophet, you would not be at a loss as to which divine signs to use, but understanding through the art of divination the counsels that come from the gods, you would obey them.”
(3) “And indeed, father,” Cyrus said, “I take constant care, as much as I am able and in keeping with your advice, so that the gods may be propitious to us and be willing to give us counsel. I remember hearing you say once that he who did not flatter the gods when he was at a loss, but rather remembered them especially when he was faring very well, would probably be more effective in action with gods, just as also with human beings. And regarding friends, you said that it was useful to take care in this same way.”
(4) “On account of this care, do you not now, son,” he said, “come to the gods with more pleasure when you intend to make requests, and do you expect to obtain more of what you request because you seem to be conscious in yourself of having never neglected them?”
“Certainly, father,” he said, “I am disposed to the gods as though they were my friends.”
(5) “Why, son, do you then remember that we once decided that there are things in which the gods have granted to human beings who have learned to fare better than those who do not understand, and in which they have granted to workers to accomplish more than idlers, and in which they have granted to the careful to continue more safely than those off their guard, and that then we decided that it was necessary to ask for the good things from the gods only after rendering ourselves such as we ought to be?”
(6) “Yes, by Zeus,” said Cyrus, “I certainly do remember hearing such remarks from you. It was also necessary for me to obey the argument, for I also know that you added that it would not even be right55 for those who have not learned how to ride a horse to ask from the gods to be victorious in a cavalry battle, nor for those who do not know how to shoot to prevail with bows and arrows over those who know how to use them, nor for those who do not know how to be a pilot to pray to pilot ships safely, nor for those who do not plant grain to pray that a fine crop grow for them, nor for those who are not on guard in war to ask for safety, for all such things are contrary to what the gods have set down. You said that it is probable for those who pray for what is not right556 to fail with the gods, just as it is probable for those who ask for what is unlawful to be ineffective with human beings.”
(7) “But did you forget, son, those points by which you and I once calculated that it is a sufficient and noble work for a man, if he should be able to take care that he himself become truly57 noble and good and that both he and the members of his household have sufficient pro-visions?58 While this is already a great work, next, to know how to preside over other human beings so that they will have all provisions in abundance and so that they will all be as they must, this certainly appeared to us to be worthy of wonder.”
(8) “Yes, by Zeus, father,” he said, “I remember you saying this too. Ruling nobly used to seem to be a very great work to me also, and it still does even now, when I calculate it by examining rule itself. But when I consider it by looking at human beings and seeing that they, even as they are, endure in their rule and that they, even as they are, will be our antagonists, it seems to me very shameful to be intimidated before such and not to be willing to go in contention against them, for I perceive that such people, beginning with these friends of ours, hold that the ruler must differ from the ruled by dining more sumptuously, by having more gold at home, by sleeping longer, and by spending his time freer from every labor than do those who are ruled. I think that the ruler ought to differ from the ruled not by his living easily but by taking forethought and by being enthusiastic in his love of labor.”
(9) “But, son,” he said, “there are some respects in which one must contend not against human beings but against matters themselves, and it is not very easy to overcome them readily; for instance, you certainly know that if the army does not have the provisions it needs, your rule will dissolve at once.”
“Accordingly, father,” he said, “Cyaxares says that he will provide for all who come hence, no matter how many they may be.”
“So, son,” he said, “you are going off trusting in these funds from Cyaxares?”
“I am,” said Cyrus.
“Well,” said he, “do you know how much he has?”
“No, by Zeus,” said Cyrus, “I do not.”
“And you nevertheless trust in these uncertainties? Do you not know that you will need many things and that he will now of necessity have many other expenses?”
“I know,” said Cyrus.
“Then if his expenses outstrip him, or if he is willing to lie to you, what will the condition of your army be?”
“It is clear that it will not be a noble one. But, father,” he said, “if you see any source [of resources], and one that I might make my own, tell me while we are still in friendly territory.”
(10) “Are you asking, son,” he said, “how you might provide a source [of resources] for yourself? From whom is it more probable that there arise such a source than from one who has power? You are going out with an infantry power in exchange for which I know that you would not accept another even many times as numerous, and the Median cavalry, which is very strong, will be your ally. What sort of nation, then, of those around here, do you think will not serve you, both because they wish to gratify you and because they fear they might suffer something? These things you must consider in common with Cyaxares, so you do not lack anything you need to have, and, for the sake of habit, you must contrive a source of income. But above all else, remember for me never to delay providing provisions until need compels you; but when you are especially well off, then contrive [a source of income] before you are at a loss, for you will get more from whomever you ask if you do not seem to be in difficulty and, moreover, you will be blameless in the eyes of your soldiers. In this way you will get more respect also from others, and if you wish to do good to others with your power, or even harm, your soldiers will serve you more while they have what they need; be assured that you will be able to speak more persuasive words at just the moment when you are especially able to show that you are competent to do both good and harm.”
(11) “What you are now saying, father,” he said, “seems to me to be nobly said, both in general and because, as it is now, none of the soldiers will be grateful to me for what they have already been told they will receive, for they know the terms on which Cyaxares is bringing them in as allies. But as for whatever anyone receives in excess of these terms, they will believe it to be an honor, and it is probable that they will also be especially grateful to the one who gives it. If someone should have a power with which it is possible both, by doing good to his friends, to be helped in return and to try to acquire something from enemies (if he has any), and if he should then neglect to provide for his power—do you think that this would be any less shameful than if someone who had fields and workers with which to work them then left the land unworked and thus unprofitable? Be assured, then, that I shall never neglect to contrive provisions for my soldiers, whether in friendly or enemy territory.”
(12) “What about the other things, son, that it once seemed to us necessary not to neglect? Do you remember?”
“I remember well,” he said, “when I came to you for money with which to pay the man who professed to have educated me in how to be a general. As you gave it to me, you also asked something like this, ‘Son, did the man to whom you are paying this wage make any mention of household management as being among the things that pertain to the general? Soldiers are certainly no less in need of provisions than are servants in a household.’ When I told the truth and said that he made no mention of this whatsoever, you asked me again whether he spoke to me about health or strength, since the general needs to occupy himself with these things just as he also must with strategy.59 (13) When I next denied that he did, you asked me in turn whether he taught any arts60 that might become especially strong allies for the works of war. After I denied this as well, you next asked whether he educated me at all as to how I might be able to instill enthusiasm in an army, and you said that enthusiasm—as opposed to lack of enthusiasm—makes all the difference in every work. When I said no also to this, you cross-examined me again, asking whether in his teaching he made any argument about how one might especially contrive that his army be obedient.
(14) “And when it became apparent that this too had gone altogether unmentioned, of course you finally asked me whatever it was that he taught when he said that he taught me generalship. At this point, of course, I answered, ‘Tactics.’ You laughed and repeated each point for me, asking what was the benefit of tactics to an army without what it needs? What was it without health? What was it without knowing the arts that have been discovered for war? What was it without obedience? When you made it apparent to me that tactics was but a small part of generalship and I asked whether you were competent to teach me any of these other matters, you bade me go and converse with those believed to be skilled in generalship and inquire about them.
(15) “Then, of course, I frequented those whom I heard to be especially prudent in these matters. And concerning nourishment, I was persuaded that whatever Cyaxares was going to provide for us would be sufficient. Regarding health, since I heard and saw both that cities that desire to be healthy choose doctors and that generals take doctors with them for the sake of their soldiers, therefore, I too, when I received my present command, immediately concerned myself with this; and I think, father, that I shall have with me men who are very competent in the medical art.”
To this his father said, (16) “But, son, just as there are menders of torn clothes, so also these doctors whom you mention treat people after they get sick. But your concern for health must be more magnificent than this, for you need to be concerned that the army not get sick in the first place.”
“I?” he said. “And by taking what course shall I be competent to do this?”
“If you are going to stay a while in the same place, first of all you certainly ought not be unconcerned about having a healthy place to camp. To not err in this you must make it a concern, for human beings never cease talking about diseased and healthy places, and their bodies and complexions present clear witnesses of each sort of place. Secondly, it is not enough that you only examine places, but remember how you try to take care that you stay healthy yourself.”
(17) And Cyrus said, “First, by Zeus, I try never to overeat, for it is oppressive. Secondly, I work off what I have eaten, for in this way it seems both that health stays to a greater degree and that strength is added.”
“Then, of course, it is in this way, son,” he said, “that you must take care of the others as well.”
“And will there be leisure, father,” he said, “for the soldiers to exercise their bodies?”
“Not only leisure, by Zeus,” the father said, “but necessity as well, for surely if it is going to do what it must, an army must never cease preparing evils for its enemies and good things for itself. How difficult it is to maintain even one idle human being, and still more difficult, son, a whole household, but it is most difficult of all to maintain an idle army. For there are very many mouths in an army, it sets out with very few supplies, and it uses up most extravagantly whatever it takes, so that an army ought never be idle.”
(18) “You mean, father, as it seems to me,” he said, “that just as there is no benefit from an idle farmer, so also there is no benefit from an idle general.”
“As regards at least the hardworking general,” he said, “I accept that unless some god do him harm, he will both show that his soldiers have all they need and bring their bodies into excellent condition.”61
“But as to their applying themselves to each of the works of war, father,” he said, “it seems to me that if someone announces contests and proposes prizes, he would make them especially well exercised in each. Consequently, whenever he had need, he would be able to make use of troops who were already prepared.”
“You speak most nobly, son,” he said, “for if you do this, be assured that you will behold your formations always attending to what is fitting, just like choral dancers.”
(19) “But,” Cyrus said, “as for instilling soldiers with enthusiasm, it seems to me that nothing is more effective than being able to fill human beings with hopes.”
“But son,” he said, “this is the same sort of thing as in hunting, if one always calls the dogs with the same call he uses when he sees the game. At first, I am sure, he has them obeying enthusiastically. If he deceives them often, in the end they do not obey him even when he truly sees the game and calls. So it is also regarding hopes. If someone deceives often, instilling the expectation of good things, such a person ends up not being able to persuade even when he speaks of true sources of hope. One must avoid saying oneself what one does not know clearly, son, but sometimes others could produce the desired effect in their speeches. One must, as much as possible, preserve trust in one’s own encouragement in the face of the greatest risks.”
“But by Zeus, father,” said Cyrus, “you seem to me to speak nobly, and I am more pleased with it like this. (20) As for making the soldiers obedient, father, I think that at least in this case, I am not without experience, for right from when I was a child you used to educate me in this, compelling me to obey. Later, you gave me over to teachers, and they in their turn did the very same thing. When we were among the youths, the ruler took rigorous care of this very thing. And the majority of the laws also seem to me to teach especially these two things, to rule and to be ruled. And reflecting about these things, I think I see in all of them that that which especially incites to obedience is the praising and honoring of the one who obeys and the dishonoring and punishment of the one who disobeys.”
(21) “Yes, son, this is indeed the road to their obeying by compulsion, but to what is far superior to this, to their being willing to obey, there is another road that is shorter, for human beings obey with great pleasure whomever they think is more prudent about their own advantage than they are themselves. You might realize that this is so both from many other cases and surely from that of the sick, so enthusiastically do they call in others to give them orders as to what to do; and at sea, so enthusiastically do the sailors obey their pilots; and whenever some believe others know the roads better than they themselves, so strongly do they want not to be left behind. Yet whenever people think that they will incur any harm by obeying, they are not very willing either to yield to punishments or to be seduced by gifts, for no one is willing to receive even gifts when they bring him harm.”
(22) “You are saying, father, that for having obedient subjects, nothing is more effectual than to seem to be more prudent than they.”
“I am,” he said.
“And how, father, would someone be able to furnish himself with such a reputation as quickly as possible?”
“There is no shorter road, son,” he said, “to seeming to be prudent about such things as you wish than becoming prudent about them. By examining each case individually you will realize that what I say is true, for if you wish, without being a good farmer, to seem to be a good one—or horseman, doctor, flute player, or anything else whatsoever—consider how many things you must contrive for the sake of seeming so. Even if you should persuade many to praise you, so as to gain a reputation, and should acquire beautiful accoutrements for each of these [arts], you would deceive but for the moment; a little later, when put to the test, you would be openly refuted and exposed as a boaster as well.”
(23) “How could someone really become prudent about what is going to be advantageous?”
“Clearly, son,” he said, “by learning whatever it is possible to know by learning, just as you learned tactics. As for whatever cannot be learned or be foreseen by human foresight, you would be more prudent than others by inquiring from the gods through prophecy. And whatever you know to be better when done, take care that it be done, for it belongs to the more prudent man to take care of what is necessary rather than to neglect it.”
(24) “But as for being loved by one’s subjects, which seems at least to me to be among the most important matters, it is clear that the road to it is the same as that one should take if he desires to be loved by his friends, for I think one must be evident doing good for them.”62
“But son,” he said, “it is difficult to be able at all times to do good for those for whom one would like to. But to be evident in rejoicing along with them if some good should befall them, in grieving along with them if some evil, in being enthusiastic to join in helping them in difficulties, in fearing lest they should fail in something, in trying to use forethought that they not fail—in these matters one must somehow keep them company very closely. (25) And in action, if it is summer, the ruler must be evident in being greedy for a greater share of the heat;63 and if it is winter, of the cold; and if it is a time of toils, of labors, for all these things contribute to being loved by one’s subjects.”
“You mean, father,” he said, “that the ruler must also have more endurance against everything than do his subjects.”
“Yes, this is what I mean,” he said. “Take heart, however, on this point, son: Be assured that the same labors do not affect similar bodies in the same way, when one of them belongs to a man who is ruling, the other to a common [man].64 To the contrary, honor makes labors a bit lighter for the ruler, as does the very knowing that his acts do not go unnoticed.”
(26) “When the soldiers have what they need, father, are healthy, are able to labor, are exercised in the arts of war, are ambitious to appear to be good, and when obeying is more pleasant for them than disobeying, would not one who wished to contend against his enemies as soon as possible seem to you to be moderate?”
“Yes, by Zeus,” he said, “at least if one were going to get an advantage.65 But if not, insofar as I thought that I were better and that I had better followers as well, I would to this extent be more on my guard, just as in other respects we also try to put in greatest security those things that we think are most valuable to us.”
(27) “How, father, would one be especially able to get an advantage over his enemies?”
“By Zeus, son,” he said, “this is no ordinary or simple66 task you are asking about. But be assured that the one who is going to do this must be a plotter, a dissembler, wily, a cheat, a thief, rapacious, and the sort who takes advantage of his enemies in everything.”
And Cyrus, laughing, said, “Heracles, father, what sort of man you say I must become!”
“Being such a sort, son,” he said, “you would be a man both most just and most lawful.”
(28) “Why, then,” he said, “did you teach us the opposite of this when we were boys and youths?”
“By Zeus,” he said, “we do so even now as regards friends and citizens. But in order that you might be able to do harm to enemies, do you not know that you learned many evil deeds?”
“Indeed, I, at least, do not, father,” he said.
“Why did you learn to shoot a bow?” he said. “Why throw a spear? Why deceive wild boars with nets and trenches, and why deer with traps and snares? And with lions, bears, and leopards, why did you do battle without putting yourselves on an equal level with them, but instead you always tried to get the advantage when you contended against them? Or do you not realize that these are all evil deeds, ways of cheating, deceptions, and ways of getting the advantage?”
(29) “Yes, by Zeus, but against wild animals!” he said. “Yet with human beings, if I even seemed to wish to deceive anyone, I know that I used to get beaten.”
“Nor, I think, did we allow you to shoot a human being with your bows or spears. Instead, we taught you to shoot at a target so that you might not now do harm to your friends, yet, if ever a war should arise, so that you might be able to take aim at human beings as well. And we educated you to deceive and take advantage not among human beings but with wild animals, so that you not harm your friends in these matters either; yet, if ever a war should arise, so that you might not be unpracticed in them.”
(30) “Then, father,” he said, “if it is useful to know how to do both good and harm to human beings, you ought to have taught both with human beings.”
(31) “But it is said, son,” he said, “that in the time of our ancestors there was once a man, a teacher of the boys, who taught the boys justice in the way you insist, both to lie and not to lie, to deceive and not to deceive, to slander and not to slander, to take advantage and not to do so. He defined which of these one must do to friends and which to enemies. And he taught moreover that it was just to deceive even one’s friends, at least for a good [result], and to steal the belongings of friends for a good [result]. (32) Since this is what he taught, it was necessary that he also train the boys to do these things to each other, just as they say that the Greeks teach deception in wrestling and that they train the boys to be able to do this to each other. Some, then, having natural gifts for both deceiving and getting the advantage, and perhaps also not lacking in a natural gift for the love of gain, did not abstain from trying to take advantage even of their friends. (33) So, consequently, there arose a decree that we still use even now, to teach the boys simply, just as we teach servants in their conduct toward us, to tell the truth, not to deceive, not to steal, and not to take advantage, and to punish whoever acts contrary to this, so that being instilled with such a habit, they might become tamer citizens. (34) When they reached the age that you now have, it then seemed to be safe to teach also what was lawful toward enemies, for it does not seem that you could still be carried away to become wild citizens after having been raised together in mutual respect. Similarly, we do not converse about sexual matters with those who are too young, lest, when license is added to strong desire, the young might indulge this desire without measure.”
(35) “Yes, by Zeus.” he said. “Since I am a late learner of these ways of getting the advantage, father, do not be sparing if you have anything to teach about how I can get the advantage over my enemies.”
“Contrive, then, as far as is in your power,” he said, “to catch your enemies in disorder with your own troops in order; unarmed, with yours armed; sleeping, with yours wide awal visible to you, while you are yourself invisible to them; and on bad ground, while you lie in wait when you are yourself in a strong position.”
(36) “And how, father,” he said, “would someone be able to catch the enemy when they are making such mistakes?”
“Because, son,” he said, “necessity requires that both you and the enemy suffer many of these [vulnerabilities], for it is necessary that you both prepare meals, necessary also that you both go to sleep, and at dawn that all must withdraw to attend to necessities at almost the same time, and it is necessary to use such roads as there may be. Bearing all these things in mind, you must be on guard especially where you know you are weakest, and you must set upon the enemy especially where you perceive that they are most easily overcome.”
(37) “Then is it possible,” Cyrus said, “to get the advantage only in these ways, or in some others as well?”
“Much more in others, son,” he said, “for in these, for the most part, all take strong precautions, because they know they need them. But those who deceive the enemy and make them overconfident are able to catch them unguarded; and by offering themselves to be pursued, [they are able] to put them in disorder; and by leading them onto bad ground by flight, [they are able] to set upon them there. (38) Although you are a lover of learning of all these matters, you must make use not only of what you learn; rather, you must yourself also be a poet of stratagems against the enemy, just as musicians not only use the tunes they learn but also try to compose other new ones. Even in music, fresh tunes are extremely well regarded; but in things military, new stratagems win still higher regard by far, for they are even more able to deceive opponents. (39) But son, if you should do nothing more than apply against human beings the stratagems that you used to use even against very small animals, do you not think that you would go a long way in getting the advantage over your enemies? You used to get up during the night in the severest winter and go out for birds; and before the birds moved, your snares had been composed, and the ground you moved had been likened to the unmoved. You educated birds to serve your advantage and to deceive birds of the same breed. You yourself would lie in ambush so as to see them, but not be seen by them. You would practice drawing in the snares before the winged creatures escaped. (40) Against the hare, because he grazes at night and runs away in the day, you used to raise dogs that would find him out by his scent. Because he used to flee quickly when found, you had other dogs that had been trained to take him in pursuit. If he should escape even these, you learned their paths and to what places hares go when they run away, and you would spread out nets that are hard to see; and since he was frantic to escape, he would fall in them and himself entangle himself. So that he not escape even from here, you would station scouts of what would happen; and they, from close at hand, would be ready to set upon him quickly. And you yourself from the rear—but with a cry that did not lag far behind the hare—would by your shouting so startle him that he was senseless when taken. Yet teaching those in front to be silent, you would make them escape detection as they lay in ambush. (41) So, as I said before, if you should be willing to contrive such things against human beings as well, I do not know whether you would come up short of any of your enemies.67 If, after all, the necessity should ever arise to join battle on an even field, out in the open, and with both sides armed, in such a case, son, the ways of getting the advantage that have been prepared long in advance are very powerful. These that I mean are if the bodies of the soldiers have been well exercised, their souls well whetted, and the military arts well cared for.
(42) “This too you must know well, that all those whom you expect to obey you will expect in turn that you make plans on their own behalf. So never be unthinking, but at night consider in advance what your subjects will do for you when day comes, and in the day how things will be finest for the night.
(43) “As for how one ought to organize an army for battle; or how to lead it during day or night, or over narrow or broad roads, or mountainous or level ones; or how to pitch camp; or how to station guards by night or day; or how to advance against the enemy or retreat from the enemy; or how to lead past an enemy city; or how to advance against a fortress or retreat from one; or how to cross woods or rivers; or how to guard against cavalry, or against spearmen or archers; and if the enemy should appear while you are marching in column, how one ought to deploy against him; and if while you are marching in a phalanx the enemy should appear from somewhere else than from the front, how one ought to march against them; or how one might especially perceive the enemy’s [affairs]; or how the enemy might least know yours, why should I say all this to you? What I know you have often heard; and when anyone else seemed to know any of these things, you have neither been negligent nor remain ignorant of any of it. So, then, I think, you must use in light of the circumstances whatever of these things seems to you to be advantageous.
(44) “But learn from me also these things, son, the most important,”68 he said. “Never run a risk contrary to the sacrifices and auguries, either those for yourself or those for the army; and bear in mind that human beings choose their actions by conjecture and do not know from which the good things will become theirs. (45) You could come to know this from events themselves, for many—and those who seem wisest in these matters—have already persuaded cities to undertake wars against others by whom those persuaded to attack were then destroyed; many have elevated many private men and cities at whose hands, after they were elevated, they then suffered the greatest evils; and many, in the case of those they might have treated as friends, benefiting and being benefited, have wished to treat them as slaves rather than friends and have been punished by these same persons. To many it has not been acceptable to live pleasantly with their share; yet because they desired to be lords over all, they lost even what they had. Many, on acquiring much-wished-for gold, have been destroyed because of it. (46) Thus human wisdom no more knows how to choose what is best than if someone, casting lots, should do whatever the lot determines. Yet the gods, son, being eternal, know all that has come to be, all that is, and what will result from each of these things. And, of the human beings who seek counsel, to whomever they may be propitious, they give signs as to what they ought to do and what they ought not. If they are not willing to give counsel to all, it is no matter for wonder, for there is no necessity for them to care for anyone or anything unless they want to.”