11
With the exception, perhaps, of Aelfthryth, Isabella of France has the worst reputation of any queen of England. However, until 1325, Isabella’s career was that of a traditional queen consort and her career after 1330 was mostly that of a traditional queen dowager. Isabella’s sullied reputation rests on the years between 1325 and 1330 and the extraordinary course that she took during that period, leading to Isabella and her lover establishing themselves as rulers of England behind a puppet king. There is no doubt that Isabella went much farther than any other medieval queen and she rightly attracted a great deal of attention. However it is also necessary to look at the circumstances that caused Isabella to take the action she did in 1326 and it is clear that Isabella was sorely tried. For years, Isabella attempted to play the role of a good and dutiful queen and it was only after years of provocation that she finally snapped and took unprecedented, and to many, damning action. It should also not be forgotten that she received the support of the country in her endeavours. It was only later as her situation degenerated that she became the victim of her own fame with the irretrievable loss of her reputation. Isabella of France carried out some cruel and terrible actions but she was driven into these and supported, at least for a time, by the entire country, only later being transformed from ‘Isabella the Fair’ into Isabella the She-Wolf of France.
Isabella of France was the only surviving daughter of Philip IV of France and his wife, Jeanne, Queen of Navarre. As the daughter of two monarchs, Isabella would have been raised to have the highest opinion of her own status and she was thoroughly spoiled by her adoring father. Isabella enjoyed a cosseted upbringing and she would have known, from her youth, that she was destined to be a queen. Relations between France and England were often tense and, in 1298, the Pope proposed a double marriage to cement an alliance between England and France, with Edward I marrying Isabella’s aunt, Margaret, and his son marrying the infant Isabella.1 The first marriage occurred soon afterwards, but Isabella’s was postponed until she was older. Isabella was formally betrothed by proxy to Prince Edward in May 1303.2 Isabella probably enjoyed being the centre of attention at the ceremony and she must have wondered what her absent future husband was like.
Edward, who was twelve years older than Isabella, showed no interest in his future bride and was only interested in the political advantages of the match. Isabella, as the daughter of two sovereigns, was the most eligible princess of her generation. According to Froissart, she was also ‘one of the greatest beauties of her time’ and she must have been confident in her ability to please her husband.3 She came from a very good-looking family and both Isabella and her father Philip were nicknamed ‘the Fair’. Throughout her lifetime everyone praised Isabella’s beauty and her charms and she cannot have doubted that she would be anything other than adored by Edward, as she was by everyone else.
Edward I of England died in 1307 and Edward II decided to delay his coronation until he could share it with Isabella. Soon after his accession, Edward crossed to France and was met at Boulogne by Isabella and her father, Philip, as well as many other members of her family. Philip had provided Isabella with a magnificent trousseau for her wedding, including seventy-two headdresses and two gold crowns.4 Isabella also wore a rich wedding dress, which she preserved all her life. Edward and Isabella were married with great ceremony at Boulogne on 25 January 1308.5 Isabella must have seen her wedding as the culmination of her destiny and she had been preparing herself to be Queen of England since her infancy. She is likely to have been pleased with Edward as he was, by all accounts, a handsome and charming man. It is unlikely that, at first, she noticed anything unusual about Edward’s behaviour towards her, although some of his actions may have caused concern to her father and her other relatives present. Certainly, the fact that Edward sent his wedding presents to his favourite, Piers Gaveston, in England did not go unnoticed by the French.6
Piers Gaveston had been a member of Edward’s household since 1300 and he quickly became Edward’s most intimate companion.7 Their relationship had caused Edward I much concern and, in February 1307, he had banished Gaveston, only for Edward II to immediately recall him on his accession. Edward II is known to have had an illegitimate son who was born before 1307 and so he clearly did, at least on one occasion, have a mistress.8 There has been much debate over the exact nature of the relationship between Edward and Gaveston. However, several contemporary sources hint at an intimate relationship and most modern historians believe that there was a homosexual relationship between them. Edward relied on Gaveston and had left him regent of England when he travelled to France to marry Isabella. It is unlikely that Isabella knew of this before her marriage although she may quickly have come to suspect the truth after her arrival in England.
Edward and Isabella sailed for England soon after the wedding. Isabella must have eager to visit her new country and she would have been shocked to discover the extent of Edward’s feelings for Gaveston when they landed in England. As soon as the ship docked, Edward ran off the ship and flew to embrace Gaveston who was waiting in the harbour.9 Isabella had been escorted to England by her uncles, the Counts of Valois and Evreux and they were dismayed by this incident, writing indignantly to her father in France.10 It is likely that this was the first Isabella knew of Edward’s relationship with Gaveston and this, along with the events of the next few weeks, must have made her increasingly uneasy.
The royal couple travelled to London where they were crowned together in great ceremony. This event must also have been marred for Isabella, however, as Gaveston played a prominent role in the ceremony and caused offense amongst the English barons by carrying the royal crown before the king.11 Edward also sat with Gaveston at the coronation banquet that followed, rather than with Isabella.12 Isabella was always keenly aware of her royal dignity and these slights would have weighed heavily on her mind. It was also around this time that Isabella noticed Gaveston wearing the jewels her father had given to Edward as a wedding present, something that she wrote indignantly to her father about.13
Isabella was not the only person to notice and resent the prominence of Gaveston. Her uncles, the counts of Evreux and Valois returned to France soon after the coronation bringing reports of the poor reception Isabella had met with in England. Edward also faced opposition in England and, according to the Chronicle of Lanercost:
The people of the country and the leading men complained loudly at his [Edward’s] coronation against the aforesaid Piers, and unanimously wished that he should be deprived of his earldom; but this the king obstinately refused. The rumours increased from day to day, and engrossed the lips and ears of all men, nor was there one who had a good word either for the king or for Piers. The chief men agreed unanimously in strongly demanding that Piers should be sent back into exile, foremost among them being the noble earl of Lincoln and the young earl of Gloucester, whose sister, however, Piers had received in marriage by the king’s gift.14
From early in his reign with regard to this there had been much opposition to Edward and in June 1308 he was compelled by parliament to send Gaveston into exile.15
Isabella must have been elated to hear of Gaveston’s exile, and she spent more time with Edward during Gaveston’s absence.16 Isabella and Edward also seem to have reached an understanding with each other and even after Gaveston’s return they were often together. She also seems to have been on good terms with Gaveston. It is probable that Isabella was prepared to accept Edward’s relationship with Gaveston in return for the status of queen. By 1311 she was probably aware of the homosexual nature of Edward’s relationship with Gaveston but was prepared to ignore it in return for good treatment and the trappings of queenship. She and Edward also developed some kind of relationship during this period and by early 1312 she was pregnant.
Despite the rapprochement between Isabella and Gaveston, his presence was deeply resented by the English nobility. Gaveston was seen as an upstart by the more established nobility and hated for his close relationship with the king. By 1312, the barons were actively working towards the destruction of Gaveston. The two leading barons, the Earls of Lancaster and Leicester were the maternal half-brothers of Isabella’s mother and it has often been suggested that they acted as their niece’s champions in the destruction of Gaveston.17 However, the evidence of Isabella’s pregnancy and her improved status suggest that she had come to accept the presence of Gaveston. She does not appear to have identified with her uncles’ policies at this stage of her queenship.
Midway through 1312, Isabella, Edward and Gaveston set out northwards for York.18 Whilst there they heard the news that Thomas of Lancaster was secretly marching north with an army, so they fled to Newcastle. Isabella would have known that she was not the focus of Lancaster’s anger but the escape must have been an ordeal for her. Soon after their arrival, Edward and Gaveston took ship to Scarborough, leaving Isabella unprotected at Newcastle.19 Isabella left Newcastle soon afterwards, travelling to the safety of Tynemouth Castle to await events. She must have been very anxious about what the future would hold for her unborn child and, perhaps, angry at Edward and Gaveston’s desertion of her.
Isabella was not the focus of the baron’s wrath, however, and instead they set off in pursuit of Gaveston. Soon after their voyage to Scarborough, Edward and Gaveston separated. They were never to see each other again. Gaveston was quickly attacked and captured by Lancaster and he was turned over to the control of the Earl of Pembroke.20 On 19 July 1312, he was taken out to the crossroads at Blacklow Hill, near Warwick, and beheaded by the barons without trial.21 Edward was furious at the death of his favourite but powerless to take any immediate action against the barons. Isabella’s feelings about the death of Gaveston are unclear, but it is likely that she was not displeased with his now permanent absence from Edward’s side. Some time after the murder, Isabella travelled slowly south towards Windsor.
Isabella of France gave birth to her eldest child on 13 November 1312 at Windsor Castle.22 According to John Capgrave ‘many Frensch lordis, that were aboute hir, wold a clepid him Philippea, aftir the kyng of Frans: the Englisch lordes wold have him Edward. The king had so grete joy of this child new born, that his heavinesse for Petir [Gaveston] cesed some’.23 Isabella must have been triumphant in the birth of her son, even if she was unable to name him Philip. By 1312 her career followed that of a traditional medieval queen and the birth of a son cemented her role. She also gained a much greater political role following her son’s birth and demonstrated a politically independent streak on a number of occasions over the next few years.
Isabella set herself up as a peacemaker during Edward’s troubled reign. In early 1313 she is mentioned in sources with the Earl of Gloucester, presiding over peace negotiations between Edward and the nobility.24 Isabella attempted to reach a compromise between the opposing sides in the dispute in order to restore a measure of stability in England. In 1318 she is recorded again as a peacemaker in concert with the Earl of Hereford. Isabella and the earl appear to have achieved a measure of success in their endeavours and the peace negotiations led to a Treaty with Lancaster.25 For much of her queenship, Isabella quietly promoted Edward’s policies and ensured that some measure of stability was maintained.
Isabella did not only work for Edward, however because she also had her own political interests during the middle part of Edward’s reign. This can be clearly seen in her actions concerning the election of the Bishop of Durham in 1317.26 Lancaster suggested one of his clerks for the position and Edward also supported his own candidate, Thomas de Cobham. Isabella, ignoring the wishes of both her uncle and her husband, supported Lewis de Beaumont, a kinsman of hers and a member of her household. When the monks of Durham elected one of their own monks, Isabella appealed to Edward on her knees on de Beaumont’s behalf. Edward yielded to her pleas and refused to elect the monks’ candidate, securing the election for de Beaumont. Isabella busied herself with securing Church appointments for her supporters and, in 1316, is known to have petitioned the Pope in an attempt to secure the election of her confessor to the see of Rochester.27 She also enlisted the support of the King of France, despite the fact that Edward had already written to the Pope supporting his own candidate. Clearly, Isabella was used to getting her own way, and was determined in what she wanted.
Isabella also remained an important political figure in relations with France. In May 1313, she and Edward visited the French court at Paris and Isabella played an important role in political negotiations between the two countries. Isabella must have been pleased to see her family again after five years since she is known to have been fond of her family. Isabella’s visit may, however, have been tainted by her concern regarding the behaviour of her three sisters-in-law, Margaret, Blanche and Jeanne of Burgundy.28 During the visit, Isabella gave her three sisters-in-law silk purses that she had embroidered herself. In July 1313, following their return to England, Isabella and Edward held a banquet attended by several French knights. During the banquet, Isabella noticed the purses that she had given to Margaret and Blanche hanging from the belts of two knights.
In February 1314, Isabella returned to France without Edward in order to negotiate a treaty.29 It is likely that she mentioned her suspicions to her father whilst there and, soon after her return to England in April, scandal rocked the royal family in France. Margaret and Blanche of Burgundy were found to have been having affairs with the two knights, aided by their sister, Jeanne. The knights were tortured and executed on the orders of Isabella’s father and Margaret and Blanche sentenced to life imprisonment. Isabella’s eldest brother, Louis, immediately annulled his marriage to Margaret and disinherited his young daughter. Isabella was not present in France whilst these events occurred but she was considered by contemporaries to have been directly involved in events and was vilified for her disloyalty to her sisters-in-law.30 The scandal led to the earliest criticism of Isabella in the sources and she certainly does not come out of this incident as an entirely attractive figure when it is viewed in the light of her own subsequent conduct. But at the time she probably believed that she had served her family and saved the prestige of the French royal house. It is also understandable that Isabella, who was fond of her family, would not have wanted to stand by whilst her brothers were cuckolded, particularly when the succession to the throne of France was at stake.
Isabella’s marriage during this period was, by contrast, scandal-free. Isabella conceived children only occasionally and it appears that she and Edward were rarely intimate with each other. She did however bear him three further children after after the birth of Edward.31 Isabella’s influence over Edward during this period appears to have been widely recognised and, in 1319, attempts by the Scots to capture Isabella whilst she was staying near York highlight the importance she was seen to have in Edward’s government.32
Nonetheless Isabella’s position in government was always tenuous as demonstrated by the rise of the Despensers. In the years immediately after Piers Gaveston’s death Edward did not have a favourite at court. After a few years, he became notably fond of a father and son, both called Hugh Despenser. The elder Despenser had been an important figure in government since the reign of Edward I but his rise and that of his son proved dramatic under Edward II. Some contemporary sources hint at the relationship between Edward and the younger Despenser and the actions of Isabella herself towards her rival suggest strongly that their relationship was homosexual. The rise of the two new favourites cannot have been welcome to Isabella and was the catalyst for the breakdown of her marriage.
The Despensers viewed Isabella as a rival and their attitude towards her was consistently hostile. In 1320, the elder Despenser refused to pay Isabella money that he owed her from the manor of Lechlade and, in 1321, the younger Despenser refused to pay Isabella rents he owed her from Bristol.33 These were calculated slights against the queen and Edward refused to act on Isabella’s protests. Isabella must have felt that her influence over Edward was slipping away and she became increasingly marginalised in English politics and court life. She nevertheless remained loyal to Edward throughout the early 1320s despite increasing baronial opposition.
In February 1321 the barons met with Lancaster in order to enlist his support against the Despensers. Isabella must have been anxious about the rise in baronial discontent and retired to the Tower of London in July to bear her youngest child, Joan.34 This must have been an ordeal for Isabella but she still remained loyal to Edward and in October 1321 she played a major role in providing a pretext for him to make war on the barons.
Isabella departed on a pilgrimage to Canterbury in late 1321 and, on 2 October, she approached Leeds Castle, which was part of her dower, intending to stay the night. Upon arrival, Isabella’s stewards were denied entry to the castle by the wife of the castellan and, when they insisted, the castle guards became violent, killing some of Isabella’s attendants.35 The castellan was a known supporter of the barons and it is likely that Isabella had been sent to Leeds in order to provide an excuse for Edward to attack him. However, it is also likely that Isabella was genuinely shocked at the violent response she met and may have harboured resentment towards Edward for sending her there, effectively using her as bait. When Edward heard of Isabella’s experience at Leeds he set out with an army of Londoners to capture the castle. The castle quickly fell and the castellan was hanged from the gates.36 Edward then marched north where he met the barons in battle at Boroughbridge to win a stunning victory. Isabella’s uncle, Thomas of Lancaster, was taken prisoner and executed, poignantly in the same manner used upon Gaveston.
Isabella’s feelings on the death of her uncle were probably mixed. He had been a thorn in the side of Edward’s rule for years and she may have believed that he deserved to die. However, as his kinsman she was bound to be affronted by the manner of his death and must have been uneasy at the power Lancaster’s death would give to the Despensers. Certainly, Isabella’s treatment in England deteriorated rapidly after Lancaster’s execution.
Relations between England and France had been difficult for some years during Edward’s reign and, in 1324, Isabella’s uncle, Charles of Valois, overran the English possession of Gascony.37 Edward retaliated on 28 September by seizing Isabella’s lands and those of foreign monasteries.38 Suspicion fell on Isabella as a Frenchwoman and Edward and the Despensers exploited this to gain more control over the queen. Her allowance had already been cut dramatically and, in late 1324, Isabella’s three youngest children were removed from her custody.39 The younger Despenser’s wife was also ‘appointed, as it were, guardian of the queen, and carried her seal; nor could the queen write to anybody without her knowledge: whereat my lady the queen was equally indignant and distressed, and therefore wished to visit her brother in France to seek a remedy’.40 Isabella must have been furious at Edward’s treatment of her after sixteen years of loyal marriage and this, in addition to all Edward’s other bad conduct towards her, would be an entirely understandable motive for her to hate him. She had, after all, done no wrong and had been a loyal queen of England. Her imprisonment, on the pretext that she was a Frenchwoman, would therefore rightly have infuriated her.
Isabella kept her resentment hidden and Edward’s actions show that he did not regard her as a threat, entirely underestimating his dynamic wife. Isabella had acted as a negotiator between England and France on a number of occasions and Edward does not seem to have recognised the danger in sending her again on 9 March 1325.41 According to the Chronicle of Lanercost:
The King of England sent his consort the queen to her brother, the king of France, hoping that, by God’s help, peace might be established between himself and the king of France through her, according to her promise. But the queen had a secret motive for desiring to cross over to France; for Hugh Despenser the younger, the king’s agent in all matters of business, was exerting himself at the pope’s court to procure divorce between the king of England and the queen.42
There is no other evidence that Edward was considering a divorce and it is unlikely that he considered going so far. However, there was clearly very bad feeling between Isabella and the Despensers and Edward always sided entirely with his favourites rather than his wife.
Isabella must have felt a great sense of freedom and relief as she arrived in France. Isabella landed at Boulogne and was lavishly entertained there before travelling to Paris where her brother, King Charles, welcomed her.43 Charles secretly promised Isabella aid and she clearly felt confident enough to act against Edward. Soon after her arrival she was also able to persuade Edward to send their eldest son, young Edward, to her in Paris to do homage for Gascony.44 Young Edward’s arrival meant that Isabella held a trump card against her husband and she began to attract English exiles to her in Paris, the most significant of these being Edmund, Earl of Kent, her husband’s own brother. She was also joined by Roger Mortimer, a nobleman who had escaped from the Tower of London some years previously.
With young Edward in her possession and her brother’s aid, Isabella finally showed her true intentions and the anger that must have been building within her for years and she refused to return to Edward in England. The Chronicle of Lanercost relates how there were rumours in England that Isabella, young Edward and Kent intended to invade to exact revenge upon the Despensers, who they blamed for Lancaster’s death. However, there were also ‘contradictory rumours in England about the queen, some declaring that she was the betrayer of the king and kingdom, others that she was acting for peace and the common welfare of the kingdom, and for the removal of evil counsellors from the king’.45 Reports of Isabella’s actions sent Edward and the Despensers into panic and proclamations were read in London calling Isabella and her son traitors.46 They also sent bribes to France, attempting to have Isabella and young Edward returned to England.
Isabella’s brother was also under increasing pressure to return her to England, especially as rumours began to emerge regarding Isabella’s relationship with Mortimer. The pair became lovers during their stay in Paris and Isabella would remain devoted to Mortimer for the rest of her life. It is likely that she revelled in Mortimer’s attentions after escaping her loveless marriage and she may well have seen no harm in her actions given Edward’s own relationships with his male favourites. Certainly, their relationship appears to have had a fiery passion that Isabella’s own marriage had lacked. During their time in France, Isabella and Mortimer are reported to have quarrelled, with Isabella threatening to leave Mortimer and return to her husband.47 Mortimer responded by threatening to kill her if she tried to leave him. This was, of course, a disturbing incident but, for Isabella, it may have been taken as proof of the depth of Mortimer’s feelings towards her. She does not seem to have threatened to leave him again.
Although her relationship with Mortimer gave Isabella personal satisfaction, the rumours about her relationship did nothing to help her and women were always more heavily censured for adultery than men. Finally, disturbed by the scandal she was causing, her brother asked her to leave France, allowing her and the other exiles to travel to Hainault. Isabella found a warm reception in Hainault and arranged a treaty with the Count of Hainault for military aid in return for the marriage of her son, Edward, to one of the count’s daughters.48 Isabella must have been pleased with this alliance and eager to return to England with her army, in spite of the uncertainty of her enterprise. She clearly saw her own cause as righteous and the Despensers as the enemy, writing to the Bishop of Exeter in one letter that ‘we can see clearly that you are in league with the said Hugh and more obedient towards him than towards us’.49 She could have been writing these lines to Edward.
Isabella and her fleet landed at Harwich on 24 September 1326.50 Isabella had always been popular in England and she exploited this on arrival, insisting that she had come only to rid Edward of his evil counsellors. In a proclamation issued soon after their arrival, Isabella, young Edward and Kent insisted that they had ‘come to this land to raise up the state of the Holy Church and of the kingdom, and of the people of this land against the said misdeeds and grievous oppressions, and to safeguard and maintain, so far as we can, the honour and profit of the Holy Church, and of our said lord the king’.51 It is unclear what their actual intentions were upon arrival in England but it seems unlikely that Isabella would have considered returning to Edward even if the Despensers were removed. She must have been too angry with the memory of his treatment of her to countenance this and, again, this is an entirely understandable position, to modern eyes at least.
Upon landing, Isabella sent word to London asking for aid and the city rose to support her.52 The mob seized the king’s treasurer, the Bishop of Exeter, and murdered him in the street before capturing the Tower and placing Isabella’s young son, John of Eltham, as its warden.53 Isabella must have been anxious to hear that her youngest son was unprotected in London but jubilant at the popular support for her cause in England. She must also have been anxious to capture Edward and the Despensers who had fled London upon hearing of her landing.
Isabella and her army set out for Bristol a few weeks after landing. The town was being held by the elder Despenser and he was quickly captured following a siege. Isabella must have been pleased to take him into custody although the younger Despenser was the true focus of her hatred. Under Isabella’s orders, the elder Despenser was executed and his corpse chopped up and fed to dogs.54 There is no doubt that she approved of this treatment of the elder Despenser and this is the first real indication of a bloody streak in Isabella’s character.
Following the execution of the elder Despenser, Mortimer and Henry of Lancaster set off in pursuit of Edward and the younger Despenser. They were found wandering around Wales and Edward was despatched to Kenilworth Castle.55 The younger Despenser was taken to Hereford where he was brutally executed. Amongst the punishments meted out on him was castration, an indication of Isabella’s belief about his relationship with her husband. The younger Despenser was Isabella’s greatest enemy and she must have been jubilant at his death. Certainly with Edward a prisoner and the Despensers both dead, Isabella must have thought her and Mortimer’s future was secure.
Isabella must have spent a triumphant Christmas at Wallingford in 1326, before entering London on 4 January 1327.56She called a meeting of parliament a few days later and played a prominent role in its proceedings.57 At the parliament it was agreed that Edward II would be replaced on the throne by his son, Edward III. This must have been the culmination of Isabella’s dearest hopes and she was also able to use the parliament to further her own position. According to the Chronicle of Lanercost, ‘it was further ordained that our lady the Queen, for the great anxiety and anguish she had suffered as well this side as overseas, should stay queen all her life’.58 This must have reassured Isabella that she would not be forced back to live with Edward II, a prospect she cannot have relished. Isabella sent embassies to Edward II asking him to abdicate and, as soon as they obtained a favourable answer, her fourteen-year-old son was crowned as Edward III. Isabella is recorded as having wept throughout the coronation, although it is likely that these were imitation tears rather than the symptom of any grief at her hated husband’s fate.59
Edward III’s youth meant that Isabella and Mortimer were able to set themselves up as the real rulers of England. Isabella was able to wield more power than any earlier queen of England and assigned herself a magnificent dower, leaving the crown itself in relative poverty.60 Isabella probably wanted this money to help safeguard her position and the existence of her deposed husband in England must have been a worry to her. Isabella had no wish to see him again and, when he requested that she visit, she refused, saying that the lords would not allow her to see him.61 Edward presents a pitiful figure in his imprisonment, recorded as weeping when he was asked to abdicate and requesting visits from his wife and children. It is possible that Isabella also felt some pity for him and she sent him gifts and clothes.62 It seems more likely, however, that, like her tears at Edward III’s coronation, Isabella’s gifts were really just to maintain the appearance of a dutiful wife. She certainly recognised that he was a threat to her regime and she would have believed, as most people in England did, that he was the architect of his own downfall and deserving of his fate.
Edward II did not long survive his deposition. His death was shrouded in secrecy and precise details are difficult to discover but late in 1327, Edward was brought to Berkeley Castle and, on the night of 21 September, he was murdered. The exact manner of his death is unknown but the most common story is that he was killed when a red-hot spit was inserted into his rectum, to ensure that no mark should be seen on his body.63 There is no contemporary evidence to support this manner of death but it is now irrevocably associated with the murder of Edward II. Isabella’s exact involvement in the murder is unclear. However, as ruler of the kingdom it is unlikely that such a momentous step would be taken without Isabella’s approval, even by the domineering Mortimer. Certainly, Isabella and Mortimer benefited most from Edward’s death and this, taken with Isabella’s later obvious remorse at his death, suggests strongly that she was involved. Isabella’s reputation is irreparably tarnished by the death of Edward II and the misrule over which she and Mortimer presided.
Isabella and Mortimer quickly became unpopular rulers. Their most unwelcome action which later led to their downfall was their instigation of peace with Scotland. The Scots hoped to take advantage of the confusion in England following Edward II’s deposition and invaded, ravaging the north. Isabella, Mortimer and Edward III headed north and the unwilling king was forced to agree to a peace agreement in Scotland, sealed by the marriage of his sister Joan to David of Scotland.64 The marriage was celebrated at Berwick and attended by Isabella and Mortimer. Edward III, however, refused to attend. Isabella may have been perturbed by this evidence of her son’s disapproval of her policy but she failed to heed the warning. She probably considered him to still be a child and she and Mortimer certainly treated him like one.
Isabella remained devoted to Mortimer throughout their period of rule and he became increasingly domineering. In 1329, Isabella and Mortimer felt strong enough to move against the Earl of Kent, the king’s uncle. Kent had been one of their most important supporters in the invasion of England but he quickly became disillusioned with Isabella and Mortimer’s rule. In 1329, Kent was told that his brother, Edward II, was still alive and imprisoned at Corfe Castle.65 He sent a friar to Corfe to see whether the rumour was true and swore to release his brother if it proved to be so. It seems likely that this rumour had been created by Mortimer to incriminate Kent. Certainly, Isabella and Mortimer made use of Kent’s conduct and, at a parliament soon after, Kent was arrested for conspiracy to restore Edward II. Kent was sentenced to death and executed, against the wishes of his nephew, Edward III.66 The execution of the son of a king sent shock waves throughout the nobility and any remaining support for Isabella and Mortimer evaporated with his death. Isabella and Mortimer appear to have remained indifferent to their unpopularity, perhaps believing that they still maintained the support of the king.
Isabella and Mortimer’s rule was certainly not condoned by the king, however, and Edward III had grown increasingly resentful of his treatment by his mother and her lover. Events came to a head when Mortimer called a parliament at Nottingham in 1330. Edward III believed that Mortimer was shown too much honour there and heard a rumour that Mortimer wished to depose him and become king himself.67 Edward decided that the time was finally right for him to assume royal authority and, one night, he and some friends entered Nottingham Castle secretly through a hidden tunnel:
Having rushed out of the underground passage and subterranean route, the king’s friends advanced with drawn sword to the queen’s bedroom, the king waited, armed, outside the chamber of their foes, lest he should be seen by his mother. As the conspirators charged in, they killed Hugh de Turpinton, knight, as he tried to resist them, Lord John de Neville of Hornby directing the blow. Then they found the queen mother almost ready for bed, and the Earl of March [Mortimer] whom they wanted. They led him captive into the hall, while the queen cried ‘fair son, fair son, have pity on gentle Mortimer’; for she suspected that her son was there, even though she had not seen him.68
This must have been the most traumatic event of Isabella’s life and she never saw Mortimer again. She must have realised, in an instant, that her reign was over and that both she, and Mortimer, were in danger.
Edward III wasted no time in establishing his authority after his coup against his mother and Mortimer. Mortimer was sentenced to death, despite Isabella’s pleas, and was hanged, drawn and quartered.69 Some accounts suggest that the shock of Mortimer’s death drove Isabella mad although, given the evidence of her later lucidity, this seems unlikely. It must certainly have deeply affected her, however. Edward never countenanced putting his mother to death but immediately after the coup she was placed under house arrest and stripped of her lands and goods. Isabella spent two years under guard in isolation at Castle Rising in Norfolk.70 She was granted greater freedom later but she never regained Edward’s trust.
After the harshness of her imprisonment was lessened, Isabella was given permission to travel and to play a role as a member of the royal family. In 1338 she spent time at Pomfret Castle and in 1344 she attended Edward’s birthday celebration in Norwich.71Isabella all but disappears from the sources after 1330 and her time as a political figure of note had ended. She spent the remainder of her life living quietly, mainly at Castle Rising. Isabella fell ill on 22 August 1358 and died later that same day at the age of sixty-two, venerable for the time.72 She was given a royal funeral and, according to legend, she was buried, at her own request, wearing her wedding dress and clutching Edward II’s heart in a silver casket.73 This demonstrates that, with the passing of time, Isabella had learnt to feel remorse for all that had occurred in her marriage and the terrible way in which it ended. It is perhaps more significant, however, that when Isabella chose her burial place she selected Greyfriars in London, the burial place of her beloved Mortimer.
Isabella of France is the most vilified of all the queens of England and, although she was known as ‘Isabella the Fair’ in her own lifetime, she is now better remembered as the ‘She-Wolf of France’. The poem, The Bard, by Thomas Grey perhaps best sums up the reputation that Isabella has left to history:
The shrieks of death, thro’ Berkley’s roofs that ring,
Shrieks of an agonising king!
She-wolf of France, with unrelenting fangs,
That tear’st the bowels of thy mangled mate,
From thee be born, who o’er thy country hangs
The scourge of Heav’n what terrors round his wait!74
Isabella was among the most powerful of all medieval queens. No other English queen invaded and won a country, openly took a lover or murdered her husband. Isabella of France was unique and between 1325 and 1330 pursued a role very far from the ideal expected of a medieval queen. Her reputation was black and the story of her life would have cast a dark shadow over many of the later medieval English queens as they strove not to emulate her. However, it must be remembered that the period 1325 to 1330 was only a small part of her long life and her actions were certainly driven by years of mistreatment and unhappiness. It was not, after all, Isabella’s fault that she found herself married to Edward II and most other kings would have adored her. Isabella had been cosseted throughout her childhood and she tried to make the most of her difficult and loveless marriage. It is perhaps understandable that in the end Isabella snapped and took drastic action to secure her own happiness. Some of her actions are likely to have been driven by revenge but these are understandable. Isabella of France had been the most desirable princess in Europe and to find herself an unloved and disparaged wife must have affected her. She tried to endure and, when that failed, she took action, at terrible cost to her own reputation.