NOTES

Key to Notes

MANY—Municipal Archives in the City of New York

RWL—Robert W. Woodruff Library Special Collections Department

MX FBI—Malcolm X FBI file

MXC-S—Malcolm X Collection, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture

BOSS—Bureau of Special Services

UTLSC—University of Tennessee Library Special Collection

KMC—The Ken McCormick Collection of the Records of Doubleday and Company

Prologue: Life Beyond The Legend

1 larger Grand Ballroom, holding up to fifteen hundred. See Eric William Allison, “Audubon Theatre and Ballroom,” in Kenneth T. Jackson, ed., The Encyclopedia of New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), p. 66.

1 accompanied by the occasional violent confrontation. Letter to the editor, Shirley G. Quill, New York Times, April 1, 1990. Quill observed that “long before the gruesome assassination of Malcolm X, the Audubon Ballroom was known as the cradle of the T.W.U., the first union of municipal transit workers in modern labor history.”

1 Two people were badly wounded. “Girl and Man Shot in Dance Hall,” New York Times, September 22, 1929.

3 “The Negroes at the mass level are ready to act.” M. S. Handler, “Malcolm X Splits with Muhammad,” New York Times, March 9, 1964; and M. S. Handler, “Malcolm X Sees Rise in Violence,” New York Times, March 13, 1964.

3 “who are responsible to white authorities—Negro Uncle Toms.” Emanuel Perlmutter, “Murphy Says City Will Not Permit Rights Violence,” New York Times, March 16, 1964.

4 and only one, briefly, was stationed. Herman Ferguson interview, OAAU member and eyewitness to Malcolm X’s assassination, June 27, 2003.

4 at a considerable distance from the featured event. Peter Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, revised edition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979), pp. 269, 274.

4 an easy escape to New Jersey. Ibid., pp. 416-19.

4 about as far as he could have been from the stage. William 64X George statement with New York County District Attorney’s office, March 18, 1965. The police interviews related to the Malcolm X murder investigation are available in Case File 871-65, Series I, New York Department of Records and Information Services, Municipal Archives in the City of New York (MANY). The district attorney’s case file on the assassination of Malcolm X is divided into three series, according to chronological periods corresponding with the murder case. Series I includes materials from the police investigation and indictment; Series II includes the 1966 murder trial; Series III encompasses the appeals of the convicted assailants, Norman Butler, Thomas Johnson, and Talmadge Hayer (aka Thomas Hagan). Of great significance is the availability of unredacted FBI internal documents and a copy of the full grand jury transcript of the Malcolm X murder trial, in Series I. The district attorney’s files were closed to the public until 1993, at which point they were transferred to the New York City Municipal Archives. For a comprehensive analysis of the case file, see Elizabeth Mazucci, “St. Malcolm’s Relics: A Study of the Artifacts Shaped by the Assassination of Malcolm X,” M.A. thesis, Columbia University, 2005.

5 Cathcart complied and returned to his seat. In his NYPD interview, Linwood X Cathcart was shown photographs of Norman Butler and Thomas Johnson, two NOI members who by then had been arrested for Malcolm X’s murder. Linwood X denied knowing the identities of Johnson and Butler from their photographs. He stated that neither man was in attendance at the Audubon Ballroom rally. Then, provocatively, according to police records, “Mr. Cathcart went on to say that Malcolm X could be compared to Benedict Arnold as he was also a traitor and that Allah takes care of us all.” See Augurs Linwood C. Cathcart interview with NYPD, March 22, 1965. Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

5 security people, he returned to his seat. Langston Savage grand jury testimony and NYPD interview with Langston Savage, March 22, 1965. Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

5 “We’re dealing with an entirely different group.” James 67X Warden (also known as Abdullah Abdur Razzaq and James Shabazz) interview, July 21, 2003.

5 to pay the manager that afternoon’s $150 fee. Officer William E. Confrey, “Interview of Mr. William Fogel, Manager of Audubon Ballroom, February 21, 1965.” Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

6 one of them was going to ignite a smoke bomb. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 418-19.

6 podium immediately following Benjamin’s introductions. Transcript of address by Benjamin 2X Goodman (also known as Benjamin Karim), delivered at the Audubon Ballroom, February 21, 1965. Copy and audiotape recording in possession of author.

6 Benjamin stepped down and returned to the backstage room. Ibid. Also see Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 271-73.

6 Malcolm yelled out, “Hold it! Hold it!” Transcript of address by Benjamin 2X Goodman. Malcolm X’s initial remarks can be heard on the tape recording.

8 “our manhood, our living, black manhood.” Malcolm X and Alex Haley, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Ballantine, 1999), p. 462.

8 formed a Malcolm X Democrat Club. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 378.

8 “any black cat in this curious place and time.” See James Baldwin, One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based on Alex Haley’s The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Dell, 1972); David Leeming, James Baldwin: A Biography (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), pp. 297-99; and Brian Norman, “Reading a Closet Screenplay: Hollywood, James Baldwin’s Malcolm X and the Threat of Historical Irrelevance,” African American Review, vol. 39, no. 2 (Spring 2005), pp. 103-18.

8 promoting the reelection of Richard Nixon. Paul Deloney, “Black Parlays in Capital Hail Nixon and Thurmond,” New York Times, June 12, 1972.

8 a portrait of Malcolm on the cover of one of its CDs. William T. Strickland and Cheryll Y. Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain (New York: Viking, 1994), p. 225.

8 “Quayle should think he’s talking about him.” Sam Roberts, “Dan Quayle, Malcolm X and American Values,” New York Times, June 15, 1992.

8 “a hero for black Americans today.” “Will the Real Malcolm X Please Stand Up?” Los Angeles Sentinel, January 7, 1993.

8 “undergirded his bond with blacks.” Gerald Horne, “‘Myth’ and the Making of ‘Malcolm X,’” American Historical Review, vol. 98, no. 2 (April 1993), p. 448.

8 “integrationist solution to racial problems.” Manning Marable, Living Black History: How Reimagining the African-American Past Can Remake America’s Racial Future (New York: Basic Civitas, 2006), p. 147.

10 “to the cause of liberating the black man.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. xxv.

10 “cellblock had a name for me: ‘Satan.’” Ibid., p. 256.

11 “it was like having tea with a black panther.” Ibid., p. xxv.

11 his autobiography is highly exaggerated. See the analysis of Detroit Red’s criminal career in Rodnell P. Collins and Peter Bailey, Seventh Child: A Family Memoir of Malcolm X (New York: Kensington, 1998).

Chapter 1: “Up, You Mighty Race!”

15 on July 29, 1890. Early (Earl) Little’s death certificate, March 30, 1931, Michigan Department of Community Health, Division of Vital Statistics, State Official Number 1338243. Copy in possession of author. There is some uncertainty about the precise birth date of Earl Little. According to the 1930 census, E. Little was born in 1891-92. However, in his 1959 passport application Malcolm placed the birth of his father, “J. Early Little,” in 1889. See MX FBI, Memorandum, July 27, 1959; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 17, 1959, p. 31.

15 eight thousand bales each year. “Reynolds,” The Butler Herald (Georgia), June 20, 191 1.

15 second only to Mississippi in lynching deaths. Walter White, Rope and Faggot (New York: Arno, 1969), pp. 254-56.

15 especially in masonry, carpentry, and the mechanical trades. Sarah A. Soule, “Populism and Black Lynching in Georgia, 1890-1900,” Social Forces, vol. 71, no. 2 (December 1992), pp. 431-49.

16 before finally settling in Montreal. Ira Berlin, The Making of African America (New York: Viking, 2010), p. 172.

16 He did not bother to get a legal divorce. The early years of Earl Little, Sr., and Louise Norton are described in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain. A literary treatment of the complex and often tense relationship between Malcolm’s parents is provided in Jan Carew, Ghosts in Our Blood: With Malcolm X in Africa, England, and the Caribbean (Westport, CT: Lawrence Hill, 1994). Also see Mary G. Rolinson, Grassroots Garveyism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), pp. 193-94.

16 small island homeland could provide. Louis A. DeCaro, Jr., On the Side of My People: A Religious Life of Malcolm X (New York: New York University Press, 1996), pp. 41-42. The 1930 census places Louise Little’s birth in 1898-99. On his 1959 passport application Malcolm states that his mother was born in 1896. See MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 17, 1959.

16 even sending delegations to international conventions. See Leo W. Bertley, “The Universal Negro Improvement Association of Montreal, 1917-1974,” Ph.D. dissertation, Concordia University, California, 1980.

17 advanced the national leadership of the reformers over their conservative rivals. There is a substantial body of scholarship on the conflict between Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois. The place to begin is with August Meier’s Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963). Other sources on Washington and Du Bois include Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856-1901 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972); Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901-1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983); Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Michael Rudolph West, The Education of Booker T. Washington (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006); Raymond Walters, W. E. B. Du Bois and His Rivals (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2002), and Manning Marable, W. E. B. Du Bois: Black Radical Democrat, second edition (Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2005).

17 religious and cultural institutions that nurtured black families. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 13-15.

17 naming their building Liberty Hall. Robert A. Hill and Barbara Blair, eds., Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), p. lxiv.

17 “is liberty, is real human rights.” Black Man, vol. 1 (July 1935), p. 5.

18 movement’s growing list of businesses. Marcus Garvey, “Autobiography,” in Hill and Blair, eds., Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons, pp. 92-93.

18 “the backward tribes of Africa.” Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), p. 81.

19 “Of the red, the black, and the green.” Garvey, “Autobiography,” in Hill and Blair, eds., Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons, pp. 49-50.

19 “Order of Ethiopia and Dukes of Niger and of Uganda.” Kelly Miller, “After Marcus Garvey—What of the Negro?” Contemporary Review, vol. 131 (April 1927), pp. 492-500.

19 “religion to the Negroes of the world.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 15.

19 “is fundamentally a religious institution.” Hill and Blair, eds., Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons, p. xxxvii. There are numerous studies on Garvey and Garveyism. Several important works are: Robert A. Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983-present); Rupert Lewis, Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1988); Claudrena N. Harold, The Rise and Fall of the Garvey Movement in the Urban South, 19 18-1942 (London: Routledge, 2007); and Emory J. Tolbert, The UNIA and Black Los Angeles (Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies, University of California Press, 1980).

20 putting Philadelphia behind only New York City in total membership. Peter Cole, Wobblies on the Waterfront: Interracial Unionism in Progressive-Era Philadelphia (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2007), pp. 138-39.

20 presidential candidate in the 1920 elections. Robert Gregg, Sparks from the Anvil of Oppression: Philadelphia’s African Methodists and Southern Migrants, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), pp. 189-90; and Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 1, 1826-August 1919, p. 515. Eason’s sale of his church building backfired, as congregants filed a civil suit against him. The majority of church members subsequently moved to replace Eason with the Reverend B. J. Bolding. In the wake of the controversy Eason relocated most of his activities for Garvey to Harlem, where he remained wildly popular. See Gregg, Sparks from the Anvil of Oppression, p. 190.

20 “French Negro . . . we represent all Negroes.” James Walker Hood Eason, “Declaration of Aims,” in Robert A. Hill, ed., Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 2, August 1919-August 31, 1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), pp. 502-7.

20 in more than eight hundred branch organizations or chapters. Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, p. 80.

20 one of the largest mass movements in black history. See Tony Martin, Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Strategies of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (New York: Dover, 1976); and E. U. Essien-Udom, Black Nationalism: A Search for an Identity in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).

21 and by 1923 membership totaled forty-five thousand. See Michael W. Schuyler, “The Ku Klux Klan in Nebraska, 1920-1930,” Nebraska History, vol. 66, no. 3 (1985), pp. 234- 56 ; and Eldora F. Hess, “The Negro in Nebraska,” M.A. thesis, University of Nebraska at Lincoln, 1932.

21 “frequently carrying American flags; others rode horses.” Schuyler, “The Ku Klux Klan in Nebraska, 1920-1930,” pp. 235-36.

21 “will drive the common allies together.” Ibid., p. 247.

21 where Klan supporters ensured its failure. Ibid., pp. 247-48.

22 and it had become a force in national politics. Hugo Black formally joined the Ku Klux Klan in Birmingham in 1923. His induction was in front of seventeen hundred Klansmen in the Robert E. Lee chapter. See Howard Ball, Hugo Black: Cold Steel Warrior (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 61. Robert Byrd joined the KKK in 1942, when he was twenty-four years old. See Eric Pianin, “A Senator ’s Shame,” Washington Post, June 19, 2005.

22 “the feelings of every real white American.” “Hon. Marcus Garvey Tells of Interview with the Ku Klux Klan,” in The Negro World, July 15, 1922, from Robert A. Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 4, September 1921-September 1922(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 707-15.

22 were far more ruthless than their leader. Colin Grant, Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 360-61; and Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 1, p. 515.

22 led local blacks to fear KKK reprisals. According to Rodnell P. Collins, the son of Malcolm X’s paternal half sister Ella Collins, Omaha’s black population feared that Little’s activities would “bring down the white folks on us.” See Collins, Seventh Child, p. 15. Collins’s book contains much valuable information about the relationship between Ella and Malcolm. However, Collins and his ghostwriter, Peter Bailey, embellished the narrative with their own speculations.

23 “as suddenly as they had come.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 1.

23 and a public picnic drew twenty-five thousand followers. Schuyler, “The Ku Klux Klan in Nebraska, 1920-1930,” pp. 236, 237-39.

23 The boy, Earl’s seventh child, was christened Malcolm. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 26. Malcolm later recalled, “I was born in a segregated hospital of a segregated mother and a segregated father.”

23 “much alive to its part in carrying on the great work.” Negro World, March 27, 1926. Louise Little’s report in the Negro World of July 3, 1926, noted that the Omaha division of the UNIA’s meeting of that day featured a poetry reading, prayer, a musical selection, and a discussion “about matters of the organization.” See Louise Little, “Omaha, Neb. Report,” Negro World, July 3, 1926.

23 Black Star Line and given a five-year sentence. Hill and Blair, eds., Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons, p. lxv.

24 to reverse Garvey’s conviction. Rolinson, Grassroots Garveyism, p. 158.

24 higher than in many other cities. Joe William Trotter, Jr., Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915-45, second edition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007), p. 60.

24 “black city within the city.” Ibid., pp. 87, 90, 93.

24 preventing racial strife between striking workers. Ibid., p. 57.

24 to elevate African Americans to elective office. Ibid., pp. 125, 135-36. Also see “News of Divisions,” Negro World, January 29, 1927, February 5, 1927, and February 19, 1927.

24 June 8, 1927, asking for Garvey to be released. Earl Little, W. M. Townsend, and Robert Finney, Officers, International Industrial Club of Milwaukee, to President Calvin Coolidge, June 8, 1927, in Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 6, September 1924-December 1927 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 561-62. Two years earlier, on April 27, 1925, the Milwaukee UNIA Division No. 207 had appealed to President Coolidge to grant executive clemency to Garvey. The UNIA branch’s appeal noted that “Mr. Garvey is suffering, and has for some years been suffering, from chronic bronchial asthma and is subject to attacks of vertigo.” In ibid., p. 204.

24 delayed only by the birth of yet another son, Reginald. Actually, the Little family may have moved from Milwaukee earlier. According to the Negro World issue of May 27, 1927, Earl Little is reported to have been the leader of the Indiana Harbor (East Chicago, Indiana) UNIA branch organization.

25 a lawyer, who filed an appeal. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 44-45.

25 “and they knew where the baby was.” Wilfred Little (Wilfred Shabazz) interview, in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, p. 21.

25 “away from the house,” Wilfred recalled. Ibid.

26 February 26, 1930, when it was quickly dismissed. G. W. Waterman, Special Report, Case 2155, “Suspected Arson,” People of the State of Michigan v. Earl Little (colored), November 8, 1929, in Department of State Police, State of Michigan, Lansing, Michigan; and information on George W. Waterman in 1910 and 1920 censuses.

26 would surely have made the late payment first. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 45-46.

27 and ultimately the Sweets were freed. See Joseph Tumini, “Sweet Justice,” Michigan History Magazine, vol. 83, no. 4 (July / August 1999), pp. 23-27; and Kevin Boyle, Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age (New York: Henry Holt, 2004). Gladys Sweet contracted tuberculosis during her incarceration and died at the age of twenty-seven. Dr. Ossian Sweet moved back into the Garland Avenue residence in 1928. Financial problems forced Dr. Sweet to sell the house in the 1950s; he committed suicide in 1960.

27 but to forfeit the disputed land. Bruce Perry, Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed America (Barrytown, NY: Station Hill Press, 1991), p. 11.

27 ‘Up, you mighty race, you can accomplish what you will!’ Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 6-7.

28 a poor neighborhood in west central Lansing. Douglas K. Meyer, “Evolution of a Permanent Negro Community in Lansing,” Michigan History Magazine, vol. 55, no. 2 (1971), pp. 141—54.

28 “it was the same as being down South.” Wilfred Little interview, in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, p. 20.

28 he was considered just such a troublemaker. Ibid., p. 21.

28 “and the shoeshine boys at the state capitol.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 5-6.

29 and started a daily newspaper, Blackman. Hill and Blair, eds., Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons, p. lxvi.

29 estimated membership in the city at seven thousand. See Ronald J. Stephens, “Garveyism in Idlewild, 1927 to 1936,” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 34, no. 4 (March 2004), pp. 462—88.

29 dangerous jobs in the foundries. See Thomas N. Maloney and Warren C. Whatley, “Making the Effort: The Contours of Racial Discrimination in Detroit’s Labor Markets,” Journal of Economic History, vol. 55, no. 3 (September 1995), pp. 456-93. In 1930, Ford Motor Company employed 25 percent of all black workers in Detroit. Also see Joyce Shaw Peterson, “Black Automobile Workers in Detroit, 1910-1930,” Journal of Negro History, vol. 64, no. 3 (Summer 1979), pp. 177-90.

29 or branch organizations were established there. See Stephens, “Garveyism in Idlewild, 1927 to 1936”; and “Concentration of UNIA Divisions by Regions, 1921-1933,” in Robert Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 5, 1826-August 1919(Berkeley: University of California Press,1991), pp. 751-52.

29 news of the movement from around the country. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 43.

29 become so crucial for Malcolm later in life. Ibid.

30 “It wasn’t the way they wanted things to go.” Wilfred Little interview, in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, p. 19.

30 reputation as Garveyite oddballs took its toll. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 46.

30 as a kind of shield from Earl’s beatings. Perry, Malcolm, p. 6.

30 as a boy came from his mother. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 4.

30 “noontime parades down Main Street were out.” Peter H. Amann, “Vigilante Fascism: The Black Legion as an American Hybrid,” Contemporary Studies in Society and History, vol. 25, no. 3 (July 1983), pp. 490-524; quotation from p. 406.

30 tarred and feathered, or just being run out of town. See Kenneth R. Dvorak, “Terror in Detroit: The Rise and Fall of Michigan’s Black Legion,” Ph.D. dissertation, Bowling Green State University, 1990; quotation from p. 106. Also see Michael S. Clinansmith, “The Black Legion: Hooded Americanism in Michigan,” Michigan History Magazine, vol. 55, no. 3 (1971), pp. 243-62.

30 “two . . . the accident was quite violent.” Florentina Baril interview, in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, pp. 14-25.

31 have been the victim of racist violence. Perry, Malcolm, pp. 12-13.

31 Louise reached him, he was dead. Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, p. 25.

31 “He ended up bleeding to death.” Ibid.

31 Early Little’s death better than Louise did. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 10.

31 “somebody had shoved him under that car.” Philbert Little interview, in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, p. 25.

31 Few blacks lived in the area. “Man Run Over by Street Car,” State Journal (Lansing, Michigan), September 28, 1931.

32 the policy payout was almost exhausted. Louise Little, “Petition for Widow’s Allowance,” Ingham County Probate Court, State of Michigan, February 24, 1932; U. S. Begley, M.D., petition to Judge of Ingham County Probate Court, State of Michigan, January 26, 1932; J. Wilson, dentist, petition to Ingham County Probate Court, State of Michigan, January 14, 1932; and John L. Leighton, petition to Ingham County Probate Court, State of Michigan, January 16, 1932, all in the Estate of Earl Little, File A-4053, Ingham County Probate Court, State of Michigan.

32 “she rented that out.” Yvonne Little Woodward interview, in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, p. 26.

32 as Philbert later admitted. Philbert Little interview, in ibid., p. 27.

32 “the hole that they had prepared.” Cyril McGuine interview, in ibid., p. 27.

33 “so happy to be around him that we worked.” Yvonne Little Woodward interview, in ibid., p. 28.

33 “go along with it—a Black Robin Hood!” Wilfred Little interview, in ibid., p. 28.

33 marital status, race, and other factors was widespread. See Susan Stein-Roggenbuck, “‘Wholly Within the Discretion of the Probate Court’: Judicial Authority and Mothers’ Pensions in Michigan, 1913-1940,” Social Service Review, vol. 79, no. 2 (June 2005), pp. 294-321. Michigan’s system of “mothers’ pensions” was not fully integrated into the federal government’s Aid to Dependent Children program until 1940.

33 “weren’t enough, as many as there were.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 12-13.

33 victims of the state’s bureaucracy. Ibid., pp. 18-19.

34 “would tell us stories about our ancestry.” Wilfred Little interview, in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, pp. 15-16.

34 take him in as a foster child. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 14-15.

34 “mother threw a fit, though,” Malcolm related. Ibid., pp. 15-18; and Thaddeus M. Smith, “Gohanna Family,” in Robert L. Jenkins, ed., The Malcolm X Encyclopedia (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002), p. 240.

34 “look what they put my mother through.” Yvonne Little Woodward interview, in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, p. 29.

35 “to kneel . . . because she was independent.” Wilfred Little interview, in ibid., p. 28.

35 he “jilted my mother suddenly.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 21; and Perry, Malcolm, pp. 30-32.

35 “watched our anchor giving way.” Ibid., p. 19; and Thaddeus M. Smith, “Gohanna Family,” in Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, p. 240.

35 for welcoming ex-convicts into their home. Malcolm X’s maternal half brother, Robert Little, discussed Malcolm’s experiences with the Gohanna family and Michigan’s foster care system, in Clara Hemphill, “Keep Children,” Newsday (New York), May 13, 1991.

35 did not know who or where she was. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 21; and Perry, Malcolm, pp. 30-32.

35 “an insane person . . . care and treatment in an institution.” Physician’s certificate of Louise Little’s institutionalization, January 3, 1939, in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, p. 32.

36 for the next twenty-four years. Mental Health File of Louise Little (B-4398), Ingham County Probate Court.

36 which contributed to neglect and improper diagnoses. See Catherine Jean Whitaker, “Almshouses and Mental Institutions in Michigan, 1871-1930,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1986; and “Kalamazoo Psychiatric Hospital,” Clarence L. Miller Local History Room, Kalamazoo Public Library, Kalamazoo, Michigan.

36 likely to have included electroconvulsive therapy. William A. Decker, Asylum for the Insane: History of the Kalamazoo State Hospital (Traverse City, MI: Arbutus, 2007), pp. 34, 195, 196, 199.

36 Mason, ten miles south of Lansing. Hemphill, “Keep Children.” Also see FBI surveillance report of Malcolm X, NY 105-8999, May 23, 1955. The report’s number indicates that the file was prepared by the FBI’s New York City office.

37 “Red,” due to the color of his hair. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 34-35.

37 “I jumped at the chance,” Malcolm recalled. Ibid., p. 36.

37 Massachusetts Avenue between Columbus and Huntington avenues. Ibid., pp. 37-38.

38 “white race as he is doing today.” Photograph of Mason’s 1940 football team, reprinted in Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, p. 34.

38 “in other words, keep him in his place.” Ibid., p. 39.

38 “Why don’t you plan on carpentry?” Collins, Seventh Child, pp. 209-10.

38 “could you pay all your bills? Let me know real soon.” Ibid.

Chapter 2: The Legend of Detroit Red

39 promptly walked out, never to return to a classroom. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 54.

39 refusal to be dominated, led to divorce in 1934. Collins, Seventh Child, pp. 51-52.

39 as Ella scrambled to assist her relatives. Ibid., pp. 50-51.

40 “could be considered a dangerous individual.” FBI—Ella X Collins, Memo, Elvin V. Semrad, M.D., to Daniel Lynch, Clerk, Boston Municipal Court, June 9, 1960.

40 and the two became involved. Collins, Seventh Child, pp. 60-61.

41 Boston was multiethnic and expanding. Violet Showers Johnson, The Other Black Bostonians: West Indians in Boston, 1900-1950 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana State University Press, 2006), pp. 38, 84.

41 extended family living in greater Boston. Collins, Seventh Child, pp. 42-43.

41 seek out better housing in places like the Hill. Johnson, The Other Black Bostonians, pp. 36-37, 121-22.

42 time as a “destructive detour” in an otherwise purpose-driven life. See Robin D. G. Kelley, “The Riddle of the Zoot: Malcolm Little and Black Cultural Politics During World War II,” in Joe Wood, ed., Malcolm X: In Our Own Image (New York: St. Martin’s, 1992), pp. 155—82.

42 Shorty immediately dubbed his new friend “Homeboy.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , pp. 45-47.

43 “in the Boston street life and nightclub scene.” Collins, Seventh Child, p. 42.

43 well informed whether pointing out gamblers or pimps. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , pp. 45-47.

43 redistributing the remainder as daily winnings. See Jessa Drucker, “Numbers,” in Jackson, ed., Encyclopedia of New York City, p. 856.

43 “Stomping at the Savoy,” were crafted for the Lindy Hop. The Lindy Hop dance began in the late 1920s and was the most popular swing dance for two decades. Its name derived from famous aviator Charles Lindbergh, following his 1927 solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean. See Marshall and Jean Stearns, Jazz Dance: The Story of American Vernacular Dance, second revised edition (New York: Da Capo, 1994); and L. F. Emery, Black Dance in the U.S. from 1619 to 1970 (Palo Alto: National Press Books, 1972).

43 watch the dancers go through their paces. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 52-53.

44 docile yet loyal, obese and hardworking. See “Motion Pictures,” in Augustus Low and Virgil A. Cliff, eds., Encyclopedia of Black America (New York: Da Capo, 1984), pp. 277-79.

44 Nellie LaFleur, the numbers queen. Ibid., p. 277.

44 the Fair Employment Practices Committee. “Labor Unions” and “A. Philip Randolph,” in ibid., pp. 493, 727.

44 latest gossip at Mason High School. Christine Hoyt to Malcolm Little, February 7, 1941, in “Malcolm X Collection, 1941-1955,” Manuscript Collection No. 827, Robert W. Woodruff Library (RWL) Special Collections Department, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.

44 some former sweethearts also kept in touch. Peter Hawryleiw to Malcolm Little, March 2, 1941, ibid.

44 to write more clearly in the future. Philbert Little to Malcolm Little, March 6, 1941, ibid.

45 relationships with several Lansing girls. Reginald Little to Malcolm Little, March 22, 1941, ibid.

45 his first colorful “zoot suit” on credit. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 54.

45 “after a lifetime of kinks, is staggering.” Ibid., pp. 55-56.

45 life as the ultimate act of self-debasement. Ibid., pp. 56-57.

45 wavy-haired Latinos, whom blacks sought to emulate. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 55.

45 to declare the wearing of a zoot suit a misdemeanor. Kelley, “The Riddle of the Zoot,” pp. 159-60. Also see Chester B. Himes, “Zoot Riots Are Race Riots,” Crisis, vol. 50 (July 1943), pp. 200-201.

45 place in Baltimore, Detroit, San Diego, and New York City. See Eric Lott, “Double V, Double-Time: Bebop’s Politics of Style,” Callaloo, no. 36 (Summer 1988), pp. 597-605; and Douglas Henry Daniels, “Los Angeles Zoot Race ‘Riot’: The Pachuco and Black Culture Music,” Journal of Negro History, vol. 82, no. 2 (Spring 1997), pp. 201-20.

46 inquiring about his intentions, but to no avail. Eleanor L. Matthews to Malcolm Little, October 9, 1941; and Matthews to Little, October 21, 1941, “Malcolm X Collection, 1941-1955,” RWL.

46 after Malcolm had moved to Harlem in early 1942. Gloria Strother to Malcolm Little, October 29, 1941, ibid.

46 as a blonde Armenian named Bea Caragulian. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 64.

46 discussion of Bea, who is referred to as “Sophia.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 72.

46 the far less glamorous Tick Tock Club. Robert L. Jenkins, “Beatrice Caragulian Bazarian,” in Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, pp. 94-95.

47 “the young ones and the old ones both.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 62-63.

47 working in the dining room as a waiter. Kofi Natambu, Malcolm X (Indianapolis: Alpha, 2002), pp. 57-58.

47 that he hoped to travel to California soon. Malcolm Little to Zolma Holman, November 18, 1941. The letter is in the possession of the Wright Museum, Detroit, Michigan, and was displayed with the Malcolm X exhibit, Schomburg Center, New York Public Library, 2005.

47 Martha’s Vineyard, describing her boredom. Catherine Haines to Malcolm Little, June 25, 1942, “Malcolm X Collection, 1941-1955,” RWL.

47 “not have wanted to hear it in the first place.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 71.

47 sixty thousand blacks from New York City had served their country. “Members of Nine Harlem Draft Boards Praised by Gen. Davis as They Get Medals,” New York Times, June 13, 1946. Also see Bernard C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military (New York: Free Press, 1986); and Arthur E. Barbeau and Florette Henri, The Unknown Soldiers: Black American Troops in World War I (Philadelphia : Temple University Press, 1974).

48 on a railroad line as a fourth-class cook. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 74.

48 “as laborers, janitors, guards, taxi-drivers and the like.” Ibid., p. 75.

48 coworkers began to call him “Sandwich Red.” Ibid.

48 “And Harlem was Seventh Heaven!” Ibid., p. 80.

49 along with the Cotton Club and Connie’s Inn. See Marc Ferris, “Small’s Paradise,” in Jackson, ed., Encyclopedia of New York City, p. 1079; Wallace Thurman, Negro Life in New York’s Harlem (Girard, KS: Haldeman-Julius, 1928); and Carl Van Vechten, Nigger Heaven (New York: Harper and Row, 1977).

49 “mostly men, drinking and talking.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 75.

49 an entertainment center featuring black performers. See Beth L. Savage, ed., African American Historic Places (Washington, D.C.: Preservation Press, 1994).

49 after winning the heavyweight championship. See Sondra Kathryn Wilson, Meet Me at the Theresa: The Story of Harlem’s Most Famous Hotel (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004); Amanda Aaron, “Hotel Theresa,” in Jackson, ed., Encyclopedia of New York City, p. 364; and Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 76.

49 “I had left Boston and Roxbury forever.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 76.

49 a hangout for the Apollo’s entertainers. Ibid., p. 80.

50 with customers, and especially with servicemen. Ibid.

50 “but they would pay him a thousand dollars a trip.” Wilfred Little, quoted in DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 68.

50 the conditions in which blacks lived and worked. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 108. Also see Albert Murray, The Blue Devils of Nada (New York: Pantheon, 1996), pp. 99—102.

50 on credit, but he had no intention of paying. See “Personal Business Records,” O.K. Tailoring Company, March 24, 1942, “Order received and owes $28.45”; and Empire Credit Clothing Company, July 14, 1942, “Owes $25.00,” in “Malcolm X Collection, 1941-1955,” RWL.

50 Boyle Brothers collection agency, which threatened legal action. Boyle Brothers Collection Service, no date, “Threatening court action”; Boyle Brothers Collection Service, no date, “Threatening court action if Little does not pay,” ibid.

50 his dues to the Dining Car Employees Union. “Dining Car Employees Union Bill,” no date, “Owes five dollars in union dues,” ibid.

51 “might have been taken as a man from Mars,” he recalled. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , p. 82.

51 with the bold signature “Harlem Red.” Ibid., pp. 82-83.

51 were spent pursuing a number of different women. Natambu, Malcolm X, p. 63.

51 fired seventeen days later for insubordination. Ibid., p. 64; and Collins, Seventh Child, p. 42.

51 prompting arrest for solicitation, and another firing. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , pp. 83, 99-101.

51 “over the place where he could sleep.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 68.

52 become famous as the comedian Redd Foxx. Ibid., pp. 66-67.

52 “how they could benefit us as a people.” Ibid., p. 67.

52 “ ‘fought the hardest to help free those Scottsboro boys?’ ” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , p. 79.

52 “Harlem was like it still is today—virtually all black.” Ibid., p. 85.

53 to Negroes who followed them north. Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), pp. 115-17.

53 part of the cultural bedrock of black Harlem. David Levering Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981), pp. 28, 104-5, 217-18.

54 global expression for youth culture. Osofsky, Harlem, pp. 3, 28, 128—31, 137.

54 the neighborhood in the New York State Assembly in 1940. Hulan Jack was elected Manhattan borough president in 1953, making him at the time the highest-ranking black official in the United States. Following his reelection in 1957, Jack was convicted for accepting an illegal gift of $4,500, and was forced to resign. See Calvin B. Holder, “Hulan Jack,” in Jackson, ed., Encyclopedia of New York City, p. 607.

54 employees were black, and all held low-wage jobs. Herman D. Bloch, “The Employment Status of the New York Negro in Retrospect,” Phylon, vol. 20, no. 4 (1959), pp. 327- 44 ; quotations from pp. 333 and 327.

54 period was estimated well above 50 percent. Ibid., p. 337.

54 estimated the average black family’s income at $1,025. Cheryl Greenberg, “The Politics of Disorder: Reexamining Harlem’s Riots of 1935 and 1943,” Journal of Urban History, vol. 18, no. 4 (August 1992), pp. 395-441; quotation from p. 399.

55 inciting to riot and malicious mischief to felonious assault and burglary. Ibid., pp. 403-8.

55 “to arrest an unarmed drunk, hit the drunk so hard that he died.” Ibid., p. 414.

55 white-collar positions at Consolidated Edison. Ibid., pp. 418-19.

56 two liberals campaigned together—and both won. Dominic J. Capeci, “From Different Liberal Perspectives: Fiorello H. LaGuardia, Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., and Civil Rights in New York City, 1941-1943,” Journal of Negro History, vol. 62, no. 2 (April 19 77), pp. 160-73; quotations from pp. 160-63.

56 Walton High School, Powell denounced the action. Ibid., p. 164.

56 over fascism abroad and racial discrimination at home. See “The Courier’s Double ’V’ for Double Victory Campaign Gets Country-Wide Support,” Pittsburgh Courier, February 14, 1942; and Lee Finkle, Forum for Protest (Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1975).

57 executive order placing the streetcar company under army control. Philip S. Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 1619-1981, second edition (New York: International Publishers, 1981), p. 265.

57 “a certain respect for white Americans faded.” James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time (New York: Dell, 1970), p. 76.

57 even the rising Republican star Thomas E. Dewey. Ibid., pp. 50, 52. Sources on the Savoy Ballroom include: Jervis Anderson, This Was Harlem, 1900-1950 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1982); Morgan Smith and Marvin Smith, Harlem: The Vision of Morgan and Marvin Smith(Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1997); and Stearns, Jazz Dance.

57 stop the ballroom from being closed down. Russell Gold, “Guilty of Syncopation, Joy, and Animation: The Closing of Harlem’s Savoy Ballroom,” Studies in Dance History, vol. 5, no. 1 (1994), pp. 50-64; quotation from pp. 54, 56.

58 “actions that didn’t help Harlem to love the white man any.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 116.

58 Powell demanded LaGuardia be impeached. Capeci, “From Different Liberal Perspectives,” p. 166.

58 housing projects constructed under the city’s authority. Ibid., p. 167.

58 assigned to escort trolley cars and buses. Harvard Sitkoff, “The Detroit Race Riot of 1943,” Michigan History, vol. 53, no. 3 (1969), pp. 183-206; quotation from pp. 195-96.

59 “physical disturbances, aided and abetted indirectly.” Greenberg, “The Politics of Disorder,” pp. 426-27.

59 to blacks to “please go home and stay inside.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 116-17.

59 black soldiers were simply going AWOL. See Harvard Sitkoff, “Racial Militancy and Interracial Violence in the Second World War,” Journal of American History, vol. 58, no. 3 (December 1971), pp. 661-81; and Paul T. Murray, “Blacks and the Draft: A History of Institutional Racism,” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 2, no. 1 (September 1971), pp. 57-76.

59 “to go and bleed for him? Let him fight.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 74.

60 “and I never heard from the Army anymore.” Ibid., pp. 108-10.

60 “sexual perversion, psychiatric rejection.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, January 28, 1955.

60 robberies and burglaries outside New York City. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 112.

60 “We just barely escaped.” Ibid., p. 118.

61 the filth and hypocrisy of the white man. Ibid., p. 122.

61 failed to turn up any criminal charges or arrests. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 30-31.

61 “no big-time racketeer or thug.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 69.

61 and subsequently “divide[d] the spoils.” Ibid.

61 New York City’s nearly all-white suburbs. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 112.

61 and sales receipts from the purchase of the goods. Ibid., p. 115.

62 the margins of musical taste and commercialism. There is an impressive literature on the impact of bebop during World War II. For example, see Lott, “Double V, Double-Time: Bebop’s Politics of Style”; Scott DeVeaux, “Bebop and the Recording Industry: The 1942 AFM Recording Ban Reconsidered,” Journal of the American Musicological Society, vol. 41, no. 1 (Spring 1988), pp. 126-65; Ira Gitler, ed., Swing to Bop: An Oral History of the Transition of Jazz in the 1940s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); and Scott DeVeaux, The Birth of Bebop: A Social and Musical History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

62 could not be so easily exploited and commodified. Frank Kofsky, Black Nationalism and the Revolution in Music (New York: Pathfinder, 1970), p. 56.

63 he had observed in Harlem as “the Zoot Effect.” Eric Lott, “Double V, Double-Time,” pp. 597-605.

63 “for the expression of outraged protest.” Kofsky, Black Nationalism and the Revolution in Music, pp. 64-65.

63 spirit of rebellion and artistic nonconformity. Ibid.

64 “usually to those spruced-up bars which he had sold to someone.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 126-27.

64 “but under proper guidance, a good boy.” John T. Herstrom, July 23, 1946, Prison File of Malcolm Little, Office of Public Safety and Security, Department of Corrections, Commonwealth of Massachusetts.

64 He was nineteen years old. “Malcolm Little Criminal Record,” ibid.; and MX FBI, Memo, Boston Office, February 17, 1953.

65 a warrant was issued for his arrest. Malcolm Little, “Out-State Progress Report,” February 14, 1953, Division of Pardons, Paroles, and Probation, State of Michigan, in Prison File of Malcolm Little.

65 speculation in the years following Malcolm’s death. Bruce Perry’s Malcolm asserts that on several occasions in 1944-45 Malcolm engaged in homosexual acts for payment. These “male-to-male encounters,” Perry observes, “afforded him an opportunity for sexual release. . . .ʺ Perry also cites sexual encounters in Boston in 1945 where a wealthy white man named William Paul Lennon paid Malcolm “to disrobe him, place him on his bed, sprinkle him with talcum powder, and massage him until he reached his climax. . . . Like a prostitute, he sold himself as if the best he had to offer was his body.” Perry adds that Malcolm would later excuse his actions by insisting that another man actually gave his white male client “satisfaction.” Perry’s claims, when published in 1991, generated a firestorm of criticism from those devoted to Malcolm’s iconic image, who pointed out that his only credible source for these escapades was “Shorty” Jarvis. See Perry, Malcolm, pp. 75-77, 82-83. Since the publication of Perry’s book, other evidence has surfaced that supports his general assertions. For example, according to Rodnell Collins, Malcolm revealed details to Ella Collins about “a business deal he and Malcolm Jarvis had with an elderly, wealthy white millionaire, named Paul Lennon, who would pay them to rub powder over his body.” See Collins, Seventh Child, p. 76.

65 to Bernard and Nellie F. Lennon. Federal United States Census (1910), Rhode Island, Providence County.

65 active in local Democratic Party politics. Robert Grieve, An Illustrated History of Pawtucket, Central Falls, and Vicinity: A Narrative of the Growth and Evolution of the Community (Pawtucket, RI: Pawtucket Gazette and Chronicle, 1897), p. 368. Also see Federal United States Census (1900), Rhode Island, Providence County; and Edward Field, State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations at the End of the Century: A History (Boston: Mason Publishing, 1902), p. 598.

65 “have had the requisite preliminary training.” The Catalogue of Brown University (Providence, RI: Brown University Press, 1960), p. 33.

65 his discharge he lived briefly with his parents. In the 1920 census, thirty-one-year-old William Paul Lennon appears residing in his parents’ household in Rhode Island. See Federal United States Census (1920), Rhode Island, Providence County.

65 to employ male secretaries in his home. Classified Ad 5, no title, New York Times, October 2, 1942; and Classified Ad 23, no title, New York Times, October 4, 1942.

66 as a “butler and occasional house worker.” “Employment History,” Prison File of Malcolm Little.

66 an affluent stretch of Arlington Street overlooking the Public Garden. Herstrom, July 23, 1946, Prison File of Malcolm Little.

66 “the old man would actually reach his climax from that.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , p. 143.

66 “send to his brothers and sisters in Lansing.” Collins, Seventh Child, pp. 68-69.

67 a mistake no veteran burglar would ever have made. Herstrom, July 23, 1946, Prison File of Malcolm Little; DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 72-73; and Natambu, Malcolm X, pp. 100-101.

67 additional merchandise, with a total value estimated by police at $6,275. Malcolm Little, “Out-State Progress Report,” February 14, 1953, Division of Pardons, Paroles, and Probation, State of Michigan, Prison File of Malcolm Little.

67 everyone in the gang was promptly arrested. Ibid.; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 73.

68 “a fifteen-to-twenty-year sentence or life in prison.” Malcolm L. Jarvis, Myself and I (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), pp. 33-35.

68 “I had had no business associating with white women.” Ibid., p. 42.

68 “‘friendless, scared lost girls.’” Collins, Seventh Child, p. 46.

68 “I would rather be dead than do ten years.” Jarvis, Myself and I, p. 34.

68 “constant fear,” she told the court with emotion. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 73-74; Natambu, Malcolm X, pp. 113-14; and Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 153.

68 seven months of a five-year sentence. Jenkins, “Beatrice Caragulian Bazarian,” in Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, p. 95; and Natambu, Malcolm X, p. 119.

68 as a steerer for Harlem prostitutes. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 96.

69 “best possible source, from his own women.” Ibid., p. 94.

Chapter 3: Becoming ʺXʺ

70 “physically miserable and as evil-tempered as a snake.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , p. 155.

70 “which seems to be affected because of his sensitiveness to color.” “Massachusetts State Prison Psychometric Report (of Malcolm Little),” May 1, 1946, Prison File of Malcolm Little.

71 “It grew stenciled on your brain.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 155.

71 “institution life at Charlestown [prison].” John F. Rockett, May 7, 1946, Prison File of Malcolm Little.

71 forced to eat in their cells. “Bay State Prison Started: Governor Calls Old Charlestown Institution ‘a Disgrace,’” New York Times, May 14, 1952; and Albert Morris, “Massachusetts: The Aftermath of the Prison Riots of 1952,” The Prison Journal, vol. 34, no. 1 (April 1954), pp. 35-37. Michael Stephen Hindus has examined the terrible conditions of Charlestown prisoners in the nineteenth century, equating them with slavery in South Carolina. See Michael Stephen Hindus, Prison and Plantation: Crime, Justice and Authority in Massachusetts and South Carolina, 1767-1878 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980).

71 1920 robbery and double homicide. “Sacco and Vanzetti,” in Paul Finkelman, ed., Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties, vol. 2 (New York: Routledge, 2006), pp. 1395-96; “End of Seven Years of Legal Fight,” Chicago Daily Tribune, August 23, 1927; and “Sacco and Vanzetti Pay Death-Chair Penalty,” Los Angeles Times, August 23, 1927. Sacco and Vanzetti were found guilty in 1921, in a trial characterized by anti-immigrant bias and hostility toward their political views.

71 “any current prison in the United States.” “Bay State Prison Started,” New York Times, May 14, 1952.

71 calling him the “Green-Eyed Monster.” Natambu, Malcolm X, p. 118.

71 “further nickname for him: ‘Satan.’” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 156.

72 but can also suffer mental breakdown. Ivan Fras and Joseph Joel Friedman, “Hallucinogenic Effects of Nutmeg in Adolescents,” New York State Journal of Medicine, February 1, 1969, pp. 463-65; R. B. Payne, “Nutmeg Intoxication,” New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 269 (1963), p. 36; and G. Weiss, “Hallucinogenic and Narcotic-Like Effects of Powdered Myristica (nutmeg),” Psychiatric Quarterly, vol. 34, no. 1 (1960), pp. 346-56. Weiss notes that “doses of two to three tablespoonfuls of powdered nutmeg tended to narcotize the subjects against the unpleasant experience of incarceration, without a blurring of the boundaries between the self and the outer world.”

72 “wished she hadn’t come at all.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 155.

72 fallen deeply in love with Malcolm. Collins, Seventh Child, pp. 74-75.

72 “adventurous, highly impressionable” boy. Ibid., pp. 75-76.

73 those decadent whites whom he had been hustling. Ibid., p. 71.

73 “poor in skill, and average to poor in effort.” “Institution History of Malcolm Little,” May 1951, Prison File of Malcolm Little.

74 to “study English and penmanship.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 156-57.

74 “So, feeling I had time on my hands, I did.” Ibid., p. 157.

74 English and elementary Latin and German. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 79.

74 of both commonly used and obscure words. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks (New York: Grove, 1967), p. 38.

74 including betting on baseball. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 79.

74 conditions of work and supervision. Morris, “Massachusetts: The Aftermath of the Prison Riots of 1952,” pp. 35-37.

75 and possibly William Paul Lennon. “Transfer Summary,” March 31, 1948, Prison File of Malcolm Little.

75 “of use to me when I regain my freedom.” Malcolm Little to Mr. Dwyer, Norfolk Prison Colony Transportation Board, July 28, 1947, ibid.

75 performance sufficiently so as to avoid severe discipline. “Institution History of Malcolm Little,” May 1951, ibid.

75 proper English, was completely dismissive. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 158; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 80.

75 “And they had the best program going.” Wilfred Little Shabazz interview with Louis DeCaro, Jr., August 14, 1992, in DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 80-81.

75 “I’ll show you how to get out of prison.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 158. In the Autobiography, Malcolm places the time of Philbert’s and Reginald’s letters after his transfer to the Concord prison, in January 1947. However, Wilfred Little, in his 1992 interview with Louis DeCaro, Jr., stated that this correspondence arrived while Malcolm was still at Charlestown.

76 all with windows and doors. Carl R. Doering, ed., A Report on the Development of Peneological Treatment at Norfolk Prison Colony in Massachusetts (New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene, 1940), pp. 33-34, 42-44, 73, 111.

76 observances were permitted for “Hebrews.” Ibid., pp. 35-44. Also see George B. Vold, “A Report on the Development of Penological Treatment at Norfolk Prison Colony in Massachusetts,” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 46, no. 6 (May 1941), p. 917. Vold observed that “criminologists will welcome this account of an effort in penology that was unique in many ways.”

76 reading agenda to include works on Buddhism. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 313.

77 stopped cursing the guards and fellow prisoners. “Institution History of Malcolm Little,” May 1951, Prison File of Malcolm Little.

77 held a deep animus toward blacks. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 161-63.

77 and Reginald all to become members. Karl Evanzz, The Messenger: The Rise and Fall of Elijah Muhammad (New York: Pantheon, 1999), p. 161.

77 “we were black and should be proud or anything like that.” Strickland and Greene, eds., Malcolm X: Make It Plain, pp. 59-60.

78 “to open my mouth and say goodbye.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 167-71.

78 and Philbert had been married for several years. Malcolm Little to Henrietta Little, October 16, 1950, Malcolm X Collection, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture (MXC-S), box 3, folder 1. Writing to Henrietta, Malcolm related how happy he was that “Allah has given both Philbert and me a wonderful Sister.”

78 and the couple had relocated to Grand Rapids. Malcolm Little to Philbert Little, December 18, 1949, MXC-S, box 3, folder 1.

79 together with a five-dollar bill. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 172.

79 against those who oppose Muhammad’s message. See Reza Aslan, No God but God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam (New York: Random House, 2003), pp. 43, 60, 79-81, 84-44; and Robert Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 8.

79 followers to marry Jews, as he himself did. Aslan, No God but God, p. 100.

80 was an Ethiopian former slave named Bilal. Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience , p. 13.

80 Muslims made up about 7 or 8 percent. Ibid., pp. 22-25, 27-32, 36-37.

81 uniting black humanity throughout the world. Wilson Jeremiah Moses, The Golden Age of Black Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), p. 21.

81 aesthetics drawing upon Africa and the black diaspora. Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, p. 50.

82 and their genealogy extended back to Christ. Ibid., pp. 92-93.

82 temples were investigated for sedition. Ibid., pp. 94-104.

83 who supported rapprochement with orthodox Islam. Ibid., pp. 109-28.

83 does away with all distinctions of race, color and creed. Mufti Muhammad Sadiq, article in Moslem Sunrise, January 1923, quoted in ibid., p. 129.

84 Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Chicago, and Kansas City (Missouri). Ibid., pp. 129-34. Literature documenting the history and evolution of the global Ahmadiyya movement includes: Humphrey J. Fisher, The Ahmadiyya Movement (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); and Yohannon Friedman, Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).

84 those of the Moorish Science Temple. Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, p. 127.

84 antiwhite views of the staunch Garveyite. Louis A. DeCaro, Jr., Malcolm and the Cross: The Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 11-12.

84 which connected in ancestry to Muhammad. Erdmann Doane Beynon, “The Voodoo Cult Among Negro Migrants in Detroit,” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 43, no. 6 (May 1938), p. 897.

84 “and higher mathematics, especially calculus.” Ibid., p. 900.

85 “I was turned around completely.” Ibid., p. 896.

85 “also a free transportation to the Holy City of Mecca.” Gardell, In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996), p. 56.

86 Asiatic black man from his centuries-long slumber. Ibid., pp. 151-53.

86 “yet time for me to be known.” Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, p. 151; and DeCaro, Malcolm and the Cross, pp. 29-30.

86 realize the shattered dreams of Garveyites. Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience , pp. 152-55; and DeCaro, Malcolm and the Cross, pp. 22-31.

87 instructed them in their roles as Muslim wives. Carlos D. Morrison, “The Rhetoric of the Nation of Islam, 1930-1975: A Functional Approach,” Ph.D. dissertation, Howard University, 1996, pp. 73-74; and Gardell, In the Name of Elijah Muhammad, pp. 60-61.

87 missionary efforts had been particularly well received. Gardell, In the Name of Elijah Muhammad, p. 56.

87 Then, in 1934, Fard simply vanished. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 212-13.

87 citing his arrest for disorderly conduct. Gardell, In the Name of Elijah Muhammad, p. 58.

87 black American organization, Development of Our Own. Ibid., pp. 58-59; and Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, pp. 166-67.

88 622 CE and Elijah Muhammad’s wanderings. Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience , pp. 167-68.

88 his followers to resist military service. Ibid., p. 168.

88 her husband and visiting him in prison. Malu Halasa, Elijah Muhammad: Religious Leader (New York: Chelsea House, 1990), p. 60.

88 “Holy City of Mecca, Arabia, in 1930.” Elijah Muhammad, The Supreme Wisdom: Solution to the So-Called Negroes’ Problem, vol. 1 (Newport News, VA: The National Newport News and Commentator, 1957), pp. 12-13.

88 “through its devilish nature, destroying itself.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 170.

89 “in the destruction of this world.” Elijah Muhammad, The Message to the Blackman in America (Newport News, VA: United Brothers Communication Systems, 1965), chapter 125, pp. 1-6.

90 and at his headquarters in Chicago. Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, p. 169.

90 “and give a focus to my inner life.” Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, eds., Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (New York: International Publishers, 1971), pp. xcii-xciii.

91 “wet, I was gone on debating.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 187.

91 which helped him attract listeners. Robin D. G. Kelley interview, July 26, 2001. Kelly argues that there existed an “important intersection between the great preachers” like Malcolm and the great jazz performers, who frequently talked about playing as “preaching.” In jazz, Kelley explains, “there are shout choruses that are called preacher’s choruses, in which you have a call-and-response. Someone like Ben Webster would play a measure, and then not play the next measure. . . . When Malcolm would speak, he would speak and leave a space for response, a space for congregations of people—whether it’s on the street or inside a mosque—to say, ‘Amen, Preach.’”

91 speaking style borrowed its cadences. Ibid. There is a growing scholarly literature on the rhetoric and effective use of language by Malcolm X. See John Franklin Gay, “The Rhetorical Strategies and Tactics of Malcolm X (Movement Theory, Neo-Aristotelian, Black Muslims, Persuasion),” Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1985; Andrew Ann Dinkins, “Malcolm X and the Rhetoric of Transformation: 1948- 1965,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1995; Archie Epps, “The Rhetoric of Malcolm X,ʺ Harvard Review, no. 3 (Winter 1993), pp. 64-75; Celeste Michelle Condit and John Louis Lucaites, “Malcolm X and the Limits of the Rhetoric of Revolutionary Dissent,” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 23, no. 3 (March 1993), pp. 291-313; and Scott Joseph Varda, “A Rhetorical History of Malcolm X,ʺ Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa, 2007.

91 “ever got more out of going to prison than I did.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 178-83.

92 “no circumstances don’t ever preach to me,” he warned. Malcolm Little to Philbert Little, no date (approximately mid-1948), MXC-S, box 3, folder 1.

92 “rid the planet of these wretched devils.” Malcolm to Philbert, November 28, 1948, ibid.

92 “vast emptiness created by men.” Malcolm to Philbert, February 4, 1949, ibid.

92 “I certainly woke up the hard way, hmm?” Malcolm to Philbert, February 1949, ibid.

92 a new appreciation for their mother. Malcolm to Philbert, December 12, 1949, ibid.

92 “as he had come, he was gone.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 190.

93 of “Master W. D. Fard, the Messiah.” Ibid., p. 192.

93 “truth in the first place,” he charged. Ibid., p. 190.

93 “ocean of blackness where I was to save me.” Ibid., p. 192.

94 of “his dislike for the white race.” “Transfer Summary for Malcolm Little,” March 23, 1950, Prison File of Malcolm Little.

94 “Saturday I told her to do whatever she can.” Malcolm to Philbert, March 26, 1950, MXC-S, box 3, folder 1.

94 “Cells to Facilitate ‘Prayers to Allah.’” See “Four Convicts Turn Moslems, Get Calls Looking to Mecca,” Boston Herald, April 20, 1950; and “Local Criminals in Prison, Claim Moslem Faith Now: Grow Beards, Won’t Eat Pork; Demand East-Facing Cells to Facilitate ‘Prayer to Mecca,’” Springfield Union (Massachusetts), April 21, 1950.

95 “Peace to cease,” Malcolm predicted, “peace will cease!” Malcolm Little to Commissioner MacDowell, June 6, 1950, Prison File of Malcolm Little.

95 “isn’t hard to convince people that I am.” Malcolm Little to Harry S. Truman, June 29, 1950, in MX FBI, Summary Report, Detroit Office, March 16, 1954, p. 6. Also see Karl Evanzz, The Judas Factor: The Plot to Kill Malcolm X (New York: Thunderʹs Mouth, 1992), p. 11.

96 “of the wicked accidental world.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 57-58.

96 his name “Malcolm X (surprised?).” Malcolm to Philbert, December 11, 1950, MXC-S, box 3, folder 1.

96 “However he can give me a home and a job.” Malcolm to Philbert, December 19, 1951, ibid.

97 “Just in all that I think, speak and do.” Malcolm Little letter, January 9, 1951, in MX FBI, Summary Report, Boston Office, May 4, 1953, pp. 5-6; and MX FBI, Memo, Boston Office, February 17, 1953. This report indicates that Malcolm “has been the subject of a Communist Index Card” by the FBI.

97 become targets of harassment by prison guards. Evanzz, The Judas Factor, p. 10.

97 composed primarily of bread and cheese. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 92.

97 had “read so much by the lights-out glow in my room.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , p. 193.

98 the petition be denied. Not surprisingly, Dever agreed. Ralph E. Johnson, Executive Secretary, Council Chamber, State House, to Elliott E. MacDowell, Commissioner, Department of Corrections, December 6, 1950; George E. Thompson, District Attorney for the Northern District, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, to Governor Paul A. Dever, December 13, 1950; and MacDowell to Dever, December 19, 1950, all in Prison File of Malcolm Little.

98 countries throughout the world. Malcolm Little to Commissioner MacDowell, December 13, 1950, ibid. Also see DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 94.

98 he go to Detroit to live with Wilfred. Philip J. Flynn, Massachusetts Supervisor of Parole, to Gus Harrison, State Supervisor of Parole, Division of Pardons, Paroles and Probation, State of Michigan, Lansing, Michigan, June 27, 1952, in Prison File of Malcolm Little.

98 date for his release was set for August 7. P. J. Flynn, Massachusetts Supervisor of Parole, to Parole Board, August 4, 1952; Flynn to Harrison, August 6, 1952; and Flynn to Harrison, August 12, 1952, ibid.

98 younger brother on as a salesman. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 95.

98 with the warden to resolve grievances. Morris, “Massachusetts: The Aftermath of the Prison Riots of 1952,” pp. 36-37.

99 “my life was about to become.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 195-96.

Chapter 4: “They Don’t Come Like the Minister”

100 it was ready for morning prayers. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 197-98.

100 Mecca for their prayers. Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Mecca, p. 170.

101 “the fine print that never was read.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 196-97.

101 but Wilfred advised patience. Ibid., pp. 198-200.

101 accompanied by three of his brothers. MX FBI, Memo, Detroit Office, March 16, 1954.

101 such peerless example recalled Job. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 201-2.

102 The point went home. Ibid., pp. 203-4.

102 Ismail al-Faruqi termed “Islamicity.” Ismail al-Faruqi quoted in Larry Poston, Islamic Da’wah in the West: Muslim Missionaries and the Dynamics of Conversion to Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 6.

102 metamorphosis adding to Malcolm’s reputation. FBI—Joseph Gravitt (also known as Captain Joseph and Yusuf Shah) file, St. Louis, Missouri Office, January 17, 1955; Robert L. Jenkins, “(Captain) Joseph X Gravitt (Yusuf Shah),” in Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, pp. 243-46. Also see Karl Evanzz, The Judas Factor; Collins, Seventh Child, p. 137.

103 United Auto Workers Local 900. Ferruccio Gambino, “The Transgression of a Laborer: Malcolm X in the Wilderness of America,” Radical History, vol. 55 (Winter 1993), pp. 7-31.

103 truck equipment, cranes, and road machinery. MX FBI, Memo, Detroit Office, March 16, 1954; and “Wood Workers,” Time, July, 20, 1936.

103 “material or grinds surface objects.” Gambino, “The Transgression of a Laborer,” p. 22.

103 “serve Mr. Muhammad in the lowliest capacity.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 204.

103 the beginnings of his life as a minister. Ibid., p. 205.

103 Michigan’s discharge followed shortly thereafter. “The Commonwealth of Massachusetts Parole Board Certification of Discharge, Malcolm Little #8077,” Prison File of Malcolm Little; and MX FBI, Summary Report, Detroit Office, March 16, 1954, p. 4.

103 claiming conscientious objector status. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 206-7.

104 “asocial personality with paranoid trends.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, January 24, 1955.

104 Detroit Temple No. 1’s assistant minister. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 205.

104 he was preparing for the ministry. MX FBI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, April 30, 1954.

104 “spreading his wisdom to his students.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 208-9.

104 delivered to one such gathering in early January 1954. Ibid, p. 216.

104 dangerous the sect was believed to be. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, September 7, 1954, cover page.

105 “the cult towards the white race.” Ibid., p. 3.

105 “to have been able to convert Ella.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 217-18.

106 throughout the last three weeks of March. MX FBI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, April 30, 1954; and MX FBI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, August 23, 1954.

106 and commercial ventures in Chicago. Sharron Y. Herron, “Raymond Sharrieff,” in Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, pp. 503-4. Also see Claude Andrew Clegg III, An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997).

106 most of the Nation of Islam’s ruling elite in Chicago. Evanzz, The Messenger, p. 162.

106 “cutting off a devil’s head.” FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, Philadelphia Office, November 19, 1954.

107 Fruit of Islam and as a substitute minister. Ibid.; and MX FBI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, August 23, 1954.

107 “contained over a million black people.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 219.

107 Temple No. 7 as its FOI boss. MX FBI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, April 30, 1954; and MX FBI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, August 23, 1955.

108 “sometimes not that many.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 221-22.

108 their garbage into the streets. For example, see “50 Called on Rubbish: Harlem Tenants Summoned for Tossing Refuse from Windows,” New York Times, May 1, 1954; and “93 Face Rubbish Charges,” New York Times, May 12, 1954.

108 for nearly all-white Flushing, Queens. “Tuberculosis Death Rate Here Declines 12 Percent from the Level of a Year Ago,” New York Times, June 10, 1954.

108 the Bronx, Queens, and Brooklyn. Alphonso Pinkney and Roger Woock, Poverty and Politics in Harlem (New Haven, CT: College and University Press Services, 1970), p. 27.

108 symbolized that growing clout. Layhmond Robinson, Jr., “Our Changing City: Harlem Now on the Upswing,” New York Times, July 8, 1955.

108 Tri-State Bank, in Memphis, Tennessee. “Boycott of Banks Slated in Harlem,” New York Times, March 5, 1955.

109 “themselves and voting as independents.” “G.O.P. Appeal in Harlem,” New York Times, October 18, 1956; and “Powell Sees Shift of Negroes to G.O.P.,ʺ New York Times, November 7, 1956.

109 address racial discrimination in the city. “10,000 in Harlem Protest Verdict,” New York Times, September 26, 1955.

109 “white-skinned people in free America.” Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, p. 135.

110 1,331 of them had any nonwhite members. Ibid.

110 drummer Kenny Clarke’s (Liaqat Ali Salaam). Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam, p. 58.

110 visa for a pilgrimage to Mecca, in 1957. Ibid., pp. 61, 112.

110 by a black couple, Curtis and Susie Kenner. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, January 28, 1955.

110 Cincinnati, Ohio, to support local initiatives. MX FBI, Summary Report, May 23, 1955, p. 25; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, April 23, 1957, p. 22.

111 but sharply reminded the faithful that he (Joseph) “was not.” FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, June 9, 1955.

111 the Shabazz restaurant on Fifth Avenue. FBI—Gravitt, Memo, New York Office, January 7, 1955.

111 it was announced that he would be remaining in New York. FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, June 9, 1955.

112 ever having been a member of the Communist Party. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, date illegible (around mid-1955). Based on its expanded surveillance of Malcolm X in the first five months of 1955, the New York FBI office advised the office of Director J. Edgar Hoover: “In view of the subject’s long active membership in the MCI and his position as minister of the MCI as well as his speeches and statements against the U.S. government, it is believed that he could possibly commit acts inimical to the national defense and public safety in a time of emergency.”

112 with FBI agents who might contact them. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 31, 1956, pp. 33-34.

112 “of the white man by the ‘black man.’” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 23, 1955, pp. 23-24.

112 New York City on May 11, 1933. Curtis Austin, “Louis Farrakhan,” in Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, pp. 218-19.

112 “in my mind, and in my spirit.” Louis Farrakhan, “The Murder of Malcolm X and Its Effects on Black America—Twenty-five Years Later,” lecture delivered at Malcolm X College, Chicago, Illinois, February 21, 1990. Text of speech in possession of author.

113 first as Louis X, and then as Louis Farrakhan. Evanzz, The Messenger, p. 168.

113 “I was scared of him.” Louis Farrakhan (also known as Louis X Walcott) interview, December 27, 2007; and Farrakhan, “The Murder of Malcolm X and Its Effects on Black America.”

113 They heard nothing for five months. Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

113 “talk the way this brother talked,” Farrakhan recalled. Ibid.

113 “nook and cranny in the United States of America.” Ibid.

114 “the father I never had.” Farrakhan, “The Murder of Malcolm X and Its Effects on Black America.”

114 Within a year Louis was elevated to minister. Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

114 that became wildly popular among temple members. Evanzz, The Messenger, pp. 168-69.

115 “has always been to be good at both,” he said. James 67X Warden interviews, July 24, 2007, and August 1, 2007.

115 “the other dog in the streets.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 31, 1956, p. 18.

115 “whether you want to survive the war of Armageddon.” Ibid., pp. 6-7.

116 “to frighten the black men who are still dead.” Ibid., p. 7.

116 “very wrong that sisters are not coming in.” Ibid., p. 10.

116 “who has any chance to save himself.” Ibid., p. 22.

116 “so if you are not white you must be black.” Ibid., p. 11.

117 “many members . . . as he possibly can.” Ibid., pp. 33-34.

117 commitment to the international Islamic community. See Yvonne Haddad and Jane Smith, Mission to America: Five Islamic Sectarian Communities in North America (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993), pp. 49-78.

117 “Black Muslims” to describe the Nation of Islam. Ibid., p. 252.

117 “required precision and order of the service.” Frederick Mathewson Denny, An Introduction to Islam (New York: Macmillan, 1985), p. 105.

118 “intercessors between humans and God.” Ibid., p. 237.

118 generally have not participated in politics. Hamid Enayat, Modern Islamic Political Thought (London: I. B. Taurus, 1982), pp. 22, 26-27.

118 religious knowledge and truth over time. Ibid., p. 23.

118 but who also practices spiritual self-discipline. Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam, pp. 274-75.

119 transnational conference of colored peoples in history. George McTurnan Kahin, The Asian-African Conference: Bandung, Indonesia, April 1955 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1956), p. 39.

120 decline and fall of European and U.S. power. Ibid., p. 81. See Liz Mazucci, “Going Back to Our Own: Interpreting Malcolm Xʹs Transition from ‘Black Asiatic’ to ‘Afro-American,’ ” Souls, vol. 7, no. 1 (Winter 2005), pp. 66-83.

120 “are united all over the world to fight the ‘devils.’ ” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, May 23, 1955.

120 Pan-Africanism, Pan-Islam, and Third World liberation. Melani McAlister, “One Black Allah: The Middle East in the Cultural Politics of African American Liberation, 1955-1970,” American Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 3 (1999), p. 631.

121 because he was hardest on himself. James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.

121 “late for an appointment. Malcolm was like a clock.” Farrakhan, “The Murder of Malcolm X and Its Effects on Black America.”

121 “lost-founds” was sufficient compensation. James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.

122 “you would have gotten out of the temple.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 31, 1956, p. 10.

122 his self-destructive opposition to Elijah Muhammad. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 88. DeCaro interviewed Jeremiah Shabazz in Philadelphia on May 17, 1993.

122 while both were serving time in prison. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 109.

122 more than forty new converts had been won. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 226.

123 highly paid skilled workers and trade unionists. Ibid., p. 229.

123 “than in every place in the world.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office to the Director, no date.

124 “the destruction of the ‘devil.’ ” Ibid.

124 he would be criticized on some point or other. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 226-27.

125 Joseph’s advancement as the Nation’s supreme captain. Collins, Seventh Child, p. 137.

125 damaging rumor about Elijah Muhammad that was circulating. See Evanzz, The Judas Factor, pp. 184-85.

125 “or anything, because you should know better.” Transcript of audiotaped recording. Disciplinary trials supervised by Malcolm X at NOI Temple No. 7, Harlem, mid-September 1956. Audiotape provided by the Nation of Islam and Akbar Muhammad.

126 “good work for Allah and his Messenger in the Nation.” Ibid.

126 “all of those Muslims that follow him are outcasts.” Ibid.

126 to hold a job as a night cook at the temple’s restaurant. FBI—Gravitt, Memo, New York Office, December 12, 1956.

126 had been fully restored to his rank. FBI—Gravitt, Memo, New York Office, October 23, 1956.

126 whose members were working-class blacks. Collins, Seventh Child, p. 104.

127 frequent examples of police brutality toward blacks. Tillman Durdin, “Barriers for Negro Here Still High Despite Gains,” New York Times, April 23, 1956.

127 the NOIʹs restaurant several blocks away with the news. James Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim: ‘God’s Angry Men’ Tangle with Police,” Amsterdam News, May 4, 1957; and Evelyn Cunningham, “Moslems, Cops Battle in Harlem,” Pittsburgh Courier, May 4, 1957.

128 Hinton was transported in an ambulance to Harlem Hospital. Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim.”

128 down the busiest thoroughfare in Harlem. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 238-39.

128 A confrontation appeared inevitable. Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim”; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 112-13.

128 “No one man should have that much power.” Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim.”

129 “as orderly as a battalion of Marines.” Ibid.; and “400 March to Score Police in Harlem,” New York Times, April 29, 1957.

129 judgment that a New York jury had ever awarded. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 239; and “Moslem Announces $Million NY Suit,” Pittsburgh Courier, November 9, 1957. A large silver plate was inserted in Hinton’s skull to replace the bone that the police beating had shattered. Hinton was permanently disabled.

129 or to be “on the side of my people.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 113.

Chapter 5: “Brother, a Minister Has to Be Married”

130 “with plagues of cancer, polio, [and] heart disease.” Malcolm X, “God’s Angry Men,” Amsterdam News, June 1, 1957.

130 he rarely failed to deliver a command performance. See “Mr. X Tells What Islan [sic] Means,” Amsterdam News, April 20, 1957; and Malcolm X, “God’s Angry Men,” Amsterdam News, April 27, 1957.

131 “beginning to realize that there is strength in numbers.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, April 30, 1958.

131 and Ahmad Zaki el-Barail, the Egyptian attaché. “2,000 at Moslem Feast in Harlem,” Amsterdam News, July 20, 1957.

131 an impressive lineup of speakers was present. “New Yorkers to Honor Marcus Garvey,” Chicago Defender, August 2, 1957.

131 “being nothing but ‘puppets for the white man.’ ” “Moslem Speaker Electrifies Garvey Crowd,” Amsterdam News, August 19, 1957.

132 “information with photo showing full description.” Thomas A. Nielson, Chief Inspector, to Paul R. Taylor, Police Chief, Lansing, Michigan; Nielson to John W. Whearty, Chief of Police, Milton, Massachusetts; Nielson to Edward S. Piggins, Police Commissioner, Detroit, Michigan; Nielson to Michigan Parole Commission, Inkster, Michigan; Nielson to Walter Carroll, Chief of Police, Dedham, Massachusetts; Nielson to Superintendent of State Prison, Charlesten [sic], Massachusetts; and Nielson to Superintendent, Massachusetts State Reformatory, Concord Massachusetts, all May 15, 1957 in Malcolm X Bureau of Special Services (BOSS) file, New York Police Department.

132 “does speak out, he is always too late.” “Malcolm X Will Lecture Four Weeks at Detroit Spot,” Pittsburgh Courier, August 17, 1957.

133 begin to take matters into his own hands. “‘Negroes, No Compromise on Civil Rights’ Malcolm X,ʺ Los Angeles Herald Dispatch, August 22, 1957.

133 They were hardly “revolutionaries.” W. Haywood Burns, “The Black Muslims in America: A Reinterpretation,” Race, vol. 5, no. 1 (July 1963), pp. 29-31.

134 would become head minister of Temple No. 1. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, April 30, 1958.

134 in that city were “packed to capacity.” “Malcolm X Making Hit in Detroit,” Amsterdam News, September 7, 1957.

134 produced major gains for the Nation. “Malcolm X Returns; Detroit Moslems Grow,” Amsterdam News, October 26, 1957.

134 advised that he take time off, but he adamantly refused. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 117; and “Malcolm Shabazz Speaker at DC Brotherhood Feast,” Amsterdam News, November 30, 1959.

134 for his protégé Louis X, the Boston temple minister. “Malcolm X in Boston,” Amsterdam News, November 9, 1957; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 117.

134 he argued, “but a Jew can.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, June 22, 1961.

135 “menace to society, but to world peace.” Telegram, Malcolm X to Stephen Kennedy, NYPD Commissioner, November 2, 1957, BOSS.

135 name and address of his private physician. Memorandum, Walter Upshur to the BOSS Commanding Officer, November 7, 1957, ibid.

135 in Detroit, and soon after departed. MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 22, 1961, p. 20.

135 “uniting Negroes where it is heard.” “Malcolm X Speaks in Detroit Again,” Amsterdam News, December 14, 1957.

135 he was using this name widely by 1957. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 117.

136 “hard-working, Christian-believing black woman.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 274.

136 Atlanta temple had doubled its membership. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 118.

136 secure their release with only minor fines. Ibid., p. 120; and “Moslem Fight R.R. Station Bias, Jailed,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 7, 1957. The county solicitor hearing the case levied fines of $226 on each of the two Muslim men. Considering that the Muslims had severely beaten the white police officer who initially tried to arrest them, it was a remarkably lenient fine.

137 “creation of the Northern white man.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 276-77.

137 Columbia University’s East Asian Institute. James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.

138 “being arrested, I will never come back.” James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.

138 “This was not the case.” Ibid.

139 at the Bronx’s Montefiore Hospital. Russell J. Rickford, Betty Shabazz: A Life Before and After Malcolm X (Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2003), pp. 2-11, 23, 27, 31.

139 “This man is totally malnourished!” she thought. Ibid., p. 39.

139 “nor drinks and is of high moral character.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1959, p. 20.

140 Sundays reserved for the week’s main religious service. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , pp. 231-32.

141 “that if she complains she is justified.” Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959. Copy in possession of author.

141 “carry a gun, or telling a hen not to cackle.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 231-32.

142 “control her if he expects to get her respect.” Ibid.

142 chaos, or fitna, if not tightly controlled. Robert Dannin observes that “most Muslim commentators regard sexuality as a purely carnal activity that will wreak chaos and confusion in the social body if it is not systematically controlled.” See Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam, p. 217.

142 commitment toward an Islamic lifestyle. Denny, An Introduction to Islam, pp. 300-301.

142 reveal what they hide of their adornment. Holy Qurʹ an, surah XXIV, verse 31.

143 “wants a sterile wom[a]n?” he asked rhetorically. See Muhammad, Message to the Blackman in America, especially chapter 35.

143 “[and] that there will be economic stability.” Farah Jasmine Griffin interview, August 6, 2001.

143 as well as other community concerns. See Cynthia Sʹthembile West, “Revisiting Female Activism in the 1960s: The Newark Branch Nation of Islam,” Black Scholar, vol. 26, nos. 3-4 (Fall 1996/Winter 1997), pp. 41-48.

144 romantically attracted to her she might reject him. Malcolm X and Haley Autobiography, pp. 231-34.

144 that he thought Betty X was “a fine sister.” Ibid., p. 234.

145 chief instigator of his lieutenant’s marriage. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 62-65, 66.

145 deeply in love with Evelyn Williams. Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

145 pursued her “persistently and correctly.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 62-66.

145 packed her suitcase and made plans to fly to Detroit. Ibid., pp. 66-70; and Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 234-35.

145 but she was determined to have her way. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 71-73.

145 Malloys “were very friendly, and happily surprised.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , p. 235.

146 “kissing and hugging . . . like Cinderella.” Ibid., pp. 235-36.

146 “all the time. Maybe she did get me!” Ibid., p. 236.

146 ran from the building screaming. Evanzz, The Messenger, p. 261.

147 “who has been brought up under the devil can accept this.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 103; and James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.

147 “the greatest thing in my life.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 78.

148 only name he had come up with was a boy’s. Ibid., p. 109.

148 he virtually disappeared following the birth. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 232; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1959, pp. 31-32.

148 to speak at an NOI gathering. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1958, p. 6.

148 before moving along to Newark, New Jersey. Ibid., pp. 18, 22.

148 he allowed her to continue working to clear these debts. Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.

149 at meetings held at the Normandie Hall in Los Angeles. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 19, 1958, pp. 6-10; “Build Heaven on Earth,” Los Angeles Herald Dispatch, March 27, 1958.

149 gala reception honoring the Republic of Pakistan. “Moslems Celebrate Third Pakistan Republic Day in L.A.,ʺ Los Angeles Herald Dispatch, March 27, 1957.

149 media “since it is controlled by the Zionists.” “Sees Aggressive Zionism as Threat to World Peace,” Los Angeles Herald Dispatch, April 10, 1958; and “Arab Director, Malcolm X Hit U.S. Press, Radio, TV,ʺ Amsterdam News, May 3, 1958. At the April 7, 1958, press conference, Mendi denied that there was any conflict between “Arabs and Jews”; the only real difficulty existed between Arabs and “aggressive Zionists.”

149 African-American churches and the poverty of their worshippers. “Christians Walk Out on Moslems,” Amsterdam News, April 26, 1958.

149 find among those standing his sister Ella. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 237-38.

149 “she married and of being pregnant, and she cursed me too.ʺ Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.

150 “you and her were no longer equals.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 144.

150 “(not able to engage in the act long enough to satisfy her).” Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.

150 on the ground floor of the Littlesʹ duplex. The 1958 police raid on Malcolm Xʹs East Elmhurst, Queens, home is recounted in detail in “Three Moslems Seized as Police Fighters: Home of ʹXʹ Groupʹs Leader Site of Battle,” Amsterdam News, May 24, 1958; “Moslems Await ʹD-Dayʹ in N.Y. Court,” Pittsburgh Courier, May 24, 1958; and “Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 28, 1959.

151 (either in the ground-floor living quarters or in the basement.) Memorandum, Detective William K. DeFossett to BOSS Commanding Officer, May 27, 1958, BOSS.

151 all were eventually released on bail. “Three Moslems Seized as Police Fighters,” Amsterdam News; “Moslems Await ʹD-Dayʹ in N.Y. Court,” Pittsburgh Courier; and “Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 28, 1959.

152 one press account, utterly amazed the police. “Moslems Await ‘D-Day’ in N.Y. Court,” Pittsburgh Courier.

152 1958 Saviour’s Day festivities in Chicago. FBI—Betty Sanders (also known as Betty Shabazz and Betty X) file, Summary Report, New York Office, June 30, 1958.

152 and another for $742.42 to Sacks Quality Stores, Inc. FBI—Sanders, Summary Report, New York Office, December 9, 1964.

152 so they can help their own people. FBI—Sanders, Summary Report, New York Office, June 2, 1959. Betty Shabazz also gave a speech at the NOI meeting in Hartford, Connecticut, on September 13, 1959.

153 speeches primarily based on the event. MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 22, 1961, pp. 55-56.

153 “key points that forced the jury into a deadlock.” “Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,” Pittsburgh Courier; and Report of Little-Molette-Simmons Trial, Memorandum, March 27, 1959, BOSS.

154 a surveillance update every six months. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, July 2, 1958.

154 Jim Crow segregation and Northern discrimination. As Oliver Jones, Jr., has observed, the Nation of Islam drew upon the traditional demands of black nationalism, but it was not primarily concerned with constructing an agenda and political strategy to achieve these objectives. The Muslims’ “belief in a nation of their own never produced a political program for the establishment of such a national home,” Jones noted. “Indeed, the Muslims looked to Allah instead of Washington for the ultimate solution.” See Oliver Jones, Jr., “The Black Muslim Movement and the American Constitutional System,” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 13, no. 4 (June 1983), pp. 417-37.

Chapter 6: “The Hate That Hate Produced”

156 protesters by declaring racial gerrymandering illegal. A good general reference is August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto, third edition (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976), pp. 267-79.

156 to investigating and publicizing racist crimes. Myrlie Evers-Williams and Manning Marable, eds., The Autobiography of Medgar Evers: A Hero’s Life and Legacy Revealed Through His Writings, Letters and Speeches (New York: Basic Civitas, 2005), pp. 14-15.

156 of the new Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Devon W. Carbada and Donald Weise, eds., Time on Two Crosses: The Collected Writings of Bayard Rustin (San Francisco: Cleis, 2003), pp. x-xxv.

156 American Committee for the Protection of the Foreign Born. Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), p. 162.

157 to endear Robeson to white authorities. Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York: Ballantine, 1989), pp. 454-55, 460.

157 to pressure his government to cancel the event. Ibid., pp. 461-62.

157 promptly charged him with kidnapping. See Timothy B. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).

157 conferences and rallies in more than two dozen cities. Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), pp. 178-83.

158 won more Harlem votes than in his previous elections. See Charles Rosenberg, “Davis, Benjamin J., Jr.,” in Paul Finkelman, ed., Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-first Century, vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 14-15.

158 the NAACP, also ran for the council. Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement, pp. 153-55, 157-58.

158 assembly members; and ten of its 189 judges. Biondi, To Stand and Fight, pp. 215-19.

158 “couched in left-wing phraseology.” Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: From Its Origins to the Present (New York: William Morrow, 1967), p. 227.

158 its associations with the Marxist Left. Ibid., p. 245.

159 such notable intellectuals as Allen Ginsberg, C. Wright Mills, and I. F. Stone. Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life (New York: Grove, 1997), pp. 399, 416, 409.

159 sponsored Williamsʹs first trip to Cuba. Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting ʹTil the Midnight Hour (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), pp. 29-30.

159 “violence to successful revolutions.” Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, pp. 356-57.

160 “know that the devil has no Justice for you.” Elijah Muhammad to Minister James 3X Shabazz, April 28, 1959. Copy in possession of author.

160 presented the Nation of Islam in a favorable light. See Al Nall, “Moslem Trial Begins,” Amsterdam News, March 7, 1959; Al Nall, “Moslems Accuse Cops,” Amsterdam News, March 14, 1959; and Al Nall, “Moslems Go Free,” Amsterdam News, March 21, 1959.

160 for a crusading African-American press. “Say Paper Helped Free 5 Moslems,” Amsterdam News, April 11, 1959.

160 a familiar presence on New York-area television. Val Adams, “Wallace May Get New TV Programs,” New York Times, February 11, 1959.

160 from American University and Yale (in 1944 and 1947 respectively). See “Louis Lomax, 47, Dies in Car Crash,” New York Times, August 1, 1970; David Shaw, “Louis Lomax, Black Author, Killed in Crash,” Los Angeles Times, August 1, 1970; and “Author Lomax Killed When His Auto Overturns,” Chicago Tribune, August 1, 1970.

160 “skits over the air in the District of Columbia.” FBI—Louis E. Lomax file, Memo, M. A. Jones to Louis B. Nichols, February 2, 1956.

161 during which time his wife had divorced him. FBI—Lomax, Memo, Chicago Office, February 7, 1956.

161 the Associated Negro Press in Washington. Ibid.

161 in magazines such as Pageant, Coronet, and The Nation. FBI—Lomax, Memo, G. C. Moore to W. C. Sullivan, February 23, 1969. This memo states, “Bureau files reflect that Lomax is an unscrupulous charlatan who has been extremely critical of the FBI and the Director.” The FBI also noted that Lomax’s 1968 book, To Kill a Black Man, attributed the assassination to “the American Government, particularly the CIA . . .ʺ

161 guests prior to their appearance on his show. Walt Dutton, “Controversy Is Lomax Forte,” Los Angeles Times, April 23, 1965.

161 Elijah Muhammad’s approval through Malcolm. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 134.

161 to film Muhammad at a rally in Washington on May 31. Louis E. Lomax, “10,000 Muslims Hold Meeting in Washington,” Amsterdam News, June 6, 1959. Lomax reported in his story that “following the speech, Mr. Muhammad was given a police escort back to the hotel where, for the first time, he submitted to a filmed TV interview. . . . A reporter and camera crew were flown to Washington from New York for that purpose.” In that interview, Muhammad predicted “the pending destruction of the white man will occur before 1970.”

161 “pertinent facts in refutation is not conscientious or constructive reporting.” Jack Gould, “Negro Documentary: Wallace’s Guide to the ‘Black Supremacy’ Movement Challenged by Experts,” New York Times, July 23, 1959.

162 “an invasion by ‘men from Mars.’” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 240-42.

162 longest-running news feature program in television history. See Mike Wallace with Gary Paul Gates, Close Encounters (New York: William Morrow, 1984); Susan King, “Q and A: Mike Wallace: 40 Years of Asking,” Los Angeles Times, September 23, 1990; and Donna Rosenthal, “Mike Without Malice,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 23, 1990.

162 to exploit their connections with the NOI. See M. S. Handler, “Author Describes Slaying of 3 Rights Workers in Mississippi,” New York Times, October 26, 1964; Walt Dutton, “Controversy Is Lomax Forte”; and “Louis Lomax, 47, Dies in Car Crash,” New York Times.

162 “No enemy wants to see the so-called American Negro free and united.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 134-35; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, July 29, 1959; MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 17, 1959, pp. 34-35; and MX FBI, Correlation Summary, August 22, 1961, p. 55.

163 under the title The Black Muslims in America, became the standard work for decades. See C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America (Boston: Beacon, 1961). Lincoln believed that the Nation of Islam, despite its unorthodox beliefs, had some legitimacy in claiming to be part of the larger Islamic faith community. His principal thesis, however, was that the Nation was essentially a black nationalist political movement that used Islam as the pretext for demanding complete separation from white Americans and their religion, Christianity.

163 “and work at a job that leads only to a dead end.” See Louis E. Lomax, When the Word Is Given . . . (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1963); and Herb Nipson, “Black Muslims—Promise and Threat,” Chicago Tribune, November 10, 1963.

163 “spiritual growth among the Negroes of America.” Advertisement, “Hon. Elijah Muhammad/The Messenger Magazine,” in Amsterdam News, November 7, 1959.

164 and distribution also shifted to Chicago. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 180-81.

164 “do without our wonderful MGT Sisters? (smile).” Malcolm to Betty Shabazz, April 1, 1959, MXC-S, box 3, folder 2.

164 some stamps in the envelope he mailed to her. Malcolm to Betty Shabazz, April 1, 1959, MXC-S, box 3, folder 2.

165 “lifting their voices to Allah five times a day.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 135.

165 “Believers in Allah recognize no such thing as race.” Yusuf Ibrahim, Letter to the Editor, Pittsburgh Courier, March 1, 1958.

165 “all of them, though the polytheists may be adverse.” Elijah Muhammad, Message to the Blackman in America, front cover.

165 Egypt’s president, Gamal Abdel Nasser. “Mister Muhammad’s Message to African-Asian Conference,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 18, 1958.

166 scheduled from June 9 to June 16. MX FBI, Memo, Washington Office, July 27, 1959; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 17, 1959, pp. 31-32.

166 he continued carrying out his duties throughout June. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 17, 1959, pp. 8, 21; and MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 22, 1961, p. 22.

166 religious leaders at Al-Azhar University. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 139.

166 “all mortals are equal and brothers.” “Arabs Send Warm Greetings to ‘Our Brothers’ of Color in U.S.A.,ʺ Pittsburgh Courier, August 15, 1959.

167 “are destined to play a key role.” Ibid.

167 “for administrative jim-crow in the United States.” Ibid.

168 and by African-American newspapers. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 17, 1959, p. 33.

168 “and robbed of his name and wisdom.” Ibid., p. 23.

168 made umrah, a spiritually motivated visit. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 168.

169 Muhammad arrived back home on January 6, 1960. “Muhammad Speaks,” Los Angeles Herald Tribune, January 14, 1960.

169 in keeping with orthodox Islam. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 23.

169 “that he would make such charges.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, March 18, 1960.

170 “and their own teachings are filled with it.” Ibid.

170 exchange went on for more than two hours. See “Defends Muslim Leader at Meet,ʺ Chicago Defender, March 15, 1960.

170 black leader who so sharply opposed its policies. Ibid.

170 in the streets and along the sidewalks. See FBI—Leon 4X Phillips (also known as Leon Ameer) file, Summary Report, New York Office, January 1962; and “Malcolm X on ‘Unity,’ ” in Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 128-35. This speech is reproduced in John Bracey, Jr., August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick, eds., Black Nationalism in America (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970), pp. 413-20. A typed manuscript of Malcolm’s speech is located in MXC-S, box 5, folder 1.

170 “but have as yet not received.” Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 129.

171 significant increase in BOSSʹs surveillance. Memorandum, BOSS Detective Ernest B. Latty to the Commanding Officer, May 30, 1960, BOSS.

171 himself to Mosque No. 7 at all hours. Ibid., pp. 4-12.

171 “Elijah Muhammad was a messenger of God.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

171 Malcolm might run for public office. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 17, 1960, pp. 17-18.

171 selling records featuring “A White Man’s Heaven Is a Black Man’s Hell.” See Yale Daily News (New Haven), October 21, 1960; MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 17, 1960, pp. 22-23; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 17, 1961, p. 17.

172 “We are used to sleeping in the open air.” Max Frankel, “Angry Castro Quits Hotel in Row Over Bill; Moves to Harlem,” New York Times, September 20, 1960; “Castro Moves Out of Hotel in Huff, Takes His Party to One in Harlem,” Washington Post, September 20, 1960; and Jules Du Bois, “Irate Castro Moves to Harlem Hotel,” Chicago Tribune, September 20, 1960.

172 “much propaganda as possible out of his move.” Mel Opotowsky, “Castro Settles Down in Harlem, Paying Double, Minding Manners,” Washington Post, September 21, 1960; and Philip Benjamin, “Theresa Hotel on 125th St. Is Unruffled by Its Cuban Guests,” New York Times, September 21, 1960.

172 “He knows what’s hip and bugs the squares.” “Nikita Visits Castro in Harlem,” Chicago Defender, September 21, 1960; Harrison E. Salisbury, “Russian Goes to Harlem, Then Hugs Cuban at U.N.,ʺ New York Times, September 21, 1960; and “Police Break Up Harlem Crowd as Groups Mingle,” New York Times, September 22, 1960.

173 to “fish” Castro, inviting him to join the NOI. “Fidel Castro,” in Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, p. 144.

173 visit Cuba, but made no commitments. Carlos Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa (Los Angeles: University of California Center for Afro-American Studies, 1988), p. 120.

173 “event of any anti-Castro demonstrations.” MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 22, 1961, p. 27.

173 about the meeting between Malcolm and Castro. Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa, p. 120.

173 like Raymond and Ethel Sharrieff. Ibid., p. 162.

173 “and Muhammad might do it to save face.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 17, 1959, p. 9.

174 semiautonomy and flexibility that he himself enjoyed. The December 1961 issue of Muhammad Speaks raised Wallace’s refusal “to answer an army draft call because all preachers, priests, ministers and rabbis have been exempt from military duty.” Wallace’s conviction and imprisonment, like that of his father during the 1940s, was “for teaching the religion of Islam!” See “Courts Jail Muslim Ministers; Taught Negroes in Faith of Islam Religion!” Muhammad Speaks, December 1961.

174 “what the people were saying and correct me.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

175 that Malcolm would sacrifice to his loyalty to the Nation. Ibid.

176 coordinators caved in and “disinvited” him. Corbado and Weise, eds., Time on Two Crosses, pp. 164-65.

176 student protests at City University of New York. Rosenberg, “Davis, Benjamin J., Jr.,” in Finkelman, ed., Encyclopedia of African American History, pp. 14-15.

176 asserting Elijah Muhammad was “not a politician.” Corbado and Weise, eds., Time on Two Crosses, pp. 165-66.

177 “to go, they’re going to want to stay.” Ibid., pp. 168-71.

177 publicized police brutality cases in the state. Evers-Williams and Marable, eds., The Autobiography of Medgar Evers, pp. 181-82.

178 desegregationist protesters into the Deep South. Manning Marable, Race, Reform and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction and Beyond in Black America, 1945-2006 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007), p. 62.

178 meetings in Tampa, Miami, and Jacksonville. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 17, 1961, pp. 5-8.

178 to participate in local NOI meetings. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 17, 1961, p. 6.

178 “traitors who assisted integration leaders.” Ibid., p. 19.

179 publicly admit his role until years later. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 180-81.

179 Ku Klux Klan Imperial Wizard Robert M. Shelton. Gardell, In the Name of Elijah Muhammad , p. 273.

179 “movement, using the Negro as a tool.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 17, 1961, pp. 5-19.

Chapter 7: “As Sure As God Made Green Apples”

180 of her birth father, Shelman Sandlin. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 1, 105.

180 he even stuffed forty dollars into the envelope. Malik Shabazz to Mrs. Malik Shabazz, January 25, 1961, MXC-S, box 3, folder 2.

181 “It looks like she will have to be put down.” Evanzz, The Messenger, p. 211.

181 in Lynwood, California, on March 30, 1960. Stanley G. Robertson, “Paternity Charge Faces Muhammad: It’s Denied,” Los Angeles Sentinel, July 9, 1964; “Ex-Sweetheart of Malcolm X Accuses Elijah,” Amsterdam News, July 11, 1964; and Evanzz, The Messenger , p. 218.

181 for him to get what he wanted from them. Evanzz, The Messenger, pp. 238-39.

182 “I’m sick of being treated like a dog.” Ibid., pp. 215-17.

182 “under control in his own household.” Ibid., p. 218.

182 “obtain policy and future plans of Muhammad.” Ibid., pp. 218-19.

183 take long for the new arrangement to sour. Ibid., pp. 238-39, 248.

183 but neither was formally charged. Ibid., pp. 248-49.

184 “into a ‘diplomatic withdrawalʹ of his earlier statement.” “Malcolm X Rips JFK Advisor,” Pittsburgh Courier, February 4, 1961; Robert James Branham, “‘I Was Gone on Debatingʹ: Malcolm Xʹs Prison Debates and Public Confrontations,” Argumentation and Advocacy, vol. 31 (Winter 1995), p. 125; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 17, 1961, p. 14.

184 “Muslims Give the JFK Man a Fit.” “Muslims Give the JFK Man a Fit,” New Jersey Herald News, February 4, 1961.

185 to accommodate the anticipated audience. See “Invited by Campus NAACP,ʺ Pittsburgh Courier, February 11, 1961; “Muslim Malcolm X Out as Howard U. History Speaker,” Pittsburgh Courier, February 25, 1961; and “Malcolm May Not Talk at Howard,” Amsterdam News, February 25, 1961. DeCaro states that an NAACP official intervened to cancel the lecture. See DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 174.

185 “on them when we get there.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 174.

186 was his identity as “A BLACK MAN!ʺ “1,500 Hear Integration-Non-Segregation Debate,” Chicago Defender, November 11, 1961; and “Malcolm Xʹs Howard University Lecture,” October 30, 1961, MXC-S, box 5, folder 15.

187 “I feel a reluctance to face my class tomorrow.” “1,500 Hear Integration-Non-Segregation Debate.”

187 “must have some land of our own.” “Harvard Hears Malcolm X, NAACP Speaker,” Amsterdam News, April 8, 1961; and “The Harvard Law School Forum of March 24, 1961,” in Archie Epps, ed., The Malcolm X Speeches at Harvard (New York: Paragon House, 1961), pp. 115-31.

188 would often dictate parts of his speeches. Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

188 John Ali could monitor the addresses. FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 23, 1962.

188 which had to be relocated to the local YMCA. “UC Forbids,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 7, 1961; “Malcolm ʹXʹ Raps UC,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 9, 1961; “West Coast University Bars,” Afro-American (Baltimore), May 20, 1961; and MX FBI, Memo, San Francisco Office, May 19, 1961.

188 debate “hate” journalist Louis Lomax. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 17, 1961, p. 18.

188 Malcolm denied that such a position existed. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 17, 1961, p. 17; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 182.

188 “house of bondage four thousand years ago.” “A Partial Transcript of a Sermon by Malcolm X at Elder Solomon Lightfoot Michaux’s New York Church of God, June 16, 1961,” in DeCaro, Malcolm and the Cross, pp. 223-35. Michaux was one of the first African-American radio and television evangelists. Michaux’s brother Lewis operated a black bookstore on Harlem’s 125th Street that was a popular meeting place for black nationalists.

189 it could very well be “the start of a holy war.” FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, April 14, 1961.

189 and demanded secretary Dag Hammarskjöld’s firing. Martin Meredith, The First Dance of Freedom: Black Africa in the Post-War Era (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), pp. 150-51.

190 “no one to use me against the nationalists.” “Muslims to Sue Adlai Stevenson,” Amsterdam News, February 25, 1961; “Muslims Sue Dailies,” Amsterdam News, March 11, 1961; MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 17, 1961, pp. 15-16; and MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, September 25, 1963, pp. 8, 24; “Americans Active in Demonstration at U.N. Meeting,” Atlanta Daily World, February 16, 1961; “Mob Invades U.N., 21 Hurt!” Chicago Daily Tribune, February 16, 1961; “U.S. Blames Reds for Negroes Act,” Chicago Defender, February 16, 1961.

190 her acquaintance with him several years later. Maya Angelou, The Heart of a Woman (New York: Random House, 1981), pp. 166-70.

190 “and will not be a ‘spooky war.’” FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 23, 1962; and MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 25, 1963, pp. 25, 26.

190 to achieve under the “American flag.” FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 23, 1962.

191 NOI duly sold discounted copies of the book. Elijah Muhammad to Malcolm X, March 23, 1961, MXC-S, box 3, folder 8.

191 “August fourteenth, 217 West 125th Street.” Telegram, A. Phillip Randolph to Malcolm X, August 11, 1961, MXC-S, box 3, folder 13.

192 “with the white man, we must separate.” FBI—Phillips, Summary Report, New York Office, January 1962.

193 “think this will accomplish anything,” he declared. Harold L. Keith, “Leaders Bury Differences, Merge: New York Group Formed to Uplift Negro Masses,” Pittsburgh Courier , October 7, 1961.

193 name, in parentheses, was written “Malik el Shabazz.” Evelyn Cunningham, “Panel Will Continue; Malcolm X and Randolph Spark Rally in Harlem,” Pittsburgh Courier, September 16, 1961.

194 “blond hair, and he has a white skin.” FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 23, 1962.

194 at the top of the command structure. FBI—Raymond X Sharrieff file, Summary Report, Chicago Office, February 8, 1962, and August 8, 1962.

194 cash register, and resentment began to grow. James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.

194 “making jokes about sexual nonperformance.” Ibid.

195 local captains directly responsible to Malcolm. Clegg, An Original Man, pp. 113, 181. Goldman directly disputes Clegg on this issue. According to Goldman, “A 1961 administrative decree had made the temple captains answerable only to Chicago.” See Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 110.

195 that would have meant for Sharrieff’s continued authority. FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963.

195 “among the masses they would lead to a black Utopia.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 177.

196 of whom 737 were defined as active. Secretary’s Account of Records, Mosque No. 7. Copy in possession of author.

196 “Everybody got a story.” James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.

196 at a Seventh Avenue nightclub. FBI—Charles 37X Morris (also known as Charles Kenyatta) file, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 4, 2006; FBI—Morris, Memo, Washington Office, November 6, 1968; and FBI—Morris, Memo, New York Office to the Director, March 13, 1968.

196 was discharged on September 13, 1946. FBI—Morris, Memo, New York Office, March 13, 1968.

196 where the latter was assistant minister. Ibid.; and Charles Kenyatta, Oral History Interview, 1970, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Manuscript Division, Howard University Library.

197 “mixed type, mildly depressed but cooperative.” FBI—Morris, Memo, New York Office, March 13, 1968.

197 he described as a “really beautiful childhood.” Mark Jacobson, “The Man Who Didn’t Shoot Malcolm X,ʺ New York, October 1, 2007, p. 41.

197 he was sentenced to twelve months in prison. Ibid., p. 40.

197 “rescue, bring relief or salvation.” John L. Esposito, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 138.

197 adhered rigidly to Muslim dietary laws. Jacobson, pp. 40-41.

197 “I would be the first one on the scene.” Thomas 15X Johnson (also known as Khalil Islam) interview, September 29, 2004.

198 that had also fascinated Frantz Fanon. Ibid.

198 “grow to be hated when you become well known.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 270.

199 greatly inflated image of his party’s actual number. See William H. Schmaltz, Hate: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party (Washington, D.C.: Batsford Brassey, 1999).

199 “and admirable human beings in spite of their color.” On the connections between the American Nazi Party and the Nation of Islam, see Clegg, An Original Man, pp. 152-56; and Schmaltz, Hate, pp. 119-20.

199 and the races dwelled in separate states. Clegg, An Original Man, pp. 154-55.

200 “You got the biggest hand you ever got.” Schmaltz, Hate, pp. 120-21; and “Separation—or Death: Muslim Watchword,” Amsterdam News, July 1, 1961.

200 “its mishandling of the Black Man.” George Lincoln Rockwell, “The Jew: Moment of Lies in the South,” The Rockwell Report, January 3, 1962.

201 “Muhammad is right—separation or death!” Schmaltz, Hate, pp. 133-34; and “U.S. Nazi Boss Among 3,000 at Rally,” Chicago Tribune, February 26, 1962.

201 “Muhammad used to scare blacks into the NOI.ʺ Clegg, An Original Man, p. 154.

201 “be separated to get justice and freedom.” “Rockwell and Co.—They Speak for All White,” Muhammad Speaks, April 1962.

201 “doesn’t necessarily mean we gotta kill each other.” Schmaltz, Hate, pp. 159-60, 201. Rockwell continued to cite the views of Malcolm X as a justification for his own racist agenda, up to the time of his death in 1967. During an interview with Alex Haley, published in Playboy magazine in April 1966, for instance, Rockwell declared that “the harder you people push for that [integration], the madder white people are going to get. . . . Malcolm X said the same thing I’m saying.” See “Interview with George Lincoln Rockwell,” Playboy, vol. 13, no. 4 (April 1966), pp. 71-72, 74, 76-82, 154, 156.

201 should have favored Rustin. FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963.

201 “‘he couldn’t be talking about me—Iʹm the liberal.’” John D’Emilio, Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard Rustin (New York: Free Press, 2003), p. 324; and Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 67.

202 Mosque No. 23 in Buffalo, New York. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 17, 1962, p. 7; and FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963.

202 at Harlem’s Rockland Palace. FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, October 18, 1962; and FBI—Benjamin 2X Goodman (also known as Benjamin Karim) file, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963.

202 “when the Government shows interest?” Elijah Muhammad to Malcolm X, February 15, 1962, MXC-S, box 3, folder 8.

203 “made to suffer, morning, noon and night.” Malcolm X and James Farmer, “Separation or Integration: A Debate,” Dialogue, vol. 2, no. 3 (May 1962), pp. 14-18.

203 the black middle class that opposed desegregation. Ibid.

203 that Farmer was married to a white woman. Ibid.

204 “boycotting, withholding their patronage.” Ibid.

204 partnership between the two men in the year to come. “Malcolm X Packs Powell’s Church,” no date, MXC-S, box 5, folder 17. Also see FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963; FBI—Phillips, Summary Report, New York Office, March 21, 1963.

204 selling bulk copies of Muhammad Speaks. “Louis Farrakhan,” in Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, pp. 218-19; and Evanzz, The Messenger, pp. 296-97.

205 “would have liked to [have been] in her position.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 143-44.

205 certainly provide for Betty and their children. Ibid., pp. 144-45.

206 against racially restrictive housing covenants. See Douglas Flamming, Bound for Freedom: Black Los Angeles in Jim Crow America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), p. 69.

206 continued to be a problem well into the 1960s. Stephen Meyer Grant, As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door: Segregation and Racial Conflict in American Neighborhoods (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000), pp. 178-83.

206 By 1960, 468,000 blacks resided in Los Angeles County. On the economic conditions of blacks in Los Angeles, see Josh Sides, L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003). The best study documenting the socioeconomic and political factors leading up to the 1965 Watts riots in South Central Los Angeles is Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1995).

206 to settle a local factional dispute. Frederick Knight, “Justifiable Homicide, Police Brutality, or Governmental Repression? The 1962 Los Angeles Police Shooting of Seven Members of the Nation of Islam,” Journal of Negro History, vol. 79, no. 2 (Spring 1974), pp. 182-96.

206 “violence or any other means.” Ibid.

206 acquitted the Muslims on all charges. Ibid.; and “Study Shows Los Angeles Police Were Investigating Muslims at Time of Riot,” Amsterdam News, May 12, 1962.

207 mosque, they approached with suspicion. Knight, “Justifiable Homicide, Police Brutality, or Governmental Repression?” pp. 12-196; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 184.

207 “that Stokes’s death was ‘justifiable.’” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 97.

207 “What the hell are you here for?” Ibid., pp. 97-98.

207 “came out of the street with gangster leanings.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

208 “Brothers volunteered for it.” James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.

208 “rather than go out with the struggle of our people.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

208 “You’re black—that’s enough.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 16, 1962, pp. 17-18; and “Conduct Rites for California Black Muslim Riot Victim,” Chicago Defender, May 7, 1962.

209 “of the followers of the Honorable Elijah.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

209 “an aggressor to come into their mosque.” Clegg, An Original Man, p. 171.

209 Roland Stokes submitted and was killed. James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.

209 “It would have been a trap.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 98.

Chapter 8: From Prayer to Protest

211 “any black person anywhere on this earth.” Knight, “Justifiable Homicide, Police Brutality, or Governmental Repression?,” p. 190.

211 in front of the Hotel Theresa. “Malcolm X Heads Rally Sunday,” Amsterdam News, May 26, 1962; FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963; and FBI—Phillips, Summary Report, New York Office, March 21, 1963.

212 “a religious solution will fit the problem of Police Brutality.” Minister John Shabazz to Brother Minister, June 1, 1962, MXC-S, box 12, folder 1.

212 “call on our God—He gets rid of 120 of them.” Jack V. Fox, “Negro Leaders Lambaste Malcolm Xʹs Delight in Death of Atlanta Whites,” Chicago Defender, July 14, 1962. Also see Clegg, An Original Man, p. 201.

212 “developed into a large-scale hatred of whites.” Fox, “Negro Leaders Lambaste Malcolm X’s Delight in Death of Atlanta Whites.”

212 “fanatical” and “anti-white organization.” MX FBI, Memo, Director to French Legal Attaché, August 8, 1962.

213 “word ‘freedomʹ out of your vocabulary.” Wallace Turner, “Militancy Urged on U.S. Negroes,” New York Times, November 26, 1962.

213 “would be eliminated from the mosque.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 16, 1962, p. 8; FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963; and FBI—Sharrieff, Summary Report, Chicago Office, February 12, 1963.

215 “self-defense is granted throughout the world.” FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963.

216 moved toward these ideas long before Chicago. “Muhammad Asks for Black State, Tax Exemptions,” Chicago Defender, July 16, 1962; FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963; and FBI—Sharrieff, Summary Report, Chicago Office, February 12, 1963.

216 “coming at the cadenced pauses in his oratory.” H. D. Quigg, “2,000 Jam Harlem Square to Hear Muslim Leaders Extol Their Cause,” Chicago Defender, July 24, 1962; and FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963.

216 Malcolm’s old sparring partner Bayard Rustin. “2,500 at Moslem Rally,” Amsterdam News, July 28, 1962.

217 the feminized Arabic version of Elijah. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 123; and Clegg, An Original Man, pp. 180-81.

217 Malcolm even briefly addressed the strikers. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 16, 1962, p. 23; and MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, September 25, 1963, p. 17.

217 hopes of prompting a federal investigation of the NOI. Taylor Branch, Pillar of Fire (New York: Touchstone, 1998), p. 12.

217 “be a Nazi than whatever Mr. Yorty is.” “Mayor Yorty Says Cult Backs ‘Hate,’” New York Times, July 27, 1962.

217 prominent role in determining the course of the case. Branch, Pillar of Fire, pp. 10-11.

217 “impaneled jury because of the lack of sufficient numbers of Negroes.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 16, 1962, p. 19.

218 except to cancel all his remaining college appearances. Ibid., p. 24.

218 “and the sort of Ivy League suit (and bald head).” Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004.

218 it also earned him Malcolm’s attention. See Peter Goldman, “Black Muslims Fail to Flourish Here,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, January 2, 1962.

218 “understand the Nation of Islam?” Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004.

219 “moment you saw him, [you felt] this incredible presence.” Ibid.

219 Louis Xʹs “A White Man’s Heaven Is a Black Man’s Hell.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 6.

219 “device for disarming the blacks and, worse still, unmanning them.” Ibid.

219 still believing “the threat was useful.” Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004.

220 years of covert surveillance, but all of it unattributed. Marable, Living Black History, p. 150.

221 “So it began eating away at [my] brother.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

221 University of Bridgeport because of “throat trouble.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 16, 1962, p. 24.

221 also found employment as a building supervisor. FBI—Goodman, Summary Report, New York Office, September 8, 1960.

221 a “specialist in Islamic literature and history.” Ibid., October 27, 1961.

221 to establish an NOI mosque in Bridgeport, Connecticut. Ibid., October 17, 1962.

222 that year was named the mosque’s “main speaker.” Ibid.

222 “Not in the buddy sense. He was always in command.ʺ Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 19.

222 “If you leave again, I’m not coming after you.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 105-6.

222 “that I would defend him. . . . It was a good place for Betty to be.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

223 “get to the grade school level in Mississippi.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 8, 96.

223 he would punch him “right in the mouth.” FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 11, 1963.

224 among those who “suffer” from a “colonial mentality.” Malcolm X to the Editor, “What Courier Readers Think: Muslim vs. Moslem!,” Pittsburgh Courier, October 6, 1962; and Travel Diaries (Transcription): Middle East and West Africa, April-May 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 18.

224 “that they are being led straight to Hell.” Yahya Hayari to the Editor, “What Courier Readers Think: A Blast at Muhammad,” Pittsburgh Courier, October 27, 1962.

224 “from the evils of this Christian world overnight.” Malcolm X to the Editor, “Amsterdam News Readers Write,” Amsterdam News, November 24, 1962; and Edward Curtis, IV, “Islamism and Its African American Muslim Critics: Black Muslims in the Era of the Arab Cold War,” American Quarterly, vol. 59, no. 3 (September 2007), pp. 88-89.

224 literature and asked Osman for more. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 201-2; and Curtis, “Islamism and Its African American Critics,” p. 90.

224 “Christians call him Christ, Jews call him Jehovah.” Ibid., p. 159.

225 Malcolm, upset, left in a waiting automobile. Ibid., pp. 159-60.

225 all the way from Louisville to hear Elijah Muhammad speak. There is a massive literature about Muhammad Ali (Cassius Clay). For a general introduction to the subject, see: David Remnick, King of the World: Muhammad Ali and the Rise of an American Hero (New York: Random House, 1998); John Miller and Aaron Kenedi, eds., Muhammad Ali: Ringside (Boston: Bullfinch, 1999); Anthony O. Edmonds, Muhammad Ali: A Biography (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2006); and Mike Marqusee, Redemption Song: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the Sixties (New York: Verso, 1999).

226 “I said to myself, listen, this man’s saying something!ʺ Interview with Muhammad Ali by Alex Haley, in Miller and Kenedi, eds., Muhammad Ali: Ringside, pp. 39, 42.

226 “the first time I ever felt spiritual in my life.” Edmonds, Muhammad Ali, p. 37.

226 “down-to-earth youngster,” as he later related. Remnick, King of the World, p. 165.

227 “It certainly rubbed off on Ali.” Ibid.

227 fund-raising drive and teaching classes for two weeks. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 17, 1962, p. 11.

227 priest of black cultural nationalism, known as Maulana Karenga. “Racial Militancy and Pride Urged at West Coast Rally,” Chicago Defender, November 28, 1962.

227 “punctuated the statements made by Malcolm X.” Wallace Turner, “Militancy Urged on U.S. Negroes,” New York Times, November 26, 1962.

228 “the white man. We must solve it for ourselves.” Ibid.; Robin D. G. Kelley and Betsy Esch, “Black Like Mao: Red China and Black Revolution,” Souls, vol. 1, no. 4 (Fall 1999), pp. 6-41.

228 while selling Muhammad Speaks in Times Square. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 185; and “Jail Term,” Militant (New York), February 4, 1963.

228 to court, but he could not condone cowardice. FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 27, 1964.

228 suppression of press freedom, and “the freedom of religious expression.” Telegram, Malcolm X to Mayor Robert Wagner, New York City, January 2, 1963, MXC-S, box 5, folder 18.

228 he told the press, before filing formal complaints. “Muslims Protest Rights Violation by Police,” Chicago Defender, January 10, 1963; “Rights Violated,” Democrat and Chronicle (Rochester, NY), January 8, 1963; “Muslim Assails,” Democrat and Chronicle, February 15, 1963; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 185.

228 “that the whole Dark World is with them.ʺ DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 185.

228 “tired of hearing about Muslims being pistol-whipped.” FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 27, 1964.

229 newspaper salesmen were sentenced to sixty days in jail. See Muhammad Speaks, February 4, 1963; and Militant, February 4, 1963.

229 “for a wind to come along and fan the breeze.” Malcolm X address, “Twenty Million Black People in a Political, Economic and Mental Prison,” in Bruce Perry, ed., Malcolm X: The Last Speeches (New York: Pathfinder, 1989), pp. 25-57.

229 “or accomplishment that black people want.” Ibid.

229 “They usually go and use the economic weapon.” Ibid. Also see “Muslim Leader Asks Negro Nation in U.S.,ʺ Chicago Defender, January 26, 1963.

230 “if the Negro could ‘speak as an American.’” “Meredith, Gantt Entries ‘Hypocritical’: Malcolm X,ʺ Chicago Defender, January 31, 1963.

230 plan for a separate black state inside the United States. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, May 6, 1963.

230 his responsibility. No one was arrested. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 185; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 16, 1963, p. 19.

231 for their bail had been forwarded by Elijah Muhammad. MX FBI, Summary, New York Office, May 16, 1963, pp. 18-20.

231 hundreds of protesters down affluent midtown Manhattan streets. Ibid.

231 “denied the leadership if he wants it.” Alfred Balk and Alex Haley, “Black Merchants of Hate,” Saturday Evening Post, vol. 236 (January 26, 1963), pp. 67-74.

232 but the crowd still buzzed with whispers of impropriety. Natambu, Malcolm X, p. 263.

232 had a “very nasty attitude.” “Negroes: Death, Lost Sheep,” February 13, 1964, MXC-S, box 9, folder 1.

232 find a way around the family’s demands. Branch, Pillar of Fire, p. 17.

233 “attempts to advise and tell the family what to do.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 16, 1963, p. 21.

233 Muhammad’s sexual misconduct in the mid-1950s. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 301.

233 “he was tearing me apart behind my back.” Ibid., p. 303.

233 “You are a married man!” Marable, Living Black History, p. 172.

233 Malcolm “would really hurt Betty.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

234 in early April flew to Phoenix to learn his future. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 303-4.

Chapter 9: “He Was Developing Too Fast”

235 “than the positive fact of David’s killing Goliath.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 304.

235 “man’s wife, I’m that David,” he told Malcolm. Ibid., p. 305.

235 his goal was to “inoculate” the Nation’s rank and file. Ibid. Also see Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 113-14; Clegg, An Original Man, pp. 188, 191-92; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 191.

236 ease the news of Muhammad’s transgressions. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 15, 1963, pp. 6, 9.

236 Elijah Muhammad, but was reluctant to bring it up with him. James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.

236 “doctrine to Muslims, and current events, and politics.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , pp. 300-301.

236 “and also the devils in that city.” Elijah Muhammad to Malcolm Shabazz, April 25, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 6.

236 “negative attitude” toward Muhammad Speaks. FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 27, 1964; and MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, May 15, 1963, and May 23, 1963.

237 contacting Joseph directly on mosque matters. Branch, Pillar of Fire, p. 163.

237 “our people to our one from the Speaker’s Stand!” Open letter from Elijah Muhammad, April 25, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 8.

237 “the No. 2 man of the Black Muslim sect.” “Malcolm X Coming Here,” Washington Post, May 1, 1963.

237 black street crime in the nation’s capital. “Malcolm X in D.C. with Solution to Crime Rate,” Chicago Defender, May 13, 1963. The press conference was held on May 9, 1963.

238 at the invitation of the local minister, Jeremiah X. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, May 15, 1963; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 15, 1963, p. 26.

238 “he is a four-legged dog or a two-legged dog.” “Malcolm X in D.C. with Solution to Crime Rate.”

238 The trial of fourteen Muslims began on April 8, 1964. “14 Muslims Go on Trial in Fatal Riot,” Los Angeles Times, April 9, 1963.

238 “circulated in a dense crowd outside.” Bill Lane, “Jury Selection for Muslim Trial Fair,” Los Angeles Sentinel, April 12, 1963; and “14 Muslims Go on Trial in Fatal Riot.”

238 all-white jury of eleven women and one man was sworn in. “Row Flares Over Jurors in Muslim Riot Trial,” Los Angeles Times, April 25, 1963. Reporter Bill Lane of the Los Angeles Sentinel claimed that six of the twelve jurors were black. See Lane, “Jury Selection for Muslim Trial Fair.”

238 separate section was created for the women. “Negroes Ask Segregated Court Seats,” Los Angeles Times, May 1, 1963.

238 would be allotted on a first-come, first-served basis. “Muslim Riot Described by Officer,” Los Angeles Times, May 2, 1963.

238 who had killed Ronald Stokes, and provocatively took several photos of him. “Top New York Muslim Says L.A. Is on Trial,” Los Angeles Times, May 4, 1963.

239 “white people of the country are in agreement with the Nazis.” Gladwin Hill, “Muslims’ Defense Opened on Coast,” New York Times, May 12, 1963; “Use of Word ‘Negro’ Issue in Muslim Trial,” Chicago Defender, May 8, 1963; and “Malcolm X Raps L.A. Press as Favoring Cops in Trial,” Chicago Defender, May 25, 1963.

239 “I just thought I might lose my temper.” “Muslim Trial Interrupted by Attorney,” Los Angeles Times, May 7, 1963.

239 “so they would have a reason to shoot us.” “Muslim Trial to Jury, Malcolm X Is Rousted,” Los Angeles Sentinel, May 23, 1963.

239 had made their point, and beat a hasty retreat. Ben Burns, “First Negro-Owned Station to Hit Airwaves,” Chicago Defender, May 8, 1963; and “Negro Picket Slugged at Black Muslim Rally,” Los Angeles Times, May 5, 1963.

239 failed to reach unanimous verdicts on two others. “9 Muslims Guilty in Coast Riot,” Los Angeles Times, June 14, 1963; and “11 Convicted on 37 of 42 Counts in Muslim Trial,” Los Angeles Sentinel, June 20, 1963.

239 the prisoners’ probation hearing on their behalf. “Black Muslim Rioters Get Prison Terms,” Chicago Tribune, August 1, 1963; and “6 Jurors Say Muslims Got Unfair Trial,” Atlanta Daily World, September 1, 1963.

240 he met privately with Green for two hours. C. Portis, “Celebrities and Celebrators Pour into City,” New York Herald Tribune, May 15, 1963; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, May 15, 1963; and “Miscellaneous Financial Documents,” MXC-S, box 11, folder 15.

240 “had demonstrated their ability to defend themselves.” “Black Muslim Raps Hearing Postponement,” Washington Post, May 17, 1963; M. S. Handler, “Malcolm X Scores Kennedy on Racial Policy,” New York Times, May 17, 1963; and “Malcolm X Denounces JFK on Civil Rights,” Chicago Defender, May 25, 1963.

240 “fox will eat you with a smile instead of a scowl.” MX FBI, Memo, Washington Office, May 13, 1963, May 14, 1963, and May 23, 1963; “400 Hear Malcolm X Speak Here,” Washington Post, May 13, 1963; DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 163; and Clegg, An Original Man, p. 217.

241 “better with whites than Negroes who are Christians.” “Malcolm X Denies Muslims Preach Hate,” Chicago Defender, October 18, 1962; “‘Rights Violated’—Muslims,” Chicago Defender, October 20, 1962; and “Muslims Chained in N.Y. Courtroom,” Amsterdam News, October 27, 1962.

241 “cheating, stealing . . . all forms of vice.” “Malcolm X in Court,” Amsterdam News, November 17, 1962.

241 at the Lorton Reformatory, located in Virginia. H. D. Quigg, “Debate Muslim Claim to Be Legitimate Religion,” Chicago Defender, June 18, 1963.

241 had conducted a service at Lorton back in May. MX FBI, Memo, Washington Office, June 3, 1963; and MX FBI, Memo, Washington Office, August 6, 1963.

241 American Civil Liberties Union at once took up the issue. “D.C. Rejects Malcolm X Prayer Role,” Washington Post, June 29, 1963; and “Black Muslim Tension Eases,” Washington Post, August 1, 1963.

241 Malcolm added, was “just another [prison] warden.” Transcript of Kenneth Clark interview of Malcolm X, aired on WNDT-TV, New York City, and WGBH-TV, Boston, on June 4, 1963, MXC-S, box 5, folder 11.

242 “If you are caught, you will wish you were dead.” FBI—Sharrieff, Summary Report, Chicago Office, August 19, 1963.

243 fellow lieutenants, or other FOI “enforcers.” Thomas 15X Johnson (also known as Khalil Islam) interview, September 29, 2004.

243 “They didn’t deserve even to be killed.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

243 “because that puts him in a bad position.” Thomas 15X Johnson interview, September 29, 2004.

243 saying, “Brother, you’re just spiritual.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

243 own group of Fruit for that particular assignment. Thomas 15X Johnson interview, September 29, 2004.

244 “that’s unheard of, man, violating like that.” Ibid.

244 “This was a law. It was untouchable.” Ibid.

245 “‘Larry has lost his mind. He’s messing with them Muslims!’” Larry 4X Prescott (also known as Akbar Muhammad) interview, November 7, 2007.

245 “Georgia on it, he said, ‘Elijah answered our prayers.ʹ ʺ Ibid., June 9, 2006.

245 Malcolm was the “boss of the bosses.” Ibid.

246 “That was the signal: close out and bring him on.” Ibid., November 7, 2007.

246 millions of non-Islamic African Americans. Alex Haley, “Malcolm X Interview,” Playboy, vol. 10, no. 5 (May 1963), pp. 53, 56-60, 62.

246 strategy of integration that was doomed to failure. Ibid., pp. 56-57.

247 “very much taken aback when Playboy kept its word.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , p. 392.

247 “and made me the man that I am today.” Ibid., pp. 393-94.

248 the completion of the biography. Alex Haley to Malcolm X, “Author/Collaborator Letter of Agreement,” June 1, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 6.

248 with projected total sales of twenty thousand. “Production Information,” June 5, 1963, The Ken McCormick Collection of the Records of Doubleday and Company (KMC), Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, box 44, folder 9.

248 “the manuscript that you want in the manuscript.” Haley, ʺ Author/ Collaborator Letter of Agreement.”

248 petty Negro bourgeoisie that he enjoyed ridiculing. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 393-95.

248 with “As told to Alex Haley.” Alex Haley to Oliver Swan, August 5, 1963, Anne Romaine Collection, Special Collections Library, University of Tennessee (UTLSC), Knoxville, Tennessee, series I, box 3, folder 24.

248 “when mine are almost a complete antithesis of his.” Ibid.

249 to fly to Chicago for an interview with Elijah Muhammad. Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, September 5, 1963, ibid.

249 complete the entire work by the end of October 1963. Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, September 22, 1963, ibid.

249 “such as we had, will be the most productive.” Alex Haley to Malcolm X, September 25, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 6.

249 ʺas neat and attractive as that of her husband.ʺ Ann Geracimos, “Mrs. Malcolm X—Her Role as Wife,” New York Herald Tribune, June 30, 1963. Although the article was theoretically about Betty, Malcolm peppered the interview with attacks on “Western civilization,” which had “destroyed women’s femininity. . . . It is oriented to make a woman what she is not. Western society has lost touch with home and family.”

249 “no two people should stay together who can’t get along.” Ibid.

250 climaxing with two days of public activities. D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, p. 328.

250 “unemployment, especially as it related to minority groups.” “Preamble to the March on Washington,” Carbada and Weise, eds., Time on Two Crosses, pp. 1 12-15.

250 John Lewis, its national chair, to represent the organization. D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, pp. 340-42, 355.

250 was persuaded to support the Washington march. David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: Vintage, 1986), pp. 265, 268.

250 Kennedy administration to offer its endorsement. D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, pp. 344-45; and Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 102-3.

250 in Harlem—on West 130th Street. D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, p. 340.

251 Martin Luther King, Jr., and Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. Mosque No. 7 Press Releases for June 29, 1963, Harlem Rally, MXC-S, box 5, folder 17.

251 made it impossible for him to address the rally. Telegram, Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., to Malcolm X, June 28, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 11.

251 dispatched to the rooftops to observe both crowd and cops. Thomas P. Ronan, “Malcolm X Tells Rally in Harlem Kennedy Fails to Help Negroes,” New York Times, June 30, 1963; “Romney Bobs Up and Leads Rights Parade,” Chicago Tribune, June 30, 1963; FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 27, 1964; and FBI—Goodman, Summary Report, New York Office, December 13, 1964.

251 “a comprehensive united front of African Americans.” “Muhammad Son Calls for Unity,” Muhammad Speaks, July 20, 1963; “Muhammad’s Son at Rally Saturday,” Amsterdam News, July 13, 1963; and NOI Mosque No. 7 Press Release, “Elijah Muhammad’s Son to Speak in Harlem at Outdoor Rally,” MXC-S, box 5, folder 17.

251 “ready to help us win our freedom.” Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 84-87.

252 “‘Islamicʹ and more ʹpoliticalʹ in the days just ahead.” Ibid., pp. 87-91. Writing in late 1963, Lomax was convinced that Akbar Muhammad, or “almost certainly” another son of Elijah Muhammad, would inherit the leadership of the NOI; Malcolm X would never lead the Nation, Lomax believed: “I see Malcolm, then, not as the maximum leader, but as prime minister and behind-the-scenes policy maker.”

252 “this message that I have been assigned to.” “Islamic Exports Plan to Microscope Muslims,” Chicago Defender, July 15, 1963.

253 “these policemen put us into those paddy wagons.” “Police Haul Off 300 Pickets in Racial Protest,” Los Angeles Times, July 23, 1963.

253 “the New York police is that this is 1963.” Homer Bigart, “Building Trades Accused of Snub by Racial Groups,” New York Times, August 6, 1963.

253 that brought out more than three hundred people. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 15, 1963, pp. 5, 6, 7, and 12; FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 27, 1964; and FBI—Goodman, Summary Report, New York Office, February 13, 1964.

253 “no real differences” between the various civil rights groups. Martin Arnold, “Brooklyn Rally Held by Muslims,” New York Times, July 28, 1963.

253 “use his teeth” if he had to protect himself. FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 27, 1964.

253 that increasingly troubled Malcolm. Evanzz, The Messenger, p. 266.

253 “his brother Malcolm for the next six.” Ben Burns, ʺJFK Gags About TFX and Malcolm X,ʺ Chicago Defender, June 5, 1963.

254 “use U.S.A. or the American Government.” Elijah Muhammad to Malcolm Shabazz, August 1, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 8.

254 “[the march], he joined it,” Malcolm told the crowd. “Muslim Leader Plans to Join Washington March,” Chicago Defender, August 10, 1963.

254 “be wise in your decision when choosing.” FBI—Sharrieff, Summary Report, Chicago Office, February 19, 1964.

254 in Washington, speaking at a local NOI meeting. Ibid., p. 11.

255 “this present Catholic administration.” “Unity Rally,” August 18, 1963, MXC-S, box 5, folder 3.

255 Southern Democrat and taking place within one year. Ibid.

255 Fard never claimed, at least not publicly. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 166-67.

255 story of Yacub and the white devils. Branch, Pillar of Fire, pp. 130-31.

255 “to do whatsoever with the March,” he insisted. ʺNAACP Official Says 250,000 Will March,” Los Angeles Times, August 26, 1963. Malcolm’s statement was taken from a CBS television interview.

255 “an Emancipation Proclamation a hundred years ago.” William Raspberry, “Rights Leaders Reaffirm Belief That Marchers Will Be Orderly,” Washington Post, August 26, 1963.

256 “a part of history that we should be a part of.” Larry 4X Prescott interview, November 7, 2007.

256 that they were duped by whites in power. “The Farce on Washington,” no date, MXC-S, box 5, folder 5. Also see “‘No Muslims in D.C. March’: Malcolm X,ʺ Chicago Defender, August 26, 1963.

257 ʺepicenter of black America on that day.” Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004; and Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 102-6.

257 association with Malcolm would damage their image. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 104.

257 “You’re probably right,” Rustin replied. Ibid., p. 107.

258 fully inclusive for the first time in history. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, p. 383.

258 audience gave its consent for every demand. Ibid., pp. 284-85.

258 a shady tree, looking out over the crowd. Manning Marable comment, in Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004.

258 racial separation, and if not, “they will die.” FBI—Sharrieff, Summary Report, Chicago Office, February 19, 1964; FBI—Goodman, Summary Report, New York Office, February 13, 1964; and FBI—Gravitt, Summary Report, New York Office, January 27, 1964.

259 “He will follow me until he dies.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 297-300; and Clegg, An Original Man, pp. 181, 324. According to Armiya Nu’man, an assistant minister under Farrakhan at Mosque No. 7 in the early 1970s, the first NOI national minister had been Sultan Muhammad, minister of Milwaukee’s Temple No. 3 in the 1930s. Malcolm was only the second national minister to be named in the Nation.

259 “he went jubilantly lindy-hopping around.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 398.

259 “Justice to what the book can do for the Muslims needs it.” Alex Haley to Malcolm X, September 25, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 6.

259 “date before the 1964 election is in full swing.” Wolcott (Tony) Gibbs, Jr., to Alex Haley, October 1, 1963, KMC, box 44, folder 9.

259 “intrusion by the ‘as told toʹ writer.ʺ Alex Haley to Tony Gibbs, October 11, 1963, Anne Romaine Collection, UTLSC, series I, box 3, folder 24.

260 “speaking at Harvard Law School.” Wolcott Gibbs, Jr., to Alex Haley, October 24, 1963, KMC, box 44, folder 9.

261 “and represents, to Negroes, to white people, to America.ʺ Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, October 24, 1963, Anne Romaine Collection, UTLSC, series I, box 3, folder 1.

261 including one of a young Malcolm alongside singer Billie Holiday. Alex Haley to Tony Gibbs, October 27, 1963, KMC, box 44, folder 9.

261 “command you into what must be done with it.” Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, Kenneth McCormick, and Tony Gibbs, November 14, 1963, Anne Romaine Collection, UTLSC, series I, box 3, folder 24.

261 “and, then, the galvanic, absolute conversion.” Alex Haley to Malcolm X, November 14, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 6.

261 panel discussion at the University of California at Berkeley. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, June 18, 1964, p. 17.

261 specific references to “the Honorable Elijah Muhammad.” “America’s Gravest Crisis Since the Civil War,” University of California at Berkeley, October 11, 1963, in Perry, ed., Malcolm X: The Last Speeches, pp. 59-79.

262 cause “violence and bloodshed.” Ibid., pp. 66-67.

262 “You look upon him as being a man.” Ibid., pp. 72-73.

262 “Adam Powell is one of the best examples.” Ibid., pp. 78-79.

262 on “the condition of Negroes on the West Coast.” “Malcolm X, Back, Will Speak Friday,” Amsterdam News, October 19, 1963; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 15, 1963, pp. 16-17.

262 “full time to the truth of Mr. Elijah Muhammad.” “Professor to Direct Black Muslims Here,” Washington Post, October 21, 1963.

263 to Philadelphia to address the local NOI mosque. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, June 18, 1964, p. 9.

263 Malcolm engaged in a public dialogue with James Baldwin. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 15, 1963, p. 18.

263 books by and about him, was George Breitman. George Breitman’s works about Malcolm X include: George Breitman, ed., Malcolm X: The Man and His Ideas (New York: Pathfinder, 1965); George Breitman, ed., Malcolm X on Afro-American History (New York: Pathfinder, 1967); George Breitman, The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary (New York: Schocken, 1967); George Breitman, ed., By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X (New York: Pathfinder, 1970); and George Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements (New York: Grove, Weidenfield, 1990).

264 considered themselves more militant than he was. The letter inviting Malcolm X to attend the conference, dated October 26, 1963, came from GOAL. The letter outlined GOAL’s objectives and political philosophy; it also invited Malcolm to join its advisory board. What may be most important about Malcolm Xʹs post-NOI career is that GOAL provided a democratic model of protest organization that may have shaped the subsequent evolution of the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) in 1964. The OAAU’s political statements and objectives clearly paralleled those of GOAL. See Group on Advanced Leadership (GOAL) to Malcolm X, October 26, 1963, MXC-S, box 15, folder 11.

264 based on nonviolent direct action, was no revolution at all. “Message to the Grassroots,” November 10, 1963, in Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 3-17.

264 “love revolution, you love black nationalism.” Ibid., pp. 9-10.

265 Academy Awards “for the best supporting cast.” Ibid., pp. 12-17.

265 “Malcolm’s going to split with Elijah Muhammad.” Grace Lee Boggs, “Let’s Talk About Malcolm and Martin,” lecture presented at Brecht Forum, New York, May 4, 2007.

265 “residing with my brother Philbert in Lansing.” Malcolm is quoted in a letter dated November 1963, Alex Haley to Ken McCormick, Anne Romaine Collection, UTLSC, series I, box 3, folder 24.

265 until most of the Autobiography was completed. Alex Haley to Malcolm X, November 14, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 6.

265 “story, this caliber of a ‘happy ending.’” Alex Haley to Malcolm X, November 19, 1963, ibid.

265 “There’s something that I want to tell you both.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

265 activity was “as bad as it ever was.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 191.

266 Louis consented to Malcolm’s request. Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

266 traditional NOI dogma, and classical tenets of Sunni Islam. “Reminiscences of Malcolm X: A Lecture,” Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, New York. An incomplete transcript of Malcolm X’s talk is in MXC-S, box 5, folder 12.

267 “I’ll have to say he’s the foxiest of the foxy.” Ibid.

267 “Why, they would upset the entire political picture.” Ibid.

267 “involved because they were not allowed to.” Herman Ferguson interview, June 27, 2003.

268 even on the Thanksgiving holiday. Herman Ferguson interview, June 24, 2004.

268 “something that was happening around him.” Ibid.

268 “He was developing too fast.” Herman Ferguson interview, June 27, 2003.

Chapter 10: “The Chickens Coming Home to Roost”

269 alongside a photo of Kennedy. Clegg, An Original Man, pp. 200-201.

269 if questioned about the assassination. Evanzz, The Messenger, pp. 271-72.

269 an NOI leader since the assassination. Clegg, An Original Man, p. 201.

270 but a significant minority of non-Muslim blacks. “Malcolm X Scores U.S. and Kennedy: Likens Slaying to ‘Chickens Coming Home to Roost,’” New York Times, December 2, 1963; and Herman Ferguson interview, June 27, 2003.

271 “been making [the Mecca pilgrimage] since then.” Ibid.

271 affirmed Islam as their faith would be saved. Ibid.

271 “speaks for the black masses of America”—that is, Elijah Muhammad. Ibid.

272 “Revolutions are destructive and bloody.” Ibid.

273 “never did make me sad; they’ve always made me glad.” “Malcolm X Scores U.S. and Kennedy.”

273 “he made the statement, I didn’t think anything about it.” Larry 4X Prescott interview, June 9, 2006.

273 “nobody paid any particular attention to it.” Herman Ferguson interview, June 27, 2003.

274 Marilyn E.X., his secretary, would continue working for him. Clegg, An Original Man, p. 202; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 191-92. It appears that Malcolm continued to have access to Mosque No. 7’s secretary until early 1964. Marilyn E.X., Malcolm’s secretary, wrote Frank Quinn of the San Francisco Council for Civic Unity on December 30, 1963, requesting a copy of a television interview featuring Malcolm X on a local program, “Cities and Negroes.” See Marilyn E.X. to Frank Quinn, December 30, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

274 “‘very shocked at the assassination of President Kennedy.’” “Malcolm X Suspended for JFK Remarks,” Amsterdam News, December 7, 1963.

274 “I agree I need to withdraw from public appearance.” Ibid.; and “Malcolm X Suspended,” Chicago Defender, December 5, 1963.

274 “and even that job reportedly was in doubt.” X On the Spot,” Newsweek, December 16, 1963.

275 “but he would make no public speeches.” Larry 4X Prescott interview, June 9, 2006.

275 “and I said, ‘Oh-oh, something funny is going on.’” James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.

275 public fiascos with the American Nazi Party. Ibid.

275 otherwise surely heightened the tension between them. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 164- 65. Rickford speculates that Malcolm’s “lingering loyalty” to the NOI “might have sparked more feuds at home.”

276 “just exclude public speaking engagements.” “Malcolm X Expected to Be Replaced,” New York Times, December 6, 1963.

276 Malcolm never really worked on the project. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 191-92.

276 “just as they put it in the back of Medgar Evers.” “Malcolm Answers Jackie Robinson,” Chicago Defender, December 7, 1963. Also see “Reject Racist Views in Open Retort to Malcolm,” Chicago Defender, December 14, 1963.

277 “he will not be permitted to speak in public.” “Malcolm X Maintains Silence,” Amsterdam News, December 14, 1963.

277 “people without cultural roots are automatically dead.” Malcolm X to Martin Miller, December 6, 1963, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

277 “the only spokesman for the Black Muslims.” “A Summing Up: Louis Lomax Interviews Malcolm X,ʺ in Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 169-80.

277 “sticks out his lip and starts popping off.” Clegg, An Original Man, p. 203.

278 corroborate Malcolm’s supposed rumormongering. Evanzz, The Messenger, p. 278.

278 neither believed that a total split was inevitable. Clegg, An Original Man, pp. 203-5.

278 he was praying to atone for his errors. Ibid., pp. 205-6.

278 Elijah Muhammad, Ali, and Sharrieff were all present. Ibid., pp. 203-7; and Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 125.

279 “Go back and put out the fire you started.” Clegg, An Original Man, p. 207; and Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 125-26.

279 “another, less metaphorical grave in mind.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 126.

279 even by James 3X Shabazz in Malcolm’s own former post. Larry 4X Prescott interview, June 9, 2006.

279 over seven hours, deep into the night. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, February 12, 1964.

280 having Clay on his side was a plus. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 127-29.

280 to Washington, D.C., until January 21. David Remnick, King of the World, p. 168.

281 the couple’s youngest daughter, Ilyasah. Photograph, “Clay Celebrates with Malcolm X,ʺ Chicago Defender, February 6, 1964.

281 published in the Amsterdam News. Photograph, “Malcolm X’s Family and Friend,” Amsterdam News, February 1, 1964.

281 to Miami and resumed training. Remnick, King of the World, pp. 168-69.

281 “of heavyweight boxer Cassius Clay.” “Malcolm X in Florida,” Amsterdam News, January 25, 1964.

281 “a Muslim meeting I get inspired.” “Cassius Clay Almost Says He’s a Muslim,” Amsterdam News, January 25, 1964.

281 “what’s wrong with the Muslims?” Remnick, King of the World, p. 169.

282 of about $3,000 per month. James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.

283 “without speaking against myself.” “Notebook—Separation from NOI,ʺ MXC-S, box 9, folder 2.

283 “only adds division upon division.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 192.

283 “in Muslims, but self.” “Notebook—Separation from NOI,ʺ MXC-S, box 9, folder 2.

283 “(two-thirds a cop) same situation everywhere.” Ibid.

284 coalitions on a case-by-case basis. Claude Lightfoot, “Negro Nationalism and the Black Muslims,” Political Affairs, vol. 41, no. 7 ( July 1962), pp. 3-20.

285 “survive the War of Armageddon?” McAlister, “One Black Allah,” pp. 622-56; and Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 224-25.

285 “a worldwide and historic struggle.” McAlister, “One Black Allah,” p. 628.

285 had talked with God personally. Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 177-80.

285 Allah nor God, Malcolm dissented. “Notebook—Separation from NOI,” MXC-S, box 9, folder 2.

286 seat 7, his favorite number. Remnick, King of the World, pp. 170-72.

286 of allowing Malcolm back in. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 128-29.

287 and led them in prayer. Remnick, King of the World, pp. 186-88.

287 “I’m the king of the world!” Ibid., pp. 176, 183-200.

287 were given bowls of ice cream. Ibid., pp. 204, 207-8; and Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 129.

287 “blinded them to his ability.” Remnick, King of the World, p. 207.

288 and an entourage of six. “Clay Talks with Malcolm Here,” New York Times, March 2, 1954.

288 “a mind of his own.” Steve Cady, “Clay, on 2-Hour Tour of U.N., Tells of Plans to Visit Mecca,” New York Times, March 5, 1964.

288 near his East Elmhurst home. Remnick, King of the World, p. 213.

288 “secret conference with Malcolm X.” “. . . and to Complete the Report,” Chicago Tribune, March 2, 1964.

288 rival organization to the Nation of Islam. “Report Clay, Malcolm X Plan New Organization,” Chicago Defender, March 2, 1964.

289 “‘kill Malcolm, they’ll kill me.’” James 67X Warden interview, August 1, 2007.

289 “would raise up against them.” James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.

289 “in the middle of the night.” Ibid.

290 “‘are talking about killing you.’” James 67X Warden interview, August 1, 2007.

290 “just don’t lie to me.” Ibid.

291 “that’s the way it was.” Langston Hughes Savage (also known as Anas Luqman) interview, September 6, 2008.

291 “break with all of them.” Ibid.

291 “‘He ain’t been removed.’” James 67X Warden interview, August 1, 2007.

292 “became more and more political.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

292 “I held with my brother.” Ibid.

292 “in Allah and follows me.” “Clay Puts Black Muslim X in His Name,” New York Times, March 7, 1964.

293 “talk about him no more.” Remnick, King of the World, p. 214.

293 “would not join with Malcolm X.” “Clay to Take Draft Physical,” New York Times, March 7, 1964.

293 “champion Cassius X Clay, has completely failed.” “Clay Drops Malcolm X,ʺ Pittsburgh Courier, March 21, 1964.

293 Triborough Bridge and given a ticket. “Order Arrest of Brother Malcolm,” Chicago Defender, May 21, 1964.

293 that he was suspended indefinitely. Malcolm X, “Why I Quit,” Amsterdam News, March 14, 1964.

294 “engagements at colleges and universities.” M. S. Handler, “Malcolm X Splits with Muhammad,” New York Times, March 9, 1964; and “Occasional Statements, Open Letters, Declarations and Letters to the Editor, 1962-1964,” MXC-S, box 5, folder 18.

294 “wherever Negroes ask for my help.” Handler, “Malcolm X Splits with Muhammad.”

295 “and that he should be killed.” William H. George interview with Assistant District Attorney Herbert Stern, March 18, 1964, MANY.

295 a second election would be held. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, June 18, 1964, p. 33.

295 whom had been former NOI members. James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.

295 New York’s WNDT, Channel 13. “Malcolm X Charts,” Jet, April 2, 1964; and MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, March 11, 1964.

295 with an interview with Malcolm. “Telegram to Muhammad” and “Malcolm X: Why I Quit,” Amsterdam News, March 14, 1964.

296 “while there is still time.” M. S. Handler, “Malcolm X Sees Rise in Violence,” New York Times, March 12, 1964.

296 Muhammad only isolated him further. Ibid.; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, March 13, 1964; DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 195; and “Occasional Statements,” MXC-S, box 5, folder 18.

296 Malcolm would later explain. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 163.

296 “had yet to be broken.” Ibid., p. 171.

Chapter 11: An Epiphany in the Hajj

298 “within their rights to kill those dogs.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, March 13, 1964.

298 Murphy’s condemnation was a “compliment.” “‘Get Guns,’ Says Malcolm X,ʺ Chicago Defender, March 14, 1964; “Top New York Cop Vows Fight Against Malcolm X,ʺ Chicago Defender, March 17, 1964; “Negroes Seek Ouster,” Chicago Defender, March 19, 1964; and MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, March 26, 1964.

298 quality of blacks’ public education. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, March 13, 1964; and MX FBI, Memo, Boston Office, April 3, 1964.

298 most blacks to dismiss his claims. “Malcolm X Tells of Death Threat,” Amsterdam News, March 21, 1964.

298 room located on the hotel’s mezzanine. MX FBI, Memo, Chicago Office, March 17, 1964; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, March 13, 1964; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, June 18, 1964, p. 35.

299 “the white man himself bleeds a little.” MX FBI, Memo, Boston Office, April 3, 1964.

299 “anti-Semitic. We are simply against exploitation.” MX FBI, Memo, Paris Office, August 26, 1964.

299 had requested information on how to join up. MX FBI, New York Office, June 18, 1964, p. 48.

299 to form “a black nationalist army.” “Malcolm X May Form Black National Army,” Amsterdam News, March 25, 1964; “Malcolm X Says Form a New Party,” Chicago Defender, March 26, 1964; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, June 18, 1964, p. 36.

300 “will consider a conflict as a bloody one.” Ibid.

301 would become spiritual brothers and sisters to blacks. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 207-8.

301 “in the nonviolent movement.” Garrow, Bearing the Cross, p. 319.

302 only time the two men ever met. James 67X Warden interview, August 1, 2007.

302 compensate blacks for “three hundred ten years of unpaid slave labor.” “Malcolm X to Organize Mass Voter Registration,” Militant, April 6, 1964.

302 the inevitable socialist revolution in the United States. Trotsky’s theory of “permanent revolution” suggested that revolutionary societies could “leap” economic stages of development—for example, from feudalism to socialism, bypassing capitalism. In the United States, this meant that the vanguard of the socialist revolution would not come from the industrial proletariat, but from the most oppressed sectors of the working class and peasantry. This meant that Negroes would be a major force within the vanguard of the American socialist revolution. The Socialist Workers Party, Trotsky advised, should support movements promoting black nationalism and demands for self-determination. See Manning Marable, Black American Politics: From the Washington Marches to Jesse Jackson (London: Verso, 1985), p. 52.

304 best program addressing blacks’ interests. Ibid.; Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, p. 23; and Robert Terrill, Malcolm X: Inventing Radical Judgment (Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2004), pp. 121-33.

304 “by August [1964], with delegates from all over the country.” “2,000 Hear Malcolm X in Cleveland,” Militant, June 13, 1964. Provocatively, Malcolm also raised the specter of armed struggle by blacks inside the United States. At the proposed August 1964 convention, Malcolm declared, “If it’s necessary to form a black nationalist army, we’ll form a black nationalist army.”

304 one of Malcolm’s most widely quoted talks. “The Ballot or the Bullet,” Transcript, MXC-S, box 5, folder 8.

304 “rightfully theirs,” Malcolm was reported stating. MX FBI, Cleveland Office, April 7, 1964; and “Organize Rifle Club in Ohio,” Amsterdam News, April 11, 1964.

305 eviction of Malcolm and his family from the house. James Booker, “Seek to Evict Malcolm X from Home in Queens,” Amsterdam News, March 31, 1964.

305 “accusing the government of genocide,” it reported. FBI—Muslim Mosque, Incorporated (MMI) file, Memo, New York Office, April 5, 1964; Travel Diaries (Transcription): Middle East and West Africa, April-May 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13.

305 Malcolm’s core followers also in attendance. Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 45-57; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 282.

306 ministers tried in vain to block his appearance. “Malcolm Xʹs Detroit Date Sparks Battle of Ministers,” Afro-American, April 11, 1964.

307 “a chump but a traitor to his race.” MX FBI, Memo, Detroit Office, April 9, 1964; MX FBI, Memo, Detroit Office, April 14, 1964; and “Leading Dixiecrat in White House,” Chicago Defender, April 14, 1964.

307 “fit right into Harlem,” he noted in his diary. Travel Diaries, April 13-14, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13.

307 Saudi Arabia, the official center of embarkation for the hajj. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , pp. 326-31; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 204.

308 in securing permission to participate in the hajj. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 328-31, 336-37; DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 205; and “Malcolm X Gets Religion,” Chicago Defender, May 14, 1964.

308 “decreed that I be a guest of the state.” Travel Diaries, April 17-19, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 205.

309 and renewal, fitting well with the purpose of the hajj. Letter from Malcolm X, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, April 20, 1964, Best Efforts, Inc. Archives, Highland Park, Michigan, in DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 206; “Malcolm X Gets Religion,” Chicago Defender; “Malcolm X Has New Name in Arabia,” Amsterdam News, May 9, 1964; and Esposito, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, pp. 103-4.

309 “horum, with right shoulder bare.” Malcolm observed on April 23. Travel Diaries, April 22-23, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13.

310 who “were more genuinely brotherly than anyone else had ever been.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 179.

310 “modernizing the methods to propagate Islam.” Travel Diaries, April 22-23, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13.

311 unhappy experiences with American racism. Travel Diaries, April 24, 1964, ibid.

311 years he was incarcerated in Massachusetts. Travel Diaries, April 25, 1964, ibid.

311 “True Believer recognizes the Oneness of all Humanity.” Travel Diaries, April 26-27, 1964, ibid.

312 “Islam will link us spiritually to Africa, Arabia and Asia.” Travel Diaries, April 23, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13.

312 who advocated the expansive use of jihad. Esposito, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, pp. 217-18. In 1980, Hafez al-Assad mandated death for any Syrian who belonged to the Muslim Brotherhood.

312 scheduled to give a lecture the following day. Travel Diaries, April 27-29, 1964, ibid.

312 a front-page article about it the next day. Travel Diaries, April 30, 1964, ibid.; and Malcolm Xʹs Itinerary, April 30, 1964, MXC-S, box 13, folder 7.

312 “only a minority of Negroes believed in nonviolence.” “Negro Moderation Decried by Malcolm X in Lebanon,” New York Times, May 2, 1964.

312 “the offices of the Muslim borthersʺ— that is, the Brotherhood. Travel Diaries, May 1, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13.

313 would play the same role during Malcolm’s 1964 visit. Abdul Basit Naeem statement, August 5, 1959, BOSS; Travel Diaries, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13; and Malcolm X to Hussein el-Borai, June 1, 1964, and January 7, 1965, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

313 reaching the ancient seaport city in the evening. Ibid.

313 “get imported items through customs.” Travel Diaries, May 2-3, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13.

313 Malcolm “was probably from Habachi (Abyssinia).” Travel Diaries, May 4, 1964, ibid.

313 and escorted him to the Federal Palace hotel. Travel Diaries, May 5, 1964, ibid.

313 including scholar E. U. Essien-Udom. Travel Diaries, May 7, 1964, ibid.; E. U. Essien-Udom’s Black Nationalism: The Search for an Identity in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963) presented a sympathetic critique of the Nation of Islam.

314 “the son (or child) who has returned.” Alice Windom to Christine, May 1964, John Henrik Clarke Papers, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, box 24, folder 33; Malcolm Xʹs Itinerary, MXC-S, box 13, folder 7; and “Malcolm X Gives Africa Twisted Look,” New York Journal American, July 25, 1964, which includes excerpts of Malcolm’s address.

314 Maya Angelou, Alice Windom, Preston King and W. E. B. and Shirley Du Bois. Kevin Gaines, African Americans in Ghana (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), pp. 198-99; and Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, “Julian Mayfield,” pp. 376-77.

315 during his student years at Berkeley. See Leslie Lacy, “Malcolm X in Ghana,” in John Henrik Clarke, ed., Malcolm X: The Man and His Times (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1990), pp. 217-25.

315 he gave a talk at Chicago’s Mosque No. 2 in the early 1960s. “Alice Windom,” in Jenkins, ed. Malcolm X Encyclopedia, pp. 566-67.

315 “extra-religious struggle for human rights in America.” Alice Windom to Christine, May 1964, John Henrik Clarke Papers, box 24, folder 33.

315 “personally but bad for me politically.” Travel Diaries, May 11, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13.

316 Pan-Africanism similar to that espoused by Nkrumah. Malcolm X to Muslim Mosque, Inc., May 11, 1964, MXC-S, box 13, folder 2.

316 “to have far reaching results for the common good.” “X Is Here,” Ghanaian Times, May 12, 1964; and “Civil Rights Issue in U.S. Is Mislabeled,” Ghanaian Times, May 13, 1964.

316 Ghana’s minister of defense Kofi Boaka and other ministers at Boaka’s home. Alice Windom to Christine, May 1964, John Henrik Clarke Papers, box 24, folder 33; Malcolm Xʹs Itinerary, MXC-S, box 13, folders 6-7; and Travel Diaries, May 14-16, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13.

316 “to be ‘amused.’ They were in for a rude surprise.” Alice Windom to Christine, May 1964, John Henrik Clarke Papers, box 24, folder 33.

317 he predicted that Harlem was “about to explode.” Calvin Smith, ed., Where To, Black Man? (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1967), pp. 211-20. The text is a transcript of Malcolm’s University of Ghana lecture. See also Manning Marable, African and Caribbean Politics: From Kwame Nkrumah to the Grenada Revolution (London: Verso, 1987), pp. 136-43.

317 “white race would end segregation in the U.S., and the world.” “African States Must Force U.S. for Racial Equality,” Ghanaian Times, May 15, 1964.

317 in Winneba, about forty miles from Accra. Alice Windom to Christine, May 1964, John Henrik Clarke Papers, box 24, folder 33; Travel Diaries, May 15, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13; and Malcolm Xʹs Itinerary, MXC-S, box 13, folders 6-7.

317 proclaiming Maoist China’s support for African-American liberation. Alice Windom to Christine, May 1964, John Henrik Clarke Papers, box 24, folder 33; FBI—Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM) file, Memo, W. R. Wannall to W. C. Sullivan, October 1, 1964; and MX FBI Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 70. Also see William Worthy, “The Red Chinese and the American Negro,” Esquire, October 1964, pp. 132, 173-79.

318 “mainstream of the struggle was heralded as a hopeful sign.” Alice Windom to Christine, May 1964, John Henrik Clarke Papers, box 24, folder 33.

318 “Nobody listens to that Malcolm anymore.” Ali’s traveling retinue included Herbert Muhammad. See “Cassius Without His Lip,” Ghanaian Times, May 18, 1964; “Muhammad Ali Meets His Hero (Nkrumah),” Ghanaian Times, May 19, 1964; and Lloyd Garrison, “Clay Makes Malcolm Ex-Friend,” New York Times, May 18, 1964.

318 “by their racial origin from being regarded as human liberators.” H. M. Basner, “Malcolm X and the Martyrdom of Rev. Clayton Hewett,” Ghanaian Times, May 18, 1964.

318 “white worker in America than he has in South Africa.ʺ Julian Mayfield, “Basner Misses Malcolm Xʹs Point,” Ghanaian Times, May 19, 1964.

318 “objective, could have appeared attacking Nkrumah.” Leslie A. Lacy, “African Responses to Malcolm X,ʺ in LeRoi Jones and Larry Neal, eds., Black Fire (New York: William Morrow, 1968), pp. 32-38.

318 to Africa “philosophically and culturally.” Malcolm X to Muslim Mosque, Inc., May 11, 1964, MXC-S, box 13, folder 2.

319 and he prayed with many others. Travel Diaries, May 18, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13.

319 “Black Muslims, and thirsting for faster ‘progress.’” Ibid.

319 appear at a trial to respond to a speeding ticket. Travel Diaries, May 19, 1964, ibid.; Malcolm Xʹs Itinerary, MXC-S, box 13, folder 7; “Warrant Issued for Malcolm X,ʺ Chicago Daily News, May 19, 1964; “Order Arrest of Brother Malcolm,” Chicago Defender, May 21, 1964; and “Warrant for Malcolm as Speeder to Be Issued,” New York Times, May 20, 1964. The charge against Malcolm was that he was driving fifty-five miles per hour in a forty-mile-per-hour zone on the Triborough Bridge in New York City on March 6, 1964.

319 “different races and colors who treated me as a human being.” Travel Diaries, May 21, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 13; Malcolm Xʹs Itinerary, MXC-S, box 13, folder 7; MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 90; “Malcolm X Makes It In from Mecca,” Chicago Defender, May 25, 1964; “Malcolm Says He Is Backed Abroad,” New York Times, May 22, 1964; and “‘My Next Move’—Malcolm X: An Exclusive Interview,” Amsterdam News, May 30, 1964.

320 “dark blue suits, white shirts and distinctive red or grey bow ties.” “Malcolm Says He Is Backed Abroad,” New York Times, May 22, 1964.

Chapter 12: “Do Something About Malcolm X”

321 brothers “to be careful of the NOI.ʺ FBI—MMI, Memo, New York Office, March 26, 1964.

322 membership in the Jack and Jill organization. “Lynn Shifflett in ‘Big Sister’ Contest,” Los Angeles Sentinel, April 28, 1955; “Marion DeMan Hosts Teenager Party,” Los Angeles Sentinel, August 25, 1955; “Jack, Jill Conference First for Teen-Agers,” Los Angeles Sentinel, September 1, 1955; and “Founders Day Noted by Sigma Gamma Rho,” Los Angeles Sentinel, December 27, 1956.

322 funds for Freedom Riders in the South. “The Guest Corner,” Los Angeles Sentinel, July 11, 1957; “College Girl Relates African Experiences,” Los Angeles Sentinel, November 13, 1958; “Photo of Shifflett,” Los Angeles Sentinel, April 30, 1959; “Photo of Shifflett,” Los Angeles Sentinel, October 22, 1959; and “Photo of Shifflett,” Los Angeles Sentinel, July 6, 1961.

322 “white people would also begin to feel the effects of this.” Peter Bailey interview, September 4, 1968, Manuscript Division, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University Library.

322 “And don’t ask no questions, just be there.” Peter Bailey interview, June 20, 2003.

323 “relaxed and he laughed and he’d joke.” Peter Bailey interview, September 4, 1968.

323 weeks prior to Malcolm’s break with the Nation. Peter Bailey interview, June 20, 2003.

323 “anything that Malcolm did,” Ferguson said. Herman Ferguson interview, June 24, 2004.

324 evidently the sacrifice made sense to her. Ibid.

324 the Nation of Islam would never readmit him. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 199-200.

325 “change black pathology into another religion.” “A Conversation with Ossie Davis,” Souls, vol. 2, no. 3 (Summer 2000), pp. 6-16; quotation, p. 15. Davis also predicted that Malcolm X would emerge once again “as a central figure in any effort to unite, to regroup, our forces and to prepare ourselves for the onslaught that is sure to be visited upon us in this new century.”

325 to run into each other at demonstrations. See Von Hugo Washington, “An Evaluation of the Play Purlie Victorious and Its Impact on the American Theater Scene,” Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1979.

325 “with the nonwhite majority of the world.” Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004.

326 “That’s what the rub was.” Norman 3X Butler (also known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz) interview, December 22, 2008.

326 subsequent break was Malcolm’s fault. Larry 4X Prescott interview, June 9, 2006.

326 “the Nation. . . . That’s the way I saw it.” Ibid.

327 her husband was out of the country. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 180-81.

327 “the freer we all became.” Ibid., p. 182.

327 Louis’s name in the column as “Minister Lewis.” Minister Lewis, “Minister Who Knew Him Best—Part I, Rips Malcolm’s Treachery, Defection,” Muhammad Speaks, May 8, 1964. Also see Minister Louis, “Fall of a Minister,” Muhammad Speaks, June 5, 1964.

328 Malcolm “had embraced Sunni Islam.” James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.

328 “I would have walked away.” Herman Ferguson interview, July 24, 2004.

328 Betty curtly replied, “No.” Betty Shabazz interview, January 27, 1989, Anne Romaine Collection, UTLSC, series I, box 3, folder 24.

329 “generation of American whites to turn with them.” M. S. Handler, “Malcolm X Pleased by Whites’ Attitude on Trip to Mecca,” New York Times, May 8, 1964.

329 “everyone as part of one human family.” James Booker, “Is Mecca Trip Changing Malcolm?” Amsterdam News, May 23, 1964.

329 required the blessing of Elijah Muhammad. Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, December 11, 1963, KMC, box 44, folder 1.

330 “harassed by intermittent money pressures.” Alex Haley to Kenneth McCormick, Tony Gibbs, Jr., and Paul Reynolds, December 28, 1963, ibid.

330 “‘Twenty Million Black Muslims,’” Haley observed. Alex Haley to Kenneth McCormick, Tony Gibbs, Jr., and Paul Reynolds, January 19, 1964, KMC, box 44, folder 2.

330 best estimate of the final manuscript date. Wolcott Gibbs, Jr., to Alex Haley, January 29, 1964, ibid.

330 sent off suggestions for revision. Alex Haley to Ken McCormick, Wolcott Gibbs, Jr., and Paul Reynolds, January 28, 1964, ibid.

330 “would quarrel with what I’m saying to him.” Paul Reynolds to Tony Gibbs, Jr., February 7, 1964, ibid.

331 “blasts everything that went before.ʺ Alex Haley to Tony Gibbs, Jr., February 11, 1964, ibid.

331 “every Christian needs to wrestle with.” Alex Haley to Ken McCormick, Paul Reynolds, and Tony Gibbs, Jr., February 18, 1964, ibid.

332 “including to make foreign rights hotly bid for!” Alex Haley to Ken McCormick and Paul Reynolds, March 21, 1964, ibid.

332 of all chapters that had been completed. Paul Reynolds to Anthony Gibbs, Jr., March 30, 1964, ibid.

332 that Gibbs finally forwarded the check. Tony Gibbs to Robert Banker, April 7, 1964, ibid.

332 Africa’s resources to U.S. police brutality. MX FBI, Memo, Chicago Office, May 27, 1964; and “Malcolm Says He Is Backed Abroad,” New York Times.

332 “his real end—respect as a human being.” “Goals Changed by Malcolm X,ʺ Los Angeles Times, May 24, 1964; MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 10-11, 15, 98-100; FBI—MMI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 6, 1964, p. 14; and “Photo Standalone,” Chicago Defender, May 20, 1964.

333 “‘guerrilla tactics of other deprived revolutionaries.’” “Goals Changed by Malcolm X,ʺ Los Angeles Times; and Breitman, ed., By Any Means Necessary, pp. 178-79.

333 “man you’re all going to have to deal with.” Judith Martin, “Gregory Predicts Social Revolution,” Washington Post, April 28, 1964.

333 “the only man who can stop a race riot.” Drew Pearson, “A Comedian Sounds a Warning,” Los Angeles Times, May 19, 1964. Gregory also drew parallels between Malcolm and the Ku Klux Klan: “The Klan tells the Negro, ‘Don’t fool with the white woman. Don’t live in a white neighborhood.’ Malcolm X says the same thing.”

333 and SNCC chairman John Lewis. “Civil Rights Chiefs Form National Unit,” New York Times, April 17, 1964.

334 “And they were supposed to get married.” James 67X Warden interview, August 1, 2007.

334 tempted to resign as MMI coordinator. Ibid.

334 Islamic faith, and must embrace “reality.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 231.

334 were “adopting a wait and see attitude.” Jesse Lewis, “Man Who ‘Tamed’ Malcolm Is Hopeful,” Washington Post, May 18, 1964.

335 “strongly today than I did ten years ago.” “A Visit from the FBI,ʺ in Clarke, ed., Malcolm X: The Man and His Times, pp. 182-204.

336 “all the power this country has can’t remove him.” Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 64-71.

336 “it was certainly a revolutionary chicken!” Ibid., pp. 68-69. Malcolm also used the forum to reach out to potential white allies, indicating his break from the racial separatism of the NOI. “We will work with anyone, with any group, no matter what their color is,” Malcolm declared, “as long as they are genuinely interested in taking the type of steps necessary to bring an end to the injustices that black people in this country are affected by” (p. 70). Also see MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 78-79.

337 “whom the Muslims preach is the devil.” “‘My Next Move’—Malcolm X,ʺ Amsterdam News.

337 to resolve the dispute in a Muslim court. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 56; and FBI—Goodman, Summary Report, New York Office, October 16, 1964.

338 the northern boundary of Harlem. Robert E. Terrill, Malcolm X: Inventing Radical Judgment , p. 138.

338 same of prominent minister Lonnie X Cross. FBI—MMI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, June 3, 1964; FBI—MMI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, June 9, 1964; MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 59; FBI—Goodman, Summary Report, New York Office, October 16, 1964; and “Schedule,” June 4-7, 1964, MXC-S, box 13, folder 7.

338 “enough of this black violence in New York.” MX FBI, Telegram, J. Edgar Hoover to New York Office, June 5, 1964; and “Schedule,” June 4-7, 1964, MXC-S, box 13, folder 7.

339 “and then not believing in the words of Allah.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 55.

339 “because the ‘devil’ [white man] is watching.” Ibid.

339 “you can and report it to me right away.” FBI—Sharrieff, Summary Report, Chicago Office, August 27, 1964.

339 “in the mouth of the infamy to the elbow.” Ibid.

340 “against colonialism, neocolonialism, and imperialism.” Marjorie Lee, Akemi Kochiyama-Sardinha, and Audee Kochiyama-Holman, eds., Passing It On—A Memoir by Yuri Kochiyama (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press, 2004), pp. 67-70; and “Schedule,” June 4-7, 1964, MXC-S, box 13, folder 7.

340 forth their accusations in the national media. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 20-21.

340 corroborate the stories of Muhammad’s illicit lovers. Taylor Branch, Pillar of Fire, p. 328.

340 Messenger’s very own son, Wallace Muhammad. FBI—Morris, Summary Report, New York Office, March 1, 1965; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 3-4, 22.

341 death threats against Malcolm. Branch, Pillar of Fire, p. 329.

341 Wallace of Alabama and President Lyndon Johnson. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, June 9, 1964; MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 16, 21; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 331.

341 a blueprint for the OAAU. FBI—Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) file, Memo, New York Office, June 19, 1964.

342 “what great organizers each of them is.” James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.

342 “and I told the brothers to do it.” James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.

342 his former membership in the Nation of Islam. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 15.

342 armed guard for fear of attack. Branch, Pillar of Fire, p. 346.

342 had known about them first. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 22-23, 59; and Branch, Pillar of Fire, p. 346.

343 might be expected to endorse the initiative. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, June 16, 1964.

343 “CIA and military intelligence agencies.” MX FBI, Teletype, New York Office, June 13, 1964.

343 on one thousand dollars bail each. FBI—Goodman, Summary Report, New York Office, October 10, 1964; FBI—MMI, Memo, Boston Office, June 15, 1964; and FBI—MMI, Teletype, Boston Office, June 15, 1964. The men accompanying Benjamin were former NOI members Aubrey Barnette, Robert Lee Wise, John Thomas, Frank Terrelongo, Goulbourne Busby, Jr., Larryn Douglas, and Malcolm’s nephew Rodnell Collins, then nineteen years old.

344 “conspired” to expel him from the Nation. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 60.

344 no ammunition, so no arrest was made. “Malcolm X Death Threat Brings Heavy Court Guard,” New York Telegraph and Sun, June 1, 1964; “Muslims Deny Fight Going On within Ranks,” Chicago Defender, June 18, 1964; and MX FBI, Teletype, New York Office, June 16, 1964.

345 “a hearing in front of the Muslim[s].” Transcript of Queens County Civil Court Trial, June 15-16, 1964.

345 “never removed a minister without cause.” Ibid.

346 belonged to the Nation of Islam. Ibid.

346 “doing and had been doing.” Ibid.

346 in the acquisition of the property. Ibid.

347 “than keep it quiet among Muslims.ʺ Ibid.

347 of open season on any Malcolm loyalist. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 70.

347 were arrested and their firearms seized. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, June 19, 1964. The men arrested were William George, Herbert Dudley, Jesse Ryans, Vincent Woldan, James Vestal, and George Whitney. Also see FBI—MMI, Teletype, New York Office, June 17, 1964.

347 “killed for teaching against Elijah Muhammad.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 75.

348 great speed, straining to accomplish his goals. Branch, Pillar of Fire, p. 332.

348 and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. Marilyn E.X. to Henry Kissinger, June 18, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

348 could be truly competitive with the Nation of Islam. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 4-5.

348 “will take what is rightfully theirs.” Ibid., p. 4.

348 Works and Surveys, asking for information. Malcolm X to Joseph Iffeorah, June 22, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

348 “you would come out Sunday as a spectator.” Malcolm X to Sara Mitchell, June 22, 1964, ibid.

349 remanded to the Queens Criminal Court. “Muslim Factions Keep Fighting,” Amsterdam News, June 27, 1964; and Larry 4X Prescott interview, June 9, 2006.

349 “Then things just got progressively worse.” Larry 4X Prescott interview, June 9, 2006. To this day, Larry 4X is unapologetic about his actions: “I got the gun from him and I beat him with it. And I should have—you know, I didn’t have the mind to shoot him. But I definitely whipped his behind real good with it.”

350 a sore point for many of Malcolm’s followers. Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, June 23, 1964, MXC-S, box 13, folder 1; and “Malcolm X to Elijah: Let’s End the Fighting,” New York Post, June 26, 1964.

350 “There was tension and resentment.” Herman Ferguson interview, June 24, 2004.

351 “that our people experience in this government.” “Organization of Afro-American Unity, A Statement of Basic Aims and Objectives,” in Clarke, ed., Malcolm X: The Man and His Times, pp. 335-42; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 25, 29, 76.

351 “block by block to make the community aware of its power and potential.” “Organization of Afro-American Unity, A Statement of Basic Aims and Objectives”; Terrill, Malcolm X: Inventing Radical Judgment, pp. 138-39; William W. Sales, From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity (Boston: South End, 1994), pp. 104-7; David Herman, “Malcolm X Launches a New Organization,” Militant , July 13, 1964; and “Program of Organization of Afro-American Unity,” Militant, July 13, 1964.

351 no material incentive to finish the book project. Wolcott Gibbs, Jr., to Robert Banker, July 1, 1964, KMC, box 44, folder 1; and Doubleday and Company, Inc., to Alex Haley and Malcolm X, sometimes called Malik Shabazz, July 8, 1964, KMC, box 44, folder 1. In mid-July 1964, Haley was telling literary agent Paul Reynolds that the Autobiography was nearly finished; his afterword could be written in less than one week. “[It] should be wrapped up . . . by the end of the month.” See Haley to Reynolds, July 14, 1964, KMC, box 44, folder 1.

351 “from my own personal appraisals.” Alex Haley to Malcolm X, June 8, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 6.

352 “and her four children what a man you were.” Alex Haley to Malcolm X, June 21, 1964, ibid.

352 “while providing him with more funds.ʺ Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, June 21, 1964, ibid.

353 “possibility of self-regeneration?” “No,” Malcolm replied. Robert Penn Warren, Who Speaks for the Negro? (New York: Random House, 1965), pp. 251-66.

353 “‘I wouldn’t know anything about that.’” Ibid., p. 260.

354 agreed to be their international chairman. Max Stanford (also known as Muhammad Ahmed) interview, January 31, 2003.

354 “the public front, united front.” Ibid.

355 “brothers who graduated from college.” Ibid.

355 “like the biggest fool on planet earth.” Ibid.

355 “couldn’t attack him if he had a national base.” Max Stanford interview, August 28, 2007. In his 2007 interview, Stanford attributed Malcolm’s outing of Elijah Muhammad’s sexual misconduct to his own humiliation. After the Queens trial, Malcolm justified his attack on Muhammad to Stanford by explaining he was a fool, and that he had gone around the world saying Elijah Muhammad “is a holy man” when Elijah Muhammad had been messing around with a lot of women. “Well, he was devastated, totally. . . . You know, Malcolm was a street hustler, so he was a player, right? I mean, the player got played.”

356 “And I was a hero.” Gerry Fulcher interview, October 3, 2007.

356 attend OAAU events, doing general surveillance. Ibid.

357 could transcribe and analyze Malcolm’s speeches. Ibid.

357 join the OAAU, far fewer than anticipated. “Malcolm X Repeats Call for Negro Unity on Rights,” New York Times, June 29, 1964.

357 Harlemites did not have the initial two-dollar membership fee. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 29.

357 organize self-defense units capable of fighting the Klan. FBI—OAAU, Teletype, New York Office, June 30, 1964.

357 “the Negro has a chance to strike back.” “Malcolm Sending Armed Troops to Mississippi,” Chicago Defender, July 2, 1964.

358 on the streets, forced him to return immediately to New York. MX FBI, Memo, Chicago Office, June 26, 1964; and MX FBI, Memo, Chicago Office, July 23, 1964.

358 filed paternity suits against Elijah Muhammad. “Two Paternity Suits,” New York Times, July 4, 1964; “Deny Paternity Suits,” Chicago Defender, July 6, 1964; and “Ex-Sweetheart of Malcolm X Accuses Elijah,” Amsterdam News, July 11, 1964. On July 7, Rosemary gave birth in Los Angeles to another child fathered by Muhammad.

358 but only for twenty-four hours. “Malcolm X Flees for His Life,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 11, 1964; “New York Police Put Guard,” Washington Post, July 5, 1964; and John Shabazz, “Muslim Minister Writes to Malcolm,” Muhammad Speaks, July 3, 1964.

358 assignment of introducing Malcolm to the audience. FBI—Goodman, Summary Report, New York Office, October 16, 1964.

358 “sound like I’m cracking, but I’m facting.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 204.

358 other cities “behind Brother Wallace” Muhammad. Malcolm X to Hassan Sharrieff, July 9, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

359 TWA Flight 700 for London. MX FBI, Teletype, New York Office, July 10, 1964; and MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, July 10, 1964.

359 summer of 1964 America “will see a bloodbath.” “Malcolm X Seeks U.N. Aid,” Chicago Defender, July 13, 1964; and “Malcolm X to Meet Leaders in Africa,” New York Times, July 10, 1964.

359 windows and stealing everything they could carry. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 204-5. Goldman correctly viewed Malcolm “as a force against rioting in Harlem,” not because America’s white power structure did not deserve to be rioted against, but “because he loved Harlem too well” (p. 204).

359 July 11, he was off to Cairo. See Travel Diaries (Transcription): Africa and Middle East, July-November 1964, July 9-11, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

359 said to Charles was ‘Take care of Betty for me.’” Max Stanford interview, August 28, 2007.

Chapter 13: “In the Struggle for Dignity”

361 Europe during his second tour. “Malcolm X Reports He Now Represents World Muslim Unit,” New York Times, October 11, 1964.

361 they talked together until three in the morning. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 105; “Malcolm X in Cairo,” New York Times, July 14, 1964; and Travel Diaries (Transcription): Africa and Middle East, July-November 1964, July 12, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

361 Nasser’s Bureau of General Affairs. Travel Diaries, July 13-17, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

361 whom he had previously met in Ghana. Ibid.

361 only to fall victim to “American dollarism.ʺ Address to the OAU, July 17, 1964, MXC-S, box 14, folder 5; and Travel Diaries, July 17-21, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

362 criticizing the lack of racial progress. “Malcolm X Bids Africans Take Negro Issue to U.N.,ʺ New York Times, July 17, 1964; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 236-38.

362 generally described as having failed. “Malcolm X Fails with Africans,” Chicago Defender, July 27, 1964.

362 a violator of human rights. M. S. Handler, “Malcolm X Seeks U.N. Negro Debate,” New York Times, August 13, 1964.

362 “the gains outweigh the risks.” Malcolm to Betty Shabazz, August 4, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 2.

363 including one, The Suez and the Revolution, accompanied by local contacts. Travel Diaries, August 4, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

363 anathema to the NOI. Ibid.

363 failure to address the charges of immorality. “Muhammad’s Son to Quit, Says Report,” Chicago Defender, August 17, 1964.

364 “be printed only on asbestos.” Victor Riesel, “African Intrigues of Malcolm X,ʺ Los Angeles Times, August 7, 1964.

364 was certainly a “wonderful blessing.” Malcolm to Betty Shabazz, August 4, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 2.

364 not scale back his schedule. Travel Diaries, August 6-7, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

365 “Allah has really blessed me.” Travel Diaries, August 11-16, 1964, ibid.

365 summarizing the recent OAU summit. Ibid.; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, September 8, 1964; and “The 2nd African Summit Conference,” MXC-S, box 5, folder 18.

365 “twentieth-century form of ‘benevolent colonialism.’” Malcolm X, “The Second African Summit Conference, August 21, 1964,” in Clarke, ed., Malcolm X: The Man and His Times, pp. 294-98.

365 “found no doors closed to me.” Ibid., pp. 299-300.

366 “and physical slave of the system.” “Racism: The Cancer That Is Destroying America,” MXC-S, box 5, folder 10. Fanon advanced this argument in Black Skin, White Masks (New York: Grove, 1967).

366 ancient temples in the Valley of the Kings. Travel Diaries, August 26-29, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

366 important stamps of legitimacy. Travel Diaries, August 30, 1964, ibid.

366 Queens home by January 31, 1965. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 57-58, 140; and “Order Eviction of Malcolm X,ʺ Amsterdam News, September 5, 1964.

366 into unauthorized agreements with foreign governments. FBI—Goodman, Memo, Nicholas Katzenbach to the Director, September 1964.

367 would be the guest of the local governor. Travel Diaries, September 12, 1964, ibid; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, September 10, 1964; and Advertisement, Chicago Defender, September 12, 1964.

367 press conference in Gaza’s parliament building. Travel Diaries, September 5, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

367 the two men met privately. Travel Diaries, September 15, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14. Al-Shukari was named PLO president at a Jerusalem conference from May 31 to June 4, 1964.

368 “in their own religion” existed. Malcolm X, “Zionist Logic,” Egyptian Gazette, September 17, 1964.

368 “for Arab refugees from Palestine.” Marable, African and Caribbean Politics, p. 134.

368 considerable tact and political discretion. Edward E. Curtis, IV, Islam in Black America (New York: State University of New York Press, 2002), p. 100.

368 “twenty-two million fellow black Americans.” Ibid., pp. 104-5; and Antoine Sfier, ed., The Columbia World Dictionary of Islamism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), pp. 290-91.

369 with Shawarbi and other friends. Travel Diaries, September 16, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

369 provided a chauffeured car. Travel Diaries, September 18-19 and 21, 1964, ibid.

369 in Harlem, to promote orthodox Islam. Travel Diaries, September 22, 1964, ibid.; and MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, October 5, 1964.

369 “in the Holy City of Mecca.” Malcolm X to M. S. Handler, September 22, 1964, Alex Haley Papers, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, box 3, folder 1; and M. S. Handler, “Malcolm Rejects Racist Doctrines,” New York Times, October 4, 1964.

370 “and the Human Society complete.” Malcolm X to M. S. Handler, September 22, 1964, Alex Haley Papers, box 3, folder 1.

370 Malcolm thirty-five fully funded fellowships. Malcolm X to M. S. Handler, September 23, 1964, ibid.; and “Malcolm X Reports He Now Represents World Muslim Unit,” New York Times, October 11, 1964.

370 to Beirut on September 29. Travel Diaries, September 24-25, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14. According to the FBI, Malcolm called upon the U.S. embassy in Kuwait on September 29, 1964, and obtained a new health certificate. See MX FBI, Memo, Washington Office, October 1, 1964.

370 a word during the exchange. Marian Faye Novak, “Meeting Mr. X,ʺ American Heritage, vol. 46, no. 1 (February/March 1995), pp. 36-39.

370 and an overflow crowd turned out. Alex Haley to Malcolm X, October 14, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 6; Travel Diaries, September 29, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

371 “people of the U.S. and Africa.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 16-18.

371 seemed “attentive, alert, and sympathetic.” Travel Diaries, October 8, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

371 and subsequent merger with then Tanganyika. On A. M. Babu, see Carole Boyce Davies, ed., Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2008), p. 139; and Clarke, ed., Malcolm X: The Man and His Times, p. 261.

371 “jokes much (but deadly serious).” Travel Diaries, October 12-13, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

372 “me back with the VIPs.ʺ Travel Diaries, October 16-17, 1964, ibid.

372 Don Harris about “future cooperation.” Travel Diaries, October 18, 1964, ibid.

372 “for organizing the Mau Mau.” Travel Diaries, October 19-20, 1964, ibid.

373 “the United Nations for racism.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, pp. 22-23.

373 telling the “truth” about Malcolm. Travel Diaries, October 19-20, 1964, MXC-S, box S, folder 14.

373 “for our human rights struggle.” Travel Diaries, October 21-22, 1964, ibid.

374 “believe it can be avoided. Travel Diaries, October 24-30, 1964, ibid.

374 “is mostly impatient and explosive.” Travel Diaries, November 1, 1964, ibid.

374 “responsible, they were well educated.” Herman Ferguson interview, June 24, 2004.

375 “So there was a gap.” Ibid.

376 dollars during nearly a year. James 67X Warden interview, August 1, 2007.

376 stern rebuke, “things started happening.” Ibid.

377 was insufficient evidence to arrest him. FBI—Goodman, Summary Report, New York Office, October 16, 1964.

377 audience to promote voter registration. Ibid.; FBI—OAAU, Memo, New York Office, July 13, 1964.

377 presidential campaign committee on July 23. FBI—MMI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 6, 1964, p. 28.

377 “set down” the black community. Ibid., p. 44.

377 until the group “got on its feet.” FBI—MMI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, August 5, 1964.

378 “‘We are replacing them,ʹ see?ʺ James 67X Warden interview, August 1, 2007.

378 “are people who are well known.” Ibid.

379 “to abide his plans for revolution.” Ibid.

379 than Malcolm could have imagined. FBI—Morris, Summary Report, New York Office, March 1, 1965.

379 had given birth to their fourth child, Gamilah Lumumba. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 197. Gamilah’s middle name was in honor of Congolese martyr Patrice Lumumba, slain in 1961 with the assistance of the CIA.

379 baby appeared, departed for Africa. Ibid.

380 “We got him. We cut his throat.” Ibid., pp. 200-201.

380 involved, and even planned to marry. FBI—Morris, Summary Report, New York Office, March 1, 1965.

381 “more helpful to the whole [Malcolm’s emphasis] in the long run.” Malcolm to Betty Shabazz, July 26, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 2.

381 “I’ve learned to trust no one.” Malcolm to Betty Shabazz, August 4, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 2.

381 Malcolm “as a stepping stone.” FBI—Shabazz, Summary Report, New York Office, August 30, 1968; FBI—MMI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, September 29, 1964.

381 meet him later that week. FBI—MMI, Memo, New York Office, August 27, 1964.

382 the leadership until Malcolm’s return. FBI—Morris, Summary Report, New York Office, March 1, 1965.

383 half a dozen artists and writers. Travel Diaries, November 1-2, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

383 executive director of Ghanaian television. Travel Diaries, November 4, 1964, ibid. See Gerald Horne, Race Woman: The Lives of Shirley Graham Du Bois (New York: New York University Press, 2000).

383 turning to sleeping pills for relief. Travel Diaries, November 2-3, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

383 he’d had a rum and Coke in an attempt to wake up. Travel Diaries, November 4-5, 1964, ibid.

383 “My stature had definitely increased.” Maya Angelou, A Song Flung Up to Heaven (New York: Random House, 2002), p. 3.

384 her friend as “two very lonely women.” Travel Diaries, November 6, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

384 “they may get into politics.” Travel Diaries, November 7, 1964, ibid.

384 “phrases lately and it has worried me.” Travel Diaries, November 8-9, 1964, ibid.

385 stuck with coffee and orange juice. Ibid.

385 “frankly, a fighting language to you.” Travel Diaries, November 11, 1964, MXC-S, box 5, folder 14.

385 almost impossible to communicate effectively. Travel Diaries, November 12-14, 1964, ibid.

385 “willing to do anything to prove it.” Travel Diaries, November 15, 1964, ibid.

386 “feeling lonely . . . thinking of Betty.” Travel Diaries, November 16, 1964, ibid.

386 checking in to the Hôtel Delavine. See Nicol Davidson, “Alioune Diop and the African Renaissance,” African Affairs, vol. 78, no. 310 (January 1979), pp. 3-11.

387 as “the chickens coming home to roost.” “Malcolm X Accuses U.S. and Tshombe,” Los Angeles Times, November 25, 1964; “Malcolm X, Back in the U.S., Accuses Johnson on Congo,” New York Times, November 25, 1964; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, November 25, 1964; MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. B; and MX FBI, Teletype, New York Office, November 24, 1964.

Chapter 14: “Such a Man Is Worthy of Death”

388 rally scheduled for later that day. FBI—MMI Memo, Philadelphia Office, October 22, 1964.

388 may have quelled their worries. FBI—MMI Memo, New York Office, October 22, 1964.

388 leadership role in the MMI. FBI—Morris Summary Report, New York Office, March 1, 1965; and FBI Memo, New York Office, December 1, 1964.

389 “to certain people as devils.” James 67X Warden interview, August 1, 2007.

389 the African continent’s unprecedented social change. “The Homecoming Rally of the OAAU,ʺ in Breitman, ed., By Any Means Necessary, pp. 132-56.

389 a threat to blackʹ interests. Ibid.

390 “how to solve this problem.” Hajj Malik el-Shabazz to Muhammad Sourour el-Sabban, November 30, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

391 “that are headquartered in Mecca.ʺ Hajj Malik el-Shabazz to Muhammad Taufik Oweida, November 30, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4; and MX FBI, Teletype, New York Office, December 1, 1964.

391 “to change this miserable condition.” Ibid., pp. 252-53; MX FBI, Memo, London Office, December 9, 1964; MX FBI, Memo, London Office, January 11, 1965; and “Cheers for Malcolm X at Oxford,” Daily Telegraph, December 4, 1964.

391 “no one should doubt the power.” “Militant Muslim,” Manchester Guardian Weekly, December 10, 1964.

391 met privately with Wallace Muhammad. FBI—MMI Summary Report, New York Office, February 21, 1965, p. 40; MX FBI, Teletype, New York Office, December 6, 1964; and a reception invitation from the Tanzanian representative to the United Nations, December 9, 1964, in OAAU Papers, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture.

392 man in his father’s eyes. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 236.

392 “just as ruthless and cold-blooded.” Hajj Malik el-Shabazz (Malcolm X) to Walith Mohammed (Wallace Muhammad), December 21, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

393 “with what I have to do.” James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.

393 “being ‘terminated with extreme prejudice.ʹʺ Ibid.

394 “seem to have all the power.” “Communication and Reality,” in Clarke, ed., Malcolm X: The Man and His Times, pp. 307-20.

395 “avenge the crime in the Congo.” William Gálves, Che in Africa: Che Guevara’s Congo Diary (Melbourne, Australia: Ocean, 1999), pp. 27-28.

395 reports, many more. The FBI estimated the December 13, 1964, audience at the Audubon Ballroom at two thousand. See MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, January 8, 1965.

395 “the segregationist, lyncher, and exploiter.ʺ “At the Audubon, December 13, 1964,” in Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 88-104; and MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, January 8, 1965.

396 “here—we eat them up.” “At the Audubon, December 13, 1964.”

396 support for the guerrilla war. The best single study of Ernesto Che Guevara’s guerrilla activities in Congo in 1965 is Gálvez, Che in Africa, especially pp. 29-32, 35-36, 43. An excellent biography of the subject is Anderson, Che Guevara.

397 “thief, dope addict, and a pimp.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 20, 1965, p. 56.

397 “May Allah burn them in hell.” See Muhammad Speaks, September 25, 1964, especially Captain Joseph and Jeremiah X, “Biography of a Hypocrite.”

398 “destruction for such a defector.” Edwina X, “Open Invitation: Come to Muhammad’s Mosque,” Muhammad Speaks, November 26, 1964.

398 “as Malcolm is worthy of death.” Louis X, “Boston Minister Tells of Malcolm—Muhammad’s Biggest Hypocrite,” Muhammad Speaks, December 4, 1964.

398 them to keep a low profile. Clegg, An Original Man, pp. 226, 330; and “Muslims Charged,” Amsterdam News, November 14, 1964.

398 by his former roommate Anas Luqman. James 67X Warden interview, August 1, 2007.

399 “a program, you get action.” “At the Audubon,” in Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 115-36; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, December 21, 1964, and December 22, 1964; and “Malcolm Favors Mau Mau in U.S.,” New York Times, December 21, 1964.

400 triumph for all colored people. W. E. B. Du Bois’s address on his ninety-first birthday (February 21, 1959), from Beijing, advanced similar ideas about China serving as a model for the world’s oppressed non-Europeans. Malcolm continued to stay in communication with the Du Bois family; in fact he had just written to David Du Bois on December 15, 1964, urging him to start an OAAU branch in Egypt. See Marable, W. E. B. Du Bois, pp. 205-6; and Malcolm X to David Graham, December 15, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

400 “systems to solve their problems.” “At the Audubon,” in Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 115-36.

401 still considerable, had been narrowed. Reminiscences of James Farmer (1979), in the Columbia University Oral History Research Office Collection.

401 as he left the station. FBI—MMI Summary Report, New York Office, May 21, 1965, p. 27; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, December 30, 1964.

401 a mere hundred dollars each. “Convict Muslims in Boston,” Amsterdam News, February 6, 1965; Branch, Pillar of Fire, p. 549.

401 the audience throughout the program. MX FBI, Memo from [redacted] to W. C. Sullivan, December 29, 1964; and MX FBI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, January 19, 1965.

402 let anyone into their house. MX FBI, Memo, Philadelphia Office, January 19, 1965.

402 “a stand on your side.” Hajj Malik el-Shabazz to Akbar Muhammad, December 30, 1964, MXC-S, box 3, folder 7.

402 to take their own murderous initiative. Ibid.

402 “famous Orthodox Brother in America.” Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, October 17, 1964, Anne Romaine Collection, UTLSC, series I, box 3, folder 24.

402 “to write new final chapters.” Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, November 19, 1964, ibid.

403 “March . . . it’s a powerful book.” Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, February 14, 1965, ibid.

404 “like Jesus slipped into Jerusalem.” “To Mississippi Youth,” in Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 13 7-46.

404 a crowd of seven hundred. “Is Malcolm X Clueing In Africans on U.S.?ʺ Militant, January 11, 1965.

404 personality to a mass audience. MX FBI, Teletype, Washington Office, Director to New York Office, January 6, 1965; MX FBI, Memo, Washington Office, Director to Ottawa, January 3, 1965; and Front Page Challenge with Malcolm X, CBC, January 5, 1965 (accessible on www.youtube.com/watch?v=Id98PH7TZb8&feature=related and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUSthrNcgQQ&feature=related).

404 within that same dynamic context. “Prospects for Freedom in 1965,” in Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 147-56.

404 in starting an office there. Malcolm X to Carlos Moore, January 15, 1965, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

405 placed her faith and hopes. Malcolm X to Maya Maké, January 15, 1965, ibid.

405 largely missed the point. “1,000 in Vigil Defy Cold in Harlem,” New York Times, January 18, 1965.

406 “on the plantation by overseers.” Ibid. Malcolm vowed that in 1965 black people “won’t be held in check . . . won’t be held on the corral, they won’t be held back at all.”

406 excluded too many “true revolutionaries.” Ibid.

407 “Negro leaders can’t contain it.” Ibid.

407 “Elijah Muhammad has taught it.” Malcolm X interview with Pierre Berton in Toronto, January 19, 1965, in David Gallen, ed., Malcolm X: As They Knew Him (New York: Carroll and Graf, 1992), pp. 179-87.

408 “little better than we were.” Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004.

408 “whatever else we are second.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 201-2, 248.

408 moved twice out of fear. Evanzz, The Messenger, p. 315.

409 “My alertness is my bodyguard.” James Booker, “Malcolm X Speaks,” Amsterdam News, February 6, 1965.

409 to testify at the hearing. “Malcolm X Was to Testify Here in Suits,” Los Angeles Times, February 25, 1965.

409 tunnel to reach his plane. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, September 8, 1965, pp. 19-20, 37; and Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 250-51.

409 placed under close police guard. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 251; “Malcolm X Had Fear of Death While in L.A.,ʺ Los Angeles Times, February 23, 1965; MX FBI, Memo, Chicago Office, January 29, 1965; MX FBI, Teletype, Chicago Office, January 31, 1965; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, September 8, 1965, p. 36.

410 access to penal institutions. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, February 17, 1965; FBI—OAAU, Memo, Chicago Office, February 4, 1965, and February 18, 1965; MX FBI, Teletype, Chicago Office, January 31, 1965; MX FBI, Memo, Chicago Office, February 4, 1965, and February 18, 1965.

410 large draw for the group. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, February 2, 1965; and FBI—OAAU, Enclosure, New York Office, February 2, 1965.

410 of the Nation under arrest. James Booker, “Malcolm X Speaks,” Amsterdam News, February 6, 1965; and Steve Clark, ed., February 1965: The Final Speeches (New York: Pathfinder, 1992), pp. 17-19.

410 Malcolm again escaped unharmed. Booker, “Malcolm X Speaks,” Amsterdam News, February 6, 1965; and MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, February 9, 1965.

411 “we’re waiting for the other.” Clark, ed., February 1965, pp. 20-22.

412 the South within a few weeks. “Stop Demonstrations,” Chicago Defender, February 6, 1965; Clark, ed., February 1965, pp. 23-28; and MX FBI, Teletype, New York Office, February 4, 1965. A few weeks later, Malcolm gave a very different interpretation of his experience at Selma. In his February 15, 1965, lecture at the Audubon Ballroom, he criticized “my good friend, the Right Reverend Dr. Martin [laughter] in Alabama, using school children to do what the federal government should do. . . . School children shouldn’t have to march.” One of King’s assistants did not want Malcolm speaking with young people involved in the protest. “The children insisted that I be heard. . . . Many of the students from SNCC also insisted that I be heard. This is the only way I got a chance to talk to them.” See Clark, ed., February 1965, pp. 138-39.

412 “do not support the U.S. war.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, February 2, 1965; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, February 8, 1965, and February 9, 1965; and MX FBI, Memo, Tokyo Office, February 19, 1965.

412 “than Moise Tshombe,” he declared. Clark, ed., February 1965, pp. 32-33.

412 to look “like a criminal.” Ibid., p. 33.

413 “well have been locked up.” Ibid., pp. 34-41; MX FBI, Cablegram, Paris Office, February 11, 1965; MX FBI, New York Office, February 10, 1965, and February 11, 1965; and “France Bars Malcolm,” Chicago Defender, February 10, 1965.

413 “determine why this incident took place.” Malcolm X to Dean Rusk, February 10, 1965, MXC-S, box 3, folder 4.

413 “human rights for the black man.” Clark, ed., February 1965, pp. 42-44.

414 “forms of segregation,” he insisted. Ibid., pp. 46-65.

414 “he’s losing his control.” Ibid.

415 “start off a bloody battle.” “Aid to Malcolm X by BBC Assailed,ʺ New York Times, February 14, 1965; “Malcolm X Pays Smethwick Call,” Washington Post, February 14, 1965; and “Malcolm X On Tour,” New York Herald Tribune, February 14, 1965.

415 “want to follow Malcolm X.” Gene Sherman, “Malcolm X Stirs Up Resentment in Britain,” Los Angeles Times, February 14, 1965.

415 “They are all the same.” Clark, ed., February 1965, pp. 69-72.

416 “From Washington,” Malcolm replied. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 222.

416 late into the night in his study. Ibid.

416 “how great his strength was.” Ibid., pp. 222-24; “Malcolm Xʹs Home Is Bombed,” Chicago Tribune, February 15, 1965; “Three Fire Bombs Hit Home of Malcolm X,ʺ Los Angeles Times, February 15, 1965; “Malcolm X, Kin Flee Bombing,” New York Daily News, February 15, 1965; “Who Bombed Malcolm Xʹs Home?” New York Post, February 15, 1965; “Malcolm X Denies He Is Bomber,” Amsterdam News, February 20, 1965; and “Malcolm X Accuses Muslims,” New York Times, February 16, 1965.

417 “firebombing [of the] house.” Thomas 15X Johnson interview, September 29, 2004. Since Johnson’s death, Malcolm X researcher Abdur-Rahman Muhammad has also confirmed that NOI members were responsible for firebombing the Shabazz home.

417 into an almost uncontrollable rage. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 222-24.

Chapter 15: Death Comes on Time

418 Freedom Now Party in Michigan. MX FBI, Memo, W. C. Sullivan to J. F. Bland, February 1, 1965; MX FBI, Memo, Detroit Office, February 14, 1965, and February 17, 1965; and Clark, ed., February 1965, pp. 75-107.

418 usual sharpness had abandoned him. Rev. Albert Cleage, “Myths About Malcolm X,” International Socialist Review, vol. 28, no. 5 (September-October 1967), p. 33.

419 “power structure that’s so corrupt.” Clark, ed., February 1965, pp. 75-107.

419 “We sure didn’t bomb it.” “Malcolm Xʹs Home Is Bombed,” Chicago Tribune; “Three Fire Bombs Hit Home of Malcolm X,” Los Angeles Times; and “Malcolm X’s Home is Fire-Bombed,” Washington Post, February 15, 1965.

419 “house. That was the government.” “Malcolm Accused Muslims of Blaze; They Point to Him,” New York Times, February 18, 1965; “Malcolm X Promises Names of Bombers,” Los Angeles Sentinel, February 18, 1965; “Malcolm X Denies He Is Bomber,” Amsterdam News; and “Bottle of Gasoline Found on Dresser in Malcolm X Home,” New York Times, February 17, 1965.

420 “by the Ku Klux Klan.” Perry, ed., Malcolm X: The Last Speeches, pp. 111-49; “Malcolm Links Klan, Muslims,” New York Post, February 16, 1965; FBI—Goodman, Summary Report, New York Office, February 17, 1966; and MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, February 16, 1965.

420 “to suffer the consequences for.” Perry, ed., Malcolm X: The Last Speeches, pp. 124-26.

420 discovered the house completely vacant. “Malcolm X Averts Writ by Moving Out,” New York Times, February 19, 1965.

420 Hamer’s Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party. James Booker, “Malcolm X Speaks,” Amsterdam News, February 6, 1965.

420 “resolved by death and violence.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 266.

421 “of living prevalent throughout Africa.” Martin Paris, “Negroes Are Willing to Use Terrorism, Says Malcolm X,ʺ Columbia Daily Spectator, February 19, 1965.

421 “that I’m sorry for now.” Clark, ed., February 1965, pp. 240-42.

421 “before they came to rallies.” Peter Bailey interview, September 4, 1968, Manuscript Division, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University Library.

422 would be promptly revealed to the NYPD. Roger Abel, The Black Shield (Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2006), pp. 471-72.

423 remaining there until the next day. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 225; and Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 267-68.

423 Sharon 6X may have joined him. Oral history with James 67X Warden, June 18, 2003; and interview with Abdur-Rahman Muhammad, October 4, 2010.

423 confronted the men. They promptly left. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 268.

424 the West and East Coasts. Ibid.

425 “I have to stand up for.” Michael Friedly, Malcolm X: The Assassination (New York: Carroll and Graf, 1992), p. 104; and Notes of Attorney William Kunstler, Case File

871-65, MANY.

426 they were well-known “enforcers.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 250-51.

426 degree of civility impressed Johnson. Thomas 15X Johnson interview, September 29, 2004.

427 law enforcement and the courts. Ibid.

427 Shifflett resigned . . . as general secretary. Oral history of Max Stanford, August 28, 2007; and interview with Abdur-Rahman Muhammad, October 4, 2010.

428 “his face from all directions.” Mitchell, Shepherd of Black-Sheep, pp. 15-17.

428 “paid for his radical pioneering.” Ibid., pp. 17-18.

428 better working relationship with Mitchell. James 67X Warden interview, August 1, 2007.

428 “work for it,” Charles advised. FBI—Morris, Summary Report, New York Office, March 1, 1965.

429 vetoed by her husband, Ossie Davis. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 215.

429 “caught me,” he admitted to her. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 266.

429 “Martin Luther King,” her mother advised. Angelou, A Song Flung Up to Heaven, pp. 8-11, 14.

429 “‘brother should be more careful.’” Herman Ferguson interview, July 24, 2004.

429 the likelihood of impending murder. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 418.

429 leader truly wanted to die. James 67X Warden interviews, June 18, 2003, and August 1, 2007.

430 struggle for freedom and justice. Esposito, ed., The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, pp. 27, 120.

431 “viewed him like the enemy.” Gerry Fulcher interview, October 3, 2007.

431 the Rose and the larger Grand. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 261-62.

431 “But I felt we was in accord.” Ibid., p. 416; and Notes of Attorney William Kunstler, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

432 his life to kill Malcolm. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 416-17; and Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004.

432 “we knew he’d be.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 417-18.

432 next afternoon, Sunday, February 21. Almustafa Shabazz, Offender Details, New Jersey Department of Corrections. Information can be found online using the New Jersey offender search (http://www.state.nj.us/corrections/). In the 1970s and 1980s, Bradley began calling himself Mustafa, or Almustafa Shabazz. His surname Shabazz indicates a continuing relationship to NOI.

432 would not be frigid. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 268.

433 “get ready and go see Daddy.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 226-27.

433 on the main ballroom’s stage. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 269-70.

434 at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital. Ibid., p. 269; and Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004.

434 rear room behind the Grand Ballroom’s main stage. Peter Bailey interview, June 20, 2003.

434 “should know better than that.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 271; and James 67X Warden interviews, June 18, 2003, and August 1, 2007.

434 he yelled, “Get out of here!” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 271.

434 almost at his “wit’s end.” Ibid.

435 “‘with their problems in mind.’” Mitchell, Shepherd of Black-Sheep, p. 7.

435 Audubon audience burst into applause. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 271; Transcript of address by Benjamin 2X Goodman, delivered at the Audubon Ballroom, February 21, 1965. Copy and audiotape recording in possession of author.

435 booth close to the stage. Betty Shabazz interview with NYPD, March 1, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY; and Jessie 8X Ryan interview with NYPD, no date, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

435 “Minister Malcolm,” Benjamin hastily announced. Transcript of address by Benjamin 2X Goodman. Benjamin’s subsequent reconstructions of his final remarks bore faint resemblance to what he actually said on February 21, 1965. To journalist/historian Peter Goldman, Benjamin recounted that he had introduced Malcolm with these stirring words: “I present . . . one who is willing to put himself on the line for you. . . . A man who would give his life for you.” See Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 271-73.

436 “Hold it! Hold it! Hold it!” Ibid.

436 the men from the rear. Roberts responded to the disruption in the audience by moving forward from the rear of the ballroom. See Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 273.

437 “hit the floor with a crash.” Herman Ferguson interview, June 27, 2003.

437 “over chairs and people’s bodies.” Ibid.

437 he, too, “fell to the ground.” John D. Davis interview with NYPD, March 5, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

437 he “did not see anything.” Charles 37X Morris interview with NYPD, no date, ibid.

438 conspirators managed to escape. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 275-77.

438 William would later recount. William H. George, interview with New York District Attorney’s office, March 18, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

439 “alive! His heart’s still beating.” Welton Smith, “The 15 Seconds of Murder: Shots, a Bomb, and Despair,” New York Herald Tribune, February 22, 1965. Other detailed media accounts of Malcolm Xʹs assassination include: John Mallon, “Gunned Down as He Addresses Rally; 3 Men Wounded,” New York Daily News, February 22, 1965; Walter Blitz, “Gunmen Kill Malcolm X: Black Nationalist Is Shot at Rally in NY,ʺ Chicago Tribune, February 22, 1965; “There Are Three Who Will Remember,” New York World-Telegram, February 22, 1965; and Richard Barr, “Malcolm X Slain—The Reason Why,” New York Journal-American, February 22, 1965.

439 because she was clearly hysterical. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 229-30.

439 revive him with mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, pp. 471-72.

440 camera and began taking photographs. Earl Grant, “The Last Days of Malcolm X,ʺ in Clarke, ed., Malcolm X: The Man and His Times, p. 96.

440 “to myself that he was gone.” Herman Ferguson interview, July 24, 2004.

441 “knew as Malcolm X is dead.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 278.

441 “when it comes, it comes on time.” Benjamin Karim, with Peter Skutches and David Gallen, Remembering Malcolm (New York: Carroll and Graf, 1992), p. 190.

441 “‘Don’t hurry; come tomorrow!’” Mitchell, Shepherd of Black-Sheep, p. 20.

441 “life go out of his body.” Abdullah Abdur-Razaaq interviewed by journalist Gil Noble, Like It Is, ABC, June 7, 1998, New York City.

441 “shoot [Captain] Joseph” in retaliation. Ibid. In this 1998 television interview Abdur-Razaaq insisted, “There’s no question in my mind Malcolm was executed. He was not assassinated. When you assassinate someone, you are concerned with the manner and the audience that see this. And you have an authority behind you when someone is executed. . . . There is no question in my mind that the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Special Services of the New York Police Department [were] in cohort with those who pulled the trigger,” stated James.

442 main stairwell into the street. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 274.

442 dispatched to the crime scene. Investigation Timeline, February 21, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

442 reaching the emergency room. Ibid.

442 “the pen for immediate use.” Ibid.

443 “told him I had been hit.” Willie Harris interview with NYPD, February 21, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

443 Malcolm’s was the sole fatality. William Parker interview with NYPD, February 21, 1965, ibid.

443 “their hands in their pockets.” Grant, “The Last Days of Malcolm X,ʺ p. 96.

443 “this wasn’t nothing but coincidence.” Smith, “The 15 Seconds of Murder: Shots, a Bomb, and Despair.”

444 gangs feuding against each other. In a 2004 interview, Goldman sharply posed the question “What should the police have done? . . . They should have taken the threat very seriously. They should not have said in the press that the firebombing, for instance, was a publicity stunt. They should have been more aggressive in trying” to stop the assassination. To Goldman, the FBI was far more responsible for triggering Malcolm Xʹs murder than the NYPD, because it had “inflamed the civil war” between Malcolm’s followers and the NOI. Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004.

444 “seated in the Audubon Ballroom.” Abdur-Razaaq, Like It Is, June 7, 1998.

444 “Mr. Warden stopped talking.” James Warden interview with the New York Assistant District Attorney Herbert Stern and NYPD, February 21, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

444 “nothing of any further value.” Reuben Francis interview with Herbert Stern and NYPD, February 21, 1965, ibid.

445 light of the recent firebombing. Peter Goldman interview, July 12, 2004.

445 as advertised, at seven p.m. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 271-72.

445 fired four or five shots. FBI “Informant Report,” unnamed, February 22, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY. Authorʹs note: The FBI maintained numerous open files on Malcolm X, Elijah Muhammad, and other NOI leaders, at FBI headquarters and at different field offices throughout the United States. Each individual document, even relevant newspaper clippings pertaining to the subjects, were individually cataloged. For several relevant FBI documents, both redacted and unredacted, that are available in the New York District Attorney’s case file on the murder of Malcolm X, I have simply identified the document by its contents and date.

445 “the front of the room.” Jasper Davis Report, Teletype, New York Office, February 23, 1965, in District Attorney’s Files, ibid.

445 ran “out [through] the ballroom.” Teletype, New York Office, February 22, 1965, ibid.

446 “stated, ‘We are at war.’” Ibid.

446 FBI informant Ronald Timberlake. Teletype regarding Ronald Timberlake, New York Office, February 22, 1965, ibid.

446 the two shooters he had seen. Ronald Timberlake interview with NYPD, February 22, 1965, ibid.

446 grandson and other NOI subordinates. Clegg, An Original Man, p. 228.

447 “total extent of Sister Bettyʹs funds.” Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, February 21, 1965; and Alex Haley to Paul Reynolds, February 27, 1965, Anne Romaine Collection, UTLSC, series I, box 3, folder 24.

448 abruptly canceled the contract. Kenneth McCormick to Alex Haley, March 16, 1965; Haley to McCormick, March 22, 1965; McCormick to Bob Banker, April 7, 1965; and McCormick to Haley and the Estate of Malcolm X, sometimes called Malik Shabazz, April 19, 1965, all in Anne Romaine Collection, UTLSC, series I, box 3, folder 23. In early March 1965, Nelson Doubleday, owner of Doubleday and Company, ordered his senior editor Kenneth McCormick to cancel the agreement. Doubleday had paid up to then over $15,000 in royalty advances to Haley and Malcolm X. McCormick would later write Haley that “the hardest thing I ever had to do was to call Paul Reynolds and ask him to show The Autobiography of Malcolm X to other publishers. In a policy decision at Doubleday, where I was a minor, contrary vote, it was decided that we could not publish the book.” See McCormick to Haley, March 16, 1965.

448 neighbors in his building, and so on. Friedly, Malcolm X: The Assassination, p. 36; and Norman 3X Butler interview, December 22, 2008.

448 chair and continued watching television. Evanzz, The Judas Factor, pp. 282, 303.

448 “John Ali made it known.” Thomas 15X Johnson interview, September 28, 2004.

448 “those living that’re in trouble.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 274-75.

449 “the OAAU, and Malcolm was dead.” Angelou, A Song Flung Up to Heaven, pp. 24-25.

Chapter 16: Life After Death

450 participated in fifty thousand others. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 287.

450 was taken, which revealed “no abnormalities.ʺ Autopsy of Malcolm X, Dr. Milton Helpern, February 22, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

451 by the NYPDʹs ballistics bureau. Ibid.

451 “he would not swear to this.” George Matthews interview with NYPD, April 8, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

451 an NOI member from Harlem. Sharon 6X Shabazz interview at Audubon Ballroom, February 21, 1965, in documentary film produced by Omar Shabazz, Inside Job: Betrayal of the Black Messiah, May 19, 2010.

451 NYPD was solving the case. Friedly, Malcolm X: The Assassination, pp. 34-37.

452 “is all except Reuben Francis.” Sharon 6X Shabazz interview with NYPD, February 27, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

452 relationship with both Malcolm X and Cathcart. Abdur-Rahman Muhammad interview, November 4, 2010.

452 “third row on the left side.” Earl Grant interview with NYPD, March 8, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

452 “malice aforethought” killed Malcolm X. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 305-7.

453 NYPD on March 25, 1965. Linwood X Cathcart interview with NYPD, March 25, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

453 interviewed three days earlier. Robert 16X Gray interview with NYPD, March 22, 1965, ibid.

453 captain had been destroyed years ago. Joseph Gravitt file, empty, no date, ibid.

453 “that Francis was an informant.” Gerry Fulcher interview, October 3, 2007.

453 decided to flee the country. Peter Kihss, “Mosque Fires Stir Fear of Vendetta in Malcolm Case,” New York Times, February 24, 1965.

454 “were capable of doing it.” Peter Bailey interview, September 4, 1968.

454 “White and Black, Both Bitter.” Philip Benjamin, “Malcolm X Lived in Two Worlds, White and Black, Both Bitter,” New York Times, February 22, 1965.

455 “he spawned, and killed him.” “Malcolm X,ʺ New York Times, February 22, 1965. National press coverage and editorials throughout the United States were, with few exceptions, similar to the Times. The Los Angeles Times, for example, declared that “for a dozen years, the name of Malcolm X has been almost synonymous with hatred of the white race.” Even “after the break” with the Nation, “he made it clear that he still hated whites, whom he called ‘white devils.’” See “Hatred for Whites Obsessed Malcolm X,ʺ Los Angeles Times, February 22, 1965.

455 “at a nearby Harlem restaurant.” “Death and Transfiguration,” Time, March 5, 1965.

455 “settlement of conflict by violence.” “Malcolm X (1925-1965),” Saturday Evening Post, vol. 238, no. 6 (March 27, 1965), p. 88.

455 “city’s top policemen immediately converged.” Jimmy Breslin, “Malcolm X Slain by Gunmen as 400 in Ballroom Watch: Police Rescue Two Suspects,” New York Herald Tribune, February 22, 1965 (first edition printed February 21, 1965).

455 Avenue police precinct were deleted. Ibid.

455 have been a BOSS operative. See George Breitman, Herman Porter, and Baxter Smith, eds., The Assassination of Malcolm X (New York: Pathfinder, 1976).

456 “that endures to this day.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 276.

456 “our deep-seated belief in nonviolence.” Douglas Robinson, “Rights Leaders Decry ‘Violence,’” New York Times, February 22, 1965.

456 “world, of the American Republic.” “What They’re Saying,” Afro-American, March 6, 1965.

456 the Nation of Islam was evidently responsible. Fred Powledge, “CORE Chief Calls Slaying Political,” New York Times, February 24, 1965.

457 any involvement in the murder. Remnick, King of the World, p. 304.

457 worried and called in reinforcements. “Muslim Mosque Burns in Harlem; Blast Reported,” New York Times, February 23, 1965; Walter Bilitz, “See Fire as Reprisal,” Chicago Tribune, February 23, 1965; and “NYC Mosque Destroyed in Blast,” Chicago Defender, February 24, 1965.

457 deeply private Joseph now overwhelmed. Larry 4X Prescott interview, June 9, 2006.

457 cloistered in his Hyde Park mansion. Kihss, “Mosque Fires Stir Fear,” New York Times. The NOI mosque in San Francisco was also firebombed.

457 “tamper with your religious sanctuary.” Paul L. Montgomery, “Muslims Enraged by ‘Sneak Attack,’” New York Times, February 24, 1965.

457 “brigade,” reported the Chicago Tribune. Thomas Fitzpatrick, “5,000 Muslims Meet Today in Security Vise,” Chicago Tribune, February 26, 1965; and Thomas Fitzpatrick, “Heavy Guard Readied for Muslim Chief,” Chicago Tribune, February 25, 1965.

458 “country trying to slander me.” Thomas Fitzpatrick, “Muslim Sect Hears Chief Hit Malcolm,” Chicago Tribune, February 27, 1965.

458 “a follower of Elijah Muhammad.” Ibid.; “Muhammad Passes Up Session of Convention,” Los Angeles Times, February 28, 1965; and Thomas Fitzpatrick, “Elijah’s Men Maul Foe, 30, at Sect Rally,” Chicago Tribune, March 1, 1965. About 7,500 people attended the three-day convention. Muhammad Ali also took the stage to repledge his loyalty to the patriarch.

458 a traditional Muslim burial sheet. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 242-52.

458 King, Whitney Young, and Kwame Nkrumah. Ibid., pp. 252-53.

459 “because he loved us so.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 461-62; and Ossie Davis interview, June 29, 2003.

459 the brothers proceeded to bury Malcolm themselves. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 462; and Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 254-55.

459 from a sleeping pill overdose. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 308.

460 “something, which I don’t believe.” Larry 4X Prescott interview, June 9, 2006.

460 to assume his leadership mantle. Max Stanford interview, August 28, 2007.

461 for Betty and the children. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 255-65.

461 “field slaves to the house slaves.” Ibid., pp. 268-70.

462 Collins responded, “I believe so.” James 67X Warden interviews, July 24, 2007, and August 1, 2007.

462 “the youth were crazy.” Max Stanford interview, August 28, 2007.

463 “in line to be assassinated.” FBI—Morris, Memo, New York Office, June 4, 1965.

463 New York State’s death row. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 318.

463 Hayer, beyond their NOI membership. Ibid., pp. 310, 318-20, 329-33.

463 fire to his jail mattress. Robert L. Jenkins, “Cary Thomas,” in Jenkins, ed., Malcolm X Encyclopedia, pp. 531-32.

464 hands of Butler or Hayer. Friedly, Malcolm X: The Assassination, pp. 42-43; and Cary Thomas interview with NYPD, March 3, 1965, and March 12, 1965, Case File 871-65, Series I, MANY.

464 “go look for nobody else.” Norman 3X Butler interview, December 22, 2008.

464 order to free his coassassins. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 335-39, 348-53.

464 I never trusted Kenyatta—never.” Ibid., pp. 339-40; and Thomas 15X Johnson interview, September 29, 2004.

464 an NOI “hundred-man enforcing squad.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 339-40.

465 to disregard Betty’s off-stand statements. Ibid., pp. 333-35.

465 “when the jury convicted me.” Thomas 15X Johnson interview, September 29, 2004.

465 “here that history will support.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, pp. 35 7-59, 373-74.

465 political philosophy of black nationalism. Marable, Living Black History, p. 197; and Kofsky, Black Nationalism and the Revolution in Music, p. 155.

465 “of the black nationalist movement.” Kofsky, Black Nationalism and the Revolution in Music, p. 64.

465 “the New Super Bop Fire.” Amiri Baraka (also known as LeRoi Jones), “Jazz Criticism and Its Effect on the Art Form,” in David Baker, ed., New Perspectives in Jazz (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian, 1986), p. 66.

465 “artist of the spoken word.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 383.

465 “its relevance cannot be doubted.” Eliot Fremont-Smith, “An Eloquent Testament,” New York Times, November 5, 1965.

466 “the most painful of truths.” Truman Nelson, “Delinquent’s Progress,” Nation, November 8, 1965, pp. 336-38.

466 “his burning ambition to succeed.” Bayard Rustin, “Making His Mark,” Washington Post, November 14, 1965.

466 “members of the black bourgeoisie.” Ibid.

467 sold worldwide exceeded six million. Eric Pace, “Alex Haley, 70, Author of Roots, Dies,” New York Times, February 11, 1992.

467 with Malcolm X for decades. See FBI—Morris file.

467 “have taken all five assassins.” Karim, Skutches, and Gallen, Remembering Malcolm, p. 19 1.

468 “valuable assistance to the Bureau.” FBI—Goodman, Memo, New York Office, April 27, 1966.

468 went back to New York City. Ibid.

468 or anywhere else—has emerged. Langston Hughes Savage interview, September 6, 2008.

468 “of Malcolm’s birth and death.” Remnick, King of the World, p. 240.

468 as remote as another world. Ibid., pp. 253-56.

469 of nearly all the Nation’s operations. On Wallace Muhammad’s rise to power in the NOI, see Clifton E. Marsh, From Black Muslims to Muslims: The Resurrection, Transformation, and Change of the Lost-Found Nation of Islam in America, 1930-1995, second edition (London: Scarecrow, 1996), pp. 101-11, 157-71; Clegg, An Original Man, pp. 98, 162, 181-83, 206-7, 273-74, 282; “Son Will Succeed Elijah Muhammad,” Amsterdam News, March 1, 1975; “There Is No Power Struggle Among Black Muslims,” Amsterdam News, March 22, 1975; and “An Interview with Elijah Muhammad’s Successor,” Amsterdam News, April 9, 1975.

469 a few whites actually joined. “New Muslim Leader Invites Contributions from Whites,” Amsterdam News, April 23, 1975; and “Muslims to Accept White Followers,” Amsterdam News, June 25, 1975.

469 distinguish himself from his father. “W. Deen Mohammed: A Leap of Faith,” Chicago Tribune, October 20, 2002.

469 “for the Honorable Elijah Muhammad.” Marsh, From Black Muslims to Muslims, pp. 103-6.

470 in 1977, was to excommunicate him. Ibid., pp. 107-10.

470 Marie Muhammad (born March 30, 1960). “Suit Charges Late Muslim Leaderʹs Estate Misused,” Jet, March 26, 1981.

470 “get in the front of the civil rights movement.” Larry 4X Prescott interview, November 7, 2007.

471 a wife and thirteen children. “Muslim Slain in Jersey,” Amsterdam News, September 8, 1973.

471 subsequently found four miles distant. Evanzz, The Messenger, p. 377.

471 just barely missing his secretary. Ibid., p. 364.

471 causes, on December 18, 2003. Illinois Deaths, Raymond Sharrieff, U.S. Social Security Death Index, Family Search Internet (www.familysearch.org, June 19, 2010).

471 six sons, and eight daughters. Richard Goldstein, “Jabir Herbert Muhammad, Who Managed Muhammad Ali, Dies at 79,” New York Times, August 27, 2008.

471 Council on American-Islamic Relations. Margaret Ramirez, Manya Brachear, and Ron Grossman, “Imam W. Deen Mohammed, 1933-2008,” Chicago Tribune, September 10, 2008; and Patricia Sullivan, ʺW. D. Mohammed: Changed Muslim Movement in U.S.,ʺ Washington Post, September 10, 2008.

472 “not a good influence on him.” Bill Cunningham and Daniel Golden, “Malcolm: The Boston Years,” Boston Globe, February 16, 1992.

472 passed away on August 6, 1996. Ibid.

472 “wanting to help my daughter.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 359-61, 364-66, 437-39, 505-13.

472 “to uplifting women and children.” Emanuel Parker, “Nation Mourns Loss of Betty Shabazz,” Los Angeles Sentinel, June 26, 1997.

472 District of Columbia representative Eleanor Holmes Norton. Ibid.

473 not those of her father. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 536-45.

473 “stories straight. You’re out, kid.” Gerry Fulcher interview, October 3, 2007.

473 before resigning from the force. Ibid.

474 “allegedly received from the FBI.” Les Matthews, “Malcolm X Killer Talks; Names 4,” Amsterdam News, April 29, 1978.

474 “have been sure to notice.” Charles Kaiser, “2 Held Not Guilty in Malcolm Case,” New York Times, July 27, 1978.

474 to grant a new trial. “Federal Hearings Asked into Malcolm X Murder,” New York Times, April 30, 1979.

474 of the Black Panther Party. Ibid.; and “Probe Requested in Malcolm Death,” Los Angeles Sentinel, July 20, 1978.

474 died on August 4, 2009. Robert Fleming, “Khalil Islam; Wrongly Convicted of Killing Malcolm X, Dies,” Black Star News, August 7, 2009.

475 serious to permit his release. Jennifer Peltz, “Thomas Hagen, Only Man to Admit Role in Malcolm X Assassination, Is Freed on Parole in NYC,ʺ Associated Press, April 27, 2010.

475 associated with the Newark mosque. See Zak Kondo, Conspiracys: Unraveling the Assassination of Malcolm X (Washington, D.C.: Nubia, 1993).

475 They escaped with over $12,500. United States of America v. James Henry Moore and William Bradley, Title 18 U.S.C. Secs. 2113(d) and (D.N.J. 1699); and “Livingston Bank Is Held Up,” New York Times, April 12, 1968.

475 charged with the bank robbery. United States of America v. James Henry Moore, appellant, and William Bradley, 453F. 2d 601 (3d Cir. 1971).

475 own attorney separate from Moore. United States of America v. William Bradley, Notice of Appearance, July 18, 1969.

475 were ultimately dismissed. United States of America v. William Bradley, Order for Dismissal, August 21, 1970.

475 “years for an unrelated felony.” Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, p. 428.

476 baseball achievements in high school. “Sports Briefs,” Amsterdam News, February 21, 1981; Collie J. Nicholson, “King Refutes New York Post Claim,” Los Angeles Sentinel, June 24, 1999; and Newark Athletic Hall of Fame (http://www.newarkathletichalloffame.org/_fileCabinet/NAHFPastInductees.pdf). Carolyn Kelly-Shabazz was inducted into the Newark Athletic Hall of Fame in 2005.

476 criminality to respectability seemed complete. Omar Shabazz, Inside Job: Betrayal of the Black Messiah, 2010.

476 “religion, and freedom of assembly.” Richard Prince, “Malcolm X Scholars Point to a Triggerman,” May 24, 2010, Maynard Institute (http://mije.org/richardprince/malcolm-x-scholars-id-triggerman).

476 real killers of Malcolm X. Omar Shabazz, Inside Job: Betrayal of the Black Messiah, 2010.

477 “[in which] Malcolm was assassinated.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007; and Mike Wallace interview with Louis Farrakhan, 60 Minutes, CBS, September 29, 2009.

477 “grand jury to question me.” Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

477 destroy you. I understand that. Ibid.

478 members in Detroit’s Cobo Center. “Muslims Name Successor to Malcolm X,ʺ Afro-American , August 28, 1965.

478 “didn’t mean to take your home!” Louis Farrakhan interview, May 9, 2005.

478 Farrakhan delivered the guest sermon. Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.

Epilogue: Reflections on a Revolutionary Vision

481 “mind, Black judgment,” Baraka asserted. LeRoi Jones, Home: Social Essays (New York: William Morrow, 1966), pp. 238-50.

481 “‘integrated out of existence.’” “Malcolm X a Harlem Idol on Eve of Murder Trial,” New York Times, December 5, 1965.

482 “on an otherwise darkened stage.” Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) and Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, Ready for Revolution (New York: Scribner, 1993), pp. 253, 259. Carmichael added, “It was simply refreshing for young Africans to hear someone stand up and so fearlessly describe the real American black folks knew and experienced daily. Especially in a setting usually so relentlessly cautious, guarded, and overly sensitive to the sensibilities of the same white ruling class responsible for perpetuating our people’s oppression” (p. 261).

483 Davis said, “is not a king.” Ossie Davis interview, June 29, 2003.

485 necessity of armed struggle in Africa. William Mervin Gumede, Thabo Mbeki and the Battle for the Soul of the ANC (Cape Town, South Africa: Zebra Press, 2007), p. 24.

485 that number were black Americans. See Marable, Race, Reform and Rebellion, pp. 238-40.

486 will influence his future legacy. The sales of The Autobiography of Malcolm X rose 300 percent between 1989 and 1992, during the golden age of hip-hop music. See Lewis Lord, Jeannye Thornton, and Alejandro Bodipo-Memba, “The Legacy of Malcolm X,ʺ U.S. News and World Report, November 15, 1992.

486 Universal Day of Struggle Against Race Discrimination. Paul Lee, “Unseen Unity,” Michigan Citizen, September 30, 2009.

486 “become the new Malcolm X.” Philip Sherwell, “The New Malcolm X?” Sunday Telegraph , April 9, 2006.

487 traditions of “honorable black Americans.” Mark Mazzetti, “Al-Qaeda Offers Obama Insults and a Warning,” New York Times, November 20, 2008.

487 “people I have ever met.” James Baldwin, “Malcolm and Martin,” Esquire, vol. 77, no. 4 (April 1972), pp. 94-97, 195-202.