Viceroys and Generals of New France
From 1604 to 1635, New France was under the authority of a vice-regal ruler who reported directly to the king. With one exception (the sieur de Mons), all these men were absentee rulers who remained in France and governed through a “lieutenant.” To fill that office, all of them sooner or later chose Champlain.
Historians have regarded the post of viceroy as a sinecure of small importance in the history of New France. One scholar borrowed the language of Merovingian France, and called them vice-rois fainéants, “do-nothing” viceroys. Champlain took another view. He believed that they could be very useful in promoting the colony at home, and he encouraged them to take an active role. Every one of them did so except Soissons, who was viceroy for only a few weeks. All the others made a contribution in one way or another.
Here was yet another role that Champlain played behind the scenes. It required tact, wisdom, and a highly developed political intelligence. The viceroys came mostly from a narrow circle, but they were very diverse in their character, purposes and principles. Champlain got along with nearly all of them, adjusting his tactics in many ways but always preserving his large purpose. If he worked for all these viceroys, they also worked for him and aided his grand design.
Most of the viceroys have been omitted from the Dictionary of Canadian Biography. A brief survey might bring out another narrative line in Champlain’s career. He was able to find his footing again and again. He established a working relationship with all except Richelieu. In the midst of many changes, here was an important continuity in the early history of New France.
DE MONS (var. Monts, Montz), Pierre Dugua, sieur de Mons (1558?-1628), born to an aristocratic family in Saintonge, raised a Protestant, a soldier for Henri IV, he became a gentleman of the king’s chamber with a large pension, and governor of Pons. De Mons visited New France with Chauvin in 1600. In 1603 the king granted him a monopoly of the fur trade and authority to found a permanent settlement. He was given the rank of lieutenant general for New France. He requested the title of viceroy and was refused, but received vice-regal powers with direct access to the king and his council.
De Mons was the first successful colonizer of New France. He came to America in 1604–05, the only vice-regal figure to do so, and founded settlements at Sainte-Croix and Port-Royal, invited Champlain as geographer, and gave him more responsibility. De Mons had trouble establishing a rapport with the Indians, but he set an example for humane and principled leadership. In France he also founded a commercial company in 1603 but lost his monopoly in 1606, and ordered his settlers to return to France in 1607. In 1607 he raised money for the founding of Quebec and chose Champlain to be his lieutenant there.
After the death of Henri IV in 1610, de Mons was banished from the presence of the queen regent, and he asked Champlain to take the lead at court. De Mons continued to support New France behind the scenes, aided Champlain against his rivals, contributed to the colony, and sent out commercial voyages for many years. Champlain and Lescarbot and all who knew him held de Mons in the highest respect. He was a major figure in the founding of New France.1
SOISSONS, Charles de Bourbon, comte de Soissons (1566–1612), was a prince of the blood, the son of Louis de Bourbon, first prince de Condé, and Françoise d’Orléans, cousin-german of Henri IV and cousin of Louis XIII, not his uncle as others have written. Champlain and his advisers at court recruited Soissons through intermediaries, as a way of finding a protector for New France. In consequence, Soissons succeeded the sieur de Mons with the title of Lieutenant General and Viceroy on October 8, 1612. He was granted a monopoly of trade in the St. Lawrence Valley for a term of twelve years. One of his first acts was to appoint Champlain as his lieutenant on October 25, 1612, and he began to help Champlain at court. They were just beginning to work well together when Soissons fell ill and died very suddenly, after serving only three weeks. Champlain, whose commission lasted merely fifteen days, wrote that his death was “greatly regretted.”2
CONDÉ, Henri de Bourbon, prince de Condé (1588–1646) was also a prince of the blood, the son of Henri, first prince de Condé and Charlotte-Catherine de La Trémouille. He was baptized a Protestant and raised a Roman Catholic. In 1609 he married Marguerite de Montmorency and became the father of the “Grand Condé,” with whom he is sometimes confused. He was described by a writer in the Mercure François as having a “vivacity of spirit” and an extraordinary “knowledge of languages and many sciences.” Champlain had a connection with him through marriage. Hélène Boullé, Champlain’s wife, was a sister-in-law of Charles Deslandes, secretary to the prince de Condé, after Deslandes married Marguerite Boullé. In 1612, following the death of his cousin Soissons, Condé bought the office of lieutenant general, admiral, and now viceroy of New France, and acquired a monopoly of trade in the St. Lawrence River and its tributaries for twelve years. His pay included a fine horse worth 1,000 écus, or 3,000 livres. Condé immediately appointed Champlain as his lieutenant on November 22, 1612. The two men worked well together. From 1612 to 1615, Condé played an active role in granting passports for trade in New France, brought a flow of income to the colony, helped the Récollet missionaries to establish themselves, and gave strong support and protection to Champlain. But in 1615, Condé led a party in opposition to the queen regent, Marie de Medici, and her Catholic circle. The following year, he was arrested on her orders, and imprisoned in the Bastille and then at Vincennes.3
THÉMINES, Pons de Lauzières, Marquis de Thémines de Cardillac (1552–1627), a courtier who served the queen regent, Marie de Medici, and was made by her a maréchal of France at the age of sixty-four (1616). On the queen regent’s order, he arrested Condé in the Louvre and took him to the Bastille in 1616. In the same year (on October 25) Thémines received another reward from the queen regent, who made him viceroy of New France while Condé was in the Bastille. The appointment was rapidly confirmed on November 24, 1616, with the same pay of 1,000 écus or 3,000 livres. The queen also appointed a friend of Thémines to replace Champlain as lieutenant for New France. Champlain fought back. Thémines soon fell out with his lieutenant over the spoils of their offices. Thémines removed him and on January 15, 1617, made Champlain his lieutenant for New France. The two men worked effectively together. Their relations were complex. In a document of the Royal Council dated July 18, 1619, when Condé was still in prison, Champlain was described as serving simultaneously as lieutenant to both Thémines and Condé. He was able to work with two bitter enemies at the same time. Thémines helped Champlain to submit the program of 1618 and worked until the following year when Condé was released from prison at Vincennes. Thémines was dismissed as viceroy, and Condé recovered the office, held it briefly from 1619 to 1620, worked with Champlain on mounting the expedition to New France in 1620, then sold the office of viceroy to his brother-in-law the duc de Montmorency for 30,000 livres.4
MONTMORENCY, Henri, the second duc de Montmorency et de Dampville (1594–1632), was the son of Henri, first duc de Montmorency, and Louise de Bourbon en Budos, and brother-in-law of the prince de Condé. He succeeded his uncle, Charles, duc de Dampville, as admiral of France. On February 25, 1620, he received letters patent as viceroy of New France. Twelve days later, on March 8, 1620, he chose Champlain as his lieutenant. Montmorency was one of the most able of all the viceroys of New France, an experienced leader in colonial and maritime affairs. As viceroy, Montmorency restructured the commerce of New France, established the post of intendant, helped provide funds for fortifications, and supported a chapel and residence for the Récollets. Some scholars date the origin of the seigneurial system in New France from a grant of Cap Tourmente and the Île d’Orleans to Guillaume de Caën, January 3, 1624. Montmorency gave strong support to Champlain, increased his powers and his pay, and protected New France at home. The success of Champlain’s leadership from 1620 to 1624 was made possible by his good relations with this viceroy. In 1625, after a tenure of five years, Montmorency resigned his office. He was a strong defender of the traditional rights of the parlements and provinces. Later, Montmorency supported a political movement in Languedoc that the king perceived as treason. Richelieu may also have feared Montmorency as a rival, despite a show of support. In 1632 Montmorency was arrested and executed for treason at the age of 38.5 He was always a faithful friend of Champlain and New France.
VENTADOUR, Henri de Lévis, duc de Ventadour, var. Vantadour (1596–1680), was the son of Anne de Lévis, duc de Ventadour, and Marguerite de Montmorency, and the nephew of the previous viceroy. In the spring of 1625, Ventadour purchased the office of viceroy from his uncle the duc de Montmorency for 100,000 livres. Ventadour was drawn to the office by his deep religious feeling, and a determination to spread the Christian faith in America. Immediately after his commission as viceroy, his first act was to commission Champlain as his lieutenant. They worked closely together in Ventadour’s Paris mansion. Champlain supported the missionary work that Ventadour desired, and the new viceroy backed Champlain’s plans and purposes. A difference arose between them over Ventadour’s wish to exclude Protestants from New France. Champlain continued to support Henri IV’s solution. He supported a Catholic establishment, but wanted to allow Protestants to live and trade in the colony. The men were able to continue working together even though they were not of one mind on that question.6
RICHELIEU, Armand-Jean du Plessis, bishop of Luçon, cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, duc de Richelieu and de Fronsac (1585–1642), was born into the lesser nobility, the son of François du Plessis, sieur de Richelieu, and Suzanne de La Porte. His older brother was killed in a duel by the marquis de Thémines in 1619. He entered the church and became bishop of Luçon to serve his family’s interests; was helped at court by Madame de Guercheville; became first minister of state under the queen regent and went with her when she was banished from court; and helped to reconcile the queen and her son Louis XIII. For that service he was made cardinal in 1622 and member of the King’s Council in 1624. Four months later he became head of the council and chief minister. Richelieu took maritime and colonial affairs into his own hands, and in 1626 the king made him chief and superintendent of navigation and commerce of France. He founded the Company of the Hundred Associates, put his kinsman Isaac de Razilly in charge of Acadia, and grudgingly accepted Champlain as his lieutenant for Quebec and the St. Lawrence Valley. Richelieu brought energy and power to New France. He insisted that it should be always in his hands, but it was not always in his thoughts, and the quality of his decisions was very mixed. He mustered resources for a major colonizing effort by the Hundred Associates, but against much informed advice insisted that a large fleet should sail for New France when a more powerful British fleet was in the St. Lawrence. The entire French expedition was lost, and the Hundred Associates were nearly bankrupted. Richelieu selected leaders in the colony for their rank, religion, and personal loyalty rather than experience and ability. He gave Champlain no support in the critical years from 1633 to 1635.7