Abbreviations used in notes
|
ASL |
Arthur S. Link |
|
CTG |
Cary T. Grayson |
|
CTGD |
Cary T. Grayson diary |
|
EA; EAW |
Ellen Axson; Ellen Axson Wilson |
|
EBG; EBGW |
Edith Bolling Galt; Edith Bolling Galt Wilson |
|
EMH |
Edward M. House |
|
EMHD |
Edward M. House diary |
|
HCL |
Henry Cabot Lodge |
|
HCLP |
Henry Cabot Lodge Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |
|
HWB |
Henry W. Bragdon |
|
HWBC |
Henry W. Bragdon Papers, Woodrow Wilson Collection, Seeley G. Mudd Library, Princeton University |
|
JD |
Josephus Daniels |
|
JDD |
Josephus Daniels diary |
|
JPT |
Joseph Patrick Tumulty |
|
LC |
Library of Congress |
|
MAH; MAHP |
Mary Allen Hulbert; Mary Allen Hulbert Peck |
|
Memoir |
Edith Bolling Galt Wilson, My Memoir (Indianapolis, 1939) |
|
NDB |
Newton D. Baker |
|
PWW |
Woodrow Wilson, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, ed. Arthur S. Link et al., 69 vols. (Princeton, N.J., 1966–1993) |
|
RB |
Robert Bridges |
|
RL |
Robert Lansing |
|
RSB |
Ray Stannard Baker |
|
RSBD |
Ray Stannard Baker diary |
|
RSBP |
Ray Stannard Baker Papers, Library of Congress |
|
SA |
Stockton Axson |
|
TR |
Theodore Roosevelt |
|
WHT |
William Howard Taft |
|
WHTP |
William Howard Taft Papers, Library of Congress |
|
WJB |
William Jennings Bryan |
|
WW |
Woodrow Wilson |
|
WWP |
Woodrow Wilson Papers, Library of Congress |
PROLOGUE “THIS MAN’S MIND AND SPIRIT”
1. Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis, vol. 3, 1916–1918 (London, 1927). On the nine decades of argument and analysis of American intervention, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., “The United States,” in The Origins of World War I, ed. Richard F. Hamilton and Holger H. Herwig (New York, 2003).
2. Charles E. Swem diary, entry for 1915, PWW, vol. 33; WW speech at Pittsburgh, Oct. 24, 1915, PWW, vol. 31.
3. WW remarks, Apr. 8, 1918, PWW, vol. 47.
4. WW speech, June 13, 1914, PWW, vol. 29. In 2008, a faculty committee at Princeton rated the twenty-five most influential alumni and the twelve alumni who have had the greatest impact on Princeton. On the first list, Wilson ranked third, behind James Madison and the mathematician Alan Turing, and on the second list he ranked first. He and Fitzgerald were the only two to appear on both lists. See Princeton Alumni Weekly, Jan. 23, 2008.
5. WW speech, Mar. 20, 1914, PWW, vol. 29.
1 TOMMY
1. The story is told in Eleanor Wilson McAdoo, The Woodrow Wilsons (New York, 1937).
2. The birth is recorded in the Wilson family Bible, PWW, vol. 1. There is some dispute about whether Wilson was born on December 28 or 29. See PWW, vol. 1, n. 7.
3. On Joseph Ruggles Wilson, see PWW, vol. 1, n. 1, and John M. Mulder, Woodrow Wilson: The Years of Preparation (Princeton, N.J., 1978).
4. Harriet Woodrow Welles to RSB, Sept. 28, 1925, RSBP, box 124.
5. On the Woodrows, see Mulder, Years of Preparation, and RSB, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, vol. 1, Youth, 1856–1890 (Garden City, N.Y., 1927).
6. Janet Woodrow Wilson to Thomas Woodrow, Apr. 27, 1857, PWW, vol. 1.
7. On the Augusta church and Joseph Wilson’s move there, see Mulder, Years of Preparation. It is not possible to determine from the slave schedules of the census for Richmond County, Georgia, the number, age, or sex of the slaves who worked for the Wilsons.
8. The proportion of slaves in the population is based on U.S. Bureau of the Census, Population of the United States: Eighth Census (Washington, D.C., 1861). Richmond County, in which Augusta is located, also had 490 “Free Colored” residents, 386 of whom lived in Augusta.
9. WW speech, Feb. 12, 1909, PWW, vol. 19.
10. On Joseph Wilson’s wartime service, see PWW, vol. 1, and Florence Fleming Corley, Confederate City: Augusta, Georgia, 1860–1865 (Columbia, S.C., 1960), 63–64, 67–68.
11. On the relations with the respective families, see Harriet Woodrow Welles to RSB, Sept. 28, 1925, RSBP, box 124, and J. Wilson Woodrow to RSB, Feb. 10, 1926, RSBP, box 124.
12. WW shorthand note, July 19, 1880, PWW, vol. 1; EMHD, entry for Feb. 14, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
13. Jessie W. Wilson to WW, Aug. 23, 1880, PWW, vol. 1; WW to EAW, Apr. 19, 1888, PWW, vol. 5; Pleasant A. Stovall to RSB, June 8, 1925, RSBP, box 122. The recollection of cockfighting is in EMHD, entry for May 11, 1914, PWW, vol. 30.
14. WW to EAW, Apr. 19, 1888, PWW, vol. 5.
15. CTG, interviews by RSB, Feb. 18–19, 1926, RSBP, box 109; McAdoo, The Wilsons; WW to EAW, Mar. 9, 1889, PWW, vol. 6. On Josie Wilson, see RSB, Memorandum of a Conversation with J. R. Wilson, Feb. 19, 1926, RSBP, box 124.
16. On the left-handed writing, see Edwin A. Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography (Princeton, N.J., 1981).
17. WW shorthand diary, entry for June 10, 1876, PWW, vol. 1; SA comments on manuscript of RSB biography of WW, vol. 1, [ca. 1926], RSBP, box 100. On Wilson’s teaching himself shorthand, see Editorial Note, “Wilson’s Study and Use of Shorthand, 1872–1892,” PWW, vol. 1. For the interpretation that Wilson suffered from dyslexia, see Weinstein, Medical and Psychological Biography.
18. Jessie W. Wilson to WW, Feb. 6, 1877, PWW, vol. 1; David Bryant, quoted in William Allen White, Woodrow Wilson: The Man, His Times, and His Task (Boston, 1924).
19. WW speech, May 29, 1914, PWW, vol. 30; CTG, interviews by RSB, Feb. 18–19, 1926, RSBP, box 109.
20. WW to James Edwin Webster, July 23, 1878, PWW, vol. 1. On the work with his father in denominational meetings, see Mulder, Years of Preparation.
21. WW speech, Dec. 27, 1907, PWW, vol. 17; Joseph R. Wilson to WW, Mar. 27, 1877; Nov. 5, 1877, PWW, vol. 1; unnamed niece quoted in Margaret Axson Elliott, My Aunt Louisa and Woodrow Wilson (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944). See also CTG, interviews by RSB, Feb. 18–19, 1926, RSBP, box 109.
22. The best account of this incident is in Mulder, Years of Preparation.
23. WW notebook, Apr. 5, 1874, PWW, vol. 1.
24. Douglas McKay to WW, June 25, 1875, PWW, vol. 6. Jessie Bones Brower to RSB, May 9, 1926, RSBP, box 102. The historian who has studied Wilson’s early life most closely has argued that Joseph Wilson did want his son to follow him into the ministry and that Tommy showed some interest, attending lectures at the seminary. See Mulder, Years of Preparation.
25. WW to RB, Aug. 22, 1881, PWW, vol. 2; WW confidential journal, entry for Dec. 28, 1889, PWW, vol. 6.
26. On Wilson’s lack of a southern accent by the time he went to college, see responses to questionnaires sent to his Princeton classmates by Henry W. Bragdon in the late 1930s and early 1940s, HWBC. On Wilson’s use of a broad a, see WW, The Priceless Gift: The Love Letters of Woodrow Wilson and Ellen Axson Wilson, ed. Eleanor Wilson McAdoo (New York, 1962). On his effort to wean Ellen from her southern accent, see WW to EA, Feb. 17, 1885, PWW, vol. 4.
27. Robert H. McCarter, interview by HWB, July 14, 1940, HWBC; WW speech, Jan. 19, 1909, PWW, vol. 18.
28. WW quoted in Edith Gittings Reid, Woodrow Wilson: The Caricature, the Myth and the Man (New York, 1934). The only biographer who interviewed any of the family’s African American servants was William Allen White, who wrote a brief and fundamentally hostile book about Wilson (The Man, His Times, and His Task). It is odd that Ray Stannard Baker, who was assiduous in seeking material about Wilson’s early life, did not seem to have sought out any of the family’s black servants. It is doubly odd because Baker was one of the few white journalists of the time who was interested in race relations. In 1907, he wrote a series of magazine articles that was published as Following the Color Line: An Account of Negro Citizenship in the American Democracy(Garden City, N.Y., 1908).
29. WW to Andrew J. Graham, [ca. Apr. 24], 1875, PWW, vol. 1. Mulder views Wilson’s year at Davidson as a time of spiritual and vocational turmoil for him and speculates about his ill health. See Mulder, Years of Preparation. I do not agree with that interpretation.
30. On the founding and early history of Princeton, see Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, Princeton, 1746–1896 (Princeton, N.J., 1946).
31. On McCosh and his presidency of Princeton, see J. David Hoeveler, Jr., James McCosh and the Scottish Intellectual Tradition: From Glasgow to Princeton (Princeton, N.J., 1981).
32. Robert H. McCarter, interview by HWB, July 15, 1940, HWBC; RB, Woodrow Wilson (Princeton, N.J., 1931).
33. WW shorthand diary, entries for June 12, 1876; Oct. 27, 1876, PWW, vol. 1; WW, quoted in SA, Brother Woodrow: A Memoir of Woodrow Wilson (Princeton, N.J., 1993). For a similar version of the “mind” discovery, see CTG, interviews by RSB, Feb. 18–19, 1926, RSBP, box 109.
34. WW shorthand diary, entry for June 9, 1876, PWW, vol. 1.
35. Jessie Wilson Sayre, interview by RSB, Dec. 1, 1925, RSBP, box 121; WW to EA, Oct. 11, 1883, PWW, vol. 2.
36. WW shorthand diary, entry for July 4, 1876, PWW, vol. 1.
37. WW to Albert Bushnell Hart, June 3, 1889, PWW, vol. 6.
38. “W” [WW] to Princetonian, Jan. 25, 1877, PWW, vol. 1. About the Witherspoon Gang, Wilson later said, “He [Bridges] and Charlie Talcott and Hiram Woods were the real friends whom college life gave me for an inspiring possession; and if I keep any friends, I shall, before all others keep them.” WW to EA, Nov. 20, 1884, PWW, vol. 3.
39. Robert H. McCarter, interview by HWB, July 15, 1940, HWBC; Princetonian editorials, Jan. 30, 1879; Feb. 6 and 27, 1879, PWW, vol. 1, 461. Also, in contrast to his successor, Fine, Wilson had nothing to say about the place of science in the curriculum. See the cited editorials.
40. “Junius” [WW], “Some Thoughts on the Present State of Public Affairs,“PWW, vol. 1.
41. William F. Magie, interview by HWB, June 12, 1940, HWBC. For speculation on why Wilson was not elected to a class officership, see HWB, Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years (Cambridge, Mass., 1967). See also Editorial Note, “Wilson’s Refusal to Enter the Lynde Competition,” PWW, vol. 1.
42. WW draft to William M. Sloane, [ca. Dec. 5, 1883], PWW, vol. 2.
43. WW, “Cabinet Government in the United States,” PWW, vol. 1.
44. WW, “Cabinet Government,” PWW, vol. 1.
45. On the composition and its influences, see Editorial Note, “‘Cabinet Government in the United States,’” PWW, vol. 1.
46. WW to EA, Oct. 30, 1883, PWW, vol. 2; RB, Wilson. In 1913, when the two men met shortly after Wilson’s inauguration as president, Wilson told Lodge, “Senator, … a man never forgets the first editor who accepts one of his articles. You were the first editor who accepted an article written by me.” HCL, The Senate and the League of Nations (New York, 1925).
47. WW to EA, Oct. 30, 1883, PWW, vol. 2.
2 WOODROW
1. Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time, vol. 1, Jefferson the Virginian (Boston, 1948) WW to RB, Nov. 7, 1879, PWW, vol. 1.
2. WW, “Self Government in France,” [ca. Sept. 4, 1879], PWW, vol. 1; WW, “Congressional Government,” [ca. Oct. 1, 1879], PWW, vol. 1.
3. WW, “John Bright,” PWW, vol. 1.
4. William Cabell Bruce, Recollections (Baltimore, 1936); WW to EA, May 14, 1885, PWW, vol. 4.
5. Jefferson Society debate, Apr. 2, 1880, PWW, vol. 1; Braxton Gibson, recollection to HWB, ca. Dec. 1941, HWBC.
6. Richard Heath Dabney, interview by HWB, Mar. 22, 1941, HWBC; Samuel B. Woods to HWB, Jan. 15, 1942, HWBC; WW to Cordell Hull, Sept. 12, 1922, PWW, vol. 68.
7. WW to Charles Talcott, Dec. 31, 1879, PWW, vol. 1; WW to RB, Feb. 15, 1880, PWW, vol. 1; Joseph R. Wilson to WW, Dec. 22, 1879, PWW, vol. 1.
8. Harriet Woodrow Welles to RSB, Sept. 28, 1925, RSBP, box 124.
9. WW to RB, Jan. 1, 1881, PWW, vol. 2; WW, “Stray Thoughts from the South,” PWW, vol. 2. See also Editorial Note, “Wilson’s Withdrawal from the University of Virginia,” PWW, vol. 2.
10. WW to Harriet Woodrow, Jan. 15, 1881; Apr. 22, 1881; May 10, 1881, PWW, vol. 2.
11. WW to Harriet Woodrow, [Sept. 25, 1881], PWW, vol. 2; WW to EA, Oct. 11, 1883, PWW, vol. 2; on the incident in Chillicothe, see also Editorial Note, “Wilson’s Proposal to Hattie Woodrow,” PWW, vol. 2.
12. WW to RB, Mar. 15, 1882, PWW, vol. 2. Wilson and Hattie later became friends again. In 1894, on his first trip to the West, he visited her and her husband, Eddie Welles, at their home in Colorado. In 1913 and 1917, Harriet Woodrow Welles attended Wilson’s presidential inaugurations, and she visited him and his family in the White House several times. Many years later, after Wilson’s and Welles’s deaths, one of her grandsons married one of his granddaughters. See Helen Welles Thackwell, “Woodrow Wilson and My Mother,” Princeton University Library Chronicle, Autumn 1950.
13. WW, “Government by Debate,” PWW, vol. 2. See also Editorial Note, “‘Government by Debate,’” PWW, vol. 2.
14. WW to editor, International Review, [ca. Apr. 30, 1881], PWW, vol. 2.
15. WW to RB, Oct. 28, 1882, PWW, vol. 2.
16. WW testimony, Sept. 23, 1882, PWW, vol. 2; New York World, Sept. 24, 1882.
17. Joseph R. Wilson to WW, Aug. 14 and 20, 1882, PWW, vol. 2; WW to RB, Oct. 28, 1882, PWW, vol. 2; WW to Hiram Woods, May 9 [10], 1883, PWW, vol. 2; WW to Richard Heath Dabney, May 11, 1883, PWW, vol. 2.
18. WW to RB, May 12, 1883, PWW, vol. 2; WW to EA, Oct. 30, 1883, PWW, vol. 2.
19. WW to EA, Oct. 30, 1883, PWW, vol. 2; WW to RB, Feb. 24, 1881, PWW, vol. 2.
20. Joseph R. Wilson to WW, Feb. 14, 1883, PWW, vol. 2; James Woodrow to Jessie Woodrow Wilson, Mar. 13, 1883, PWW, vol. 2.
21. On this typewriter, see Editorial Note, “Wilson and His Caligraph,” PWW, vol. 2. The editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson speculate that Wilson purchased this model rather than its rival, the Remington 2, which was simpler and faster, because it cost $40 less.
22. WW to EA, Oct. 11, 1883, PWW, vol. 2. See also Editorial Note, “Wilson’s Introduction to Ellen Axson,” PWW, vol. 2, and Frances Wright Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson: First Lady between Two Worlds (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985).
23. WW to EA, Oct. 11, 18, and 23, 1883, PWW, vol. 2, 481, 485. See also Editorial Note, “Wilson’s Early Courtship of Ellen Axson,” PWW, vol. 2, and Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
24. EA to WW, Nov. 5, 1883, PWW, vol. 2; Rosalie Anderson to Ellen Axson, July 5, 1877, WWP, microfilm ed., reel 4. On her “man-hater” reputation, see Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
25. Rosalie Anderson to EAW, June 29, 1877, WWP, microfilm ed., reel 4. On the Axson family and Ellen Axson’s early years, see Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
26. On Axson’s mother’s death and her father’s depression, see Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
27. WW to EA, July 16, 1883, PWW, vol. 2; WW to RB, July 26, 1883, PWW, vol. 2.
28. EA to WW, Sept. 21, 1883, PWW, vol. 2. On this encounter, see Editorial Note, “The Engagement,” PWW, vol. 2, and Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
29. WW to EA, Nov. 27, 1883, PWW, vol. 2. On the founding and early years of Johns Hopkins, see Hugh Hawkins, Pioneer: A History of the Johns Hopkins University, 1874–1889 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1960), esp.
30. WW to EA, Oct. 30, 1883, PWW, vol. 2; minutes of the seminary of history and political science, Apr. 18, 1884, PWW, vol. 2. Taking the opposing side was John Dewey, who cited statistics to show that illiteracy was rising in the South. Long afterward, the dry, understated Dewey could still recall Wilson’s “vigorous attack” on the bill, “not exactly on old southern states rights lines, but against anything looking toward ‘encroachment.’” John Dewey to HWB, July 14, 1941, HWBC.
31. WW to EA, Oct. 16 and 30, 1883, PWW, vol. 2.
32. WW to EA, Nov. 27, 1883; Jan. 1, 1884, PWW, vol. 2.
33. WW to EA, Sept. 18, 1883, PWW, vol. 2; EA to WW, Sept. 21 and 25, 1883; June 21, 1885, PWW, vol. 2; vol. 4. Their youngest daughter later published a collection of these letters. See WW, The Priceless Gift: The Love Letters of Woodrow Wilson and Ellen Axson Wilson, ed. Eleanor Wilson McAdoo (New York, 1962).
34. WW to EA, Oct. 30, 1883, PWW, vol. 2.
35. WW to EA, Oct. 16, 1883; Jan. 1, 1884, PWW, vol. 2. On the beginning of the new book, see Editorial Note, “Congressional Government,” PWW, vol. 4.
36. For the writing of this book, see the chronology provided in Editorial Note, “Congressional Government,” PWW, vol. 4.
37. WW to EA, Nov. 28, 1884, PWW, vol. 3; EA to WW, Jan. 24, 1884 [1885], PWW, vol. 4.
38. WW to RB, Nov. 19, 1884, PWW, vol. 3; WW, Congressional Government, PWW, vol. 4, 17, 40. The entire book is reprinted in PWW, vol. 4. The original edition runs to 333 pages.
39. WW, Congressional Government, PWW, vol. 4, 111, 114.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. Gamaliel Bradford review, [Feb. 12, 1885], PWW, vol. 4. For other reviews, see PWW, vol. 4. On later criticisms, see HWB, Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years (Cambridge, Mass., 1967).
43. A. Lawrence Lowell, interview by HWB, May 23, 1939, HWBC; WW, “Responsible Government and Constitutionalism,” PWW, vol. 5.
44. Lowell, interview by HWB, May 23, 1939, HWBC; WW to EA, Feb. 24, 1885, PWW, vol. 4.
45. WW to EA, Feb. 13, 1885, PWW, vol. 4. Wilson’s friend and faculty colleague Winthrop Daniels made a similar observation. See Winthrop M. Daniels memoir, summer 1924, RSBP, box 105.
46. WW to EA, May 17, 1884, PWW, vol. 3; Joseph R. Wilson to WW, May 17, 1884, PWW, vol. 3. On Edward Axson’s condition, see Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
47. WW to EA, May 1, 1884, PWW, vol. 3; EA to WW, June 5, 1884, PWW, vol. 3; SA, Brother Woodrow: A Memoir of Woodrow Wilson (Princeton, N.J., 1993).
48. SA to RSB, RSBP, box 100; WW to EA, June 29, 1884, PWW, vol. 3.
49. WW to EA, Mar. 27, 1885, PWW, vol. 4; EA to WW, Mar. 28, 1885, PWW, vol. 4.
50. WW to EA, Nov. 8, 1884, PWW, vol. 3. On the collaboration with Richard Ely, see Editorial Note, “Wilson’s Research for a ‘History of Political Economy in the United States,’” PWW, vol. 3, and Editorial Note, “Wilson’s ‘History of Political Economy in the United States,’” PWW, vol. 4. Wilson’s section is reproduced in PWW, vol. 4.
51. EA to WW, Nov. 28, 1884, PWW, vol. 3; WW to EA, Dec. 1, 1884, PWW, vol. 3.
52. WW to EA, Nov. 9, 1884; Mar. 3 and 14, 1885, PWW, vol. 3; vol. 4.
53. WW to EA, Mar. 21, 1885, PWW, vol. 4.
54. For descriptions of the wedding, see Savannah Morning News, June 25, 1885, PWW, vol. 4, and Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
3 PROFESSOR
1. On the founding of Bryn Mawr, see Edith Finch, Carey Thomas of Bryn Mawr (New York, 1947); Cornelia Meigs, What Makes a College? A History of Bryn Mawr (New York, 1956), esp.; and Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, The Power and Passion of M. Carey Thomas (New York, 1994), 163–65, 183–91.
2. Mary Tremain to RSB, Jan. 26, 1926, RSBP, box 116; Effie S. Spalding to Satie Leslie, Jan. 10, 1926, RSBP, box 115; Helen A. Scribner to RSB, Mar. 13, 1926, RSBP, box 115; WW to RB, Nov. 30, 1887, PWW, vol. 5; WW to Richard Heath Dabney, Jan. 25, 1887, PWW, vol. 5; WW journal, entry for Oct. 20, 1887, PWW, vol. 5.
3. WW to Charles Talcott, Nov. 14, 1886, PWW, vol. 5; Lucy Maynard Salmon to RSB, Jan. 6 and 15, 1925, RSBP, box 121.
4. For the story of Wilson’s shaving his mustache, see SA, Brother Woodrow: A Memoir of Woodrow Wilson (Princeton, N.J., 1993). On the births of the first two Wilson daughters and the family’s domestic arrangements, see Frances Wright Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson: First Lady between Two Worlds (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985).
5. WW to EAW, May 29, 1886, PWW, vol. 5; WW talk, Mar. 23, 1886, PWW, vol. 5. See also Editorial Note, “Wilson’s ‘First Failure’ at Public Speaking,” PWW, vol. 5.
6. WW journal, entry for Oct. 20, 1887, PWW, vol. 5. Wilson was not the only person at Bryn Mawr who entertained such thoughts. At the time of his appointment, Dean Martha Carey Thomas had rejected the idea of hiring a woman to teach history and political science, sneering, “How can a political zero teach politics, an ineligible statesman, statecraft?” Quoted in Horowitz, Power and Passion.
7. WW to James Bryce, Mar. 6, 1888, PWW, vol. 5; WW to RB, Nov. 5, 1887, PWW, vol. 5.
8. WW to James E. Rhoads, June 7, 1888, PWW, vol. 5; WW to RB, Aug. 26, 1888, PWW, vol. 5.
9. WW, “The Study of Administration,” [ca. Nov. 1, 1886], PWW, vol. 5.
10. WW notes, [ca. Dec. 1–20, 1885], PWW, vol. 5; WW, “The Modern Democratic State,” [ca. Dec. 1–20, 1885], PWW, vol. 5; WW to Horace Scudder, May 12, 1886, PWW, vol. 5.
11. WW to Hiram Woods, Sept. 16, 1886, PWW, vol. 9; WW to EA, Mar. 12, 1885, PWW, vol. 4.
12. WW, “Socialism and Democracy,” [ca. Aug. 22, 1887], PWW, vol. 5; WW, “The Functions of Government,” [ca. Feb. 17, 1888], PWW, vol. 5.
13. Ibid.
14. C. F. Price, quoted in RSB, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, vol. 1, Youth, 1856–1890 (Garden City, N.Y., 1927); H. Monmouth Smith to HWB, Mar. 1941, HWBC.
15. WW to Horace Scudder, Mar. 31, 1889, PWW, vol. 8.
16. RB to WW, Nov. 5, 1889, PWW, vol. 6.
17. Frances Landey Patton to WW, Feb. 18, 1890, PWW, vol. 6; WW to Albert Shaw, May 5, 1890, PWW, vol. 6.
18. WW, “Bryce’s American Commonwealth,” PWW, vol. 6.
19. WW to Munroe Smith, Jan. 7, 1889, PWW, vol. 6; WW, “Bryce’s American Commonwealth,” PWW, vol. 6.
20. WW, The State (Boston, 1889), in PWW, vol. 6 (this volume of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson reprints only some of the chapters, not the entire book). One high estimate of The State came from Edward S. Corwin. See Corwin, “Departmental Colleague,” inWoodrow Wilson: Some Princeton Memories, ed. William Starr Myers (Princeton, N.J., 1946). The lead editor of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, Arthur S. Link, also told me on several occasions that he considered The State Wilson’s best work.
21. WW, “Leaders of Men,” [June 17, 1890], PWW, vol. 6.
22. WW speech, Jan. 30, 1891, PWW, vol. 7; Alfred P. Dennis, Gods and Little Fishes (Indianapolis, 1931); Robert McNutt McElroy, interview by HWB, Nov. 20, 1940, HWBC.
23. Ernest Poole, The Bridge: My Own Story (New York, 1940); Booth Tarkington, interview by HWB, Nov. 27, 1940, HWBC; Baltimore Sun, Feb. 2, 1894, PWW, vol. 8.
24. WW, “University Training and Citizenship,” PWW, vol. 7.
25. WW to Albert Shaw, July 14, 1891, PWW, vol. 7; WW to Patton, Mar. 28, 1897, PWW, vol. 10.
26. WW to Shaw, Nov. 3, 1890, PWW, vol. 7; WW speech at Chicago, July 26, 1893, PWW, vol. 7.
27. EAW to WW, June 22, 1892, PWW, vol. 8.
28. WW to Charles W. Kent, Apr. 22, 1898, PWW, vol. 10; Francis Landey Patton to Cyrus McCormick, Apr. 4, 1898, PWW, vol. 10.
29. WW to EAW, Mar. 10, 1892; Feb. 12, 1898, PWW, vol. 7; vol. 10.
30. SA, interviews by RSB, Feb. 8–11, 1925; Mar. 12, 1925, RSBP, box 99; Bliss Perry, And Gladly Teach: Reminiscences (Boston, 1935).
31. Jessie Wilson Sayre, interview by RSB, Dec. 1, 1925, RSBP, box 115; SA and George Howe, interviews by RSB, Feb. 8–11, 1925, RSBP, box 99.
32. On the Wilson daughters, see Eleanor Wilson McAdoo, The Woodrow Wilsons (New York, 1937), esp. and Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson, esp. For the game of tag in the White House, see SA, interviews by RSB, Feb. 8–11, 1925, RSBP, box 99.
33. Margaret Axson Elliott, My Aunt Louisa and Woodrow Wilson (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944). On the circle of friends.
34. EAW to Anna Harris, June 1, 1895, PWW, vol. 9.
35. EAW to Frederick Jackson Turner, Dec. 15, 1896, PWW, vol. 10.
36. For speculation about a stroke, see PWW, vol. 9, n. 2, and Edwin A. Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography (Princeton, N.J., 1981).
37. WW, “Princeton in the Nation’s Service,” PWW, vol. 10. The entire address is.
38. EAW to Mary Hoyt, Oct. 27, 1896, PWW, vol. 10. For descriptions of the event and Wilson’s speech, see New York Tribune, Oct. 22, 1896, PWW, vol. 10, and Horace Elisha Scudder diary, entry for Oct. 21, 1896, PWW, vol. 10. On the disappointment of the Princeton presidential aspirant, see George McLean Harper, “A Happy Family,” in Myers, Princeton Memories.
39. WW to Albert Shaw, July 18, 1893, PWW, vol. 8; WW to EAW, Aug. 3, 1896, PWW, vol. 9.
40. WW to Caleb Winchester, May 13, 1893, PWW, vol. 8; WW, “Edmund Burke: The Man and His Times,” [ca. Aug 31, 1893], PWW, vol. 8.
41. WW, “A Calendar of Great Americans,” Feb. 1894, PWW, vol. 8; WW, “Mere Literature,” [Dec. 1893], PWW, vol. 8. See also Editorial Note, “‘Mere Literature,’” PWW, vol. 8.
42. WW to EAW, Jan. 24, 1894, PWW, vol. 9; WW to Albert Shaw, Feb. 28, 1893, PWW, vol. 8.
43. WW to EAW, Mar. 15, 1900, PWW, vol. 11; WW speech, Oct. 13, 1899, PWW, vol. 11; EAW to WW, [July 13, 1902], PWW, vol. 14.
44. SA, “Mr. Wilson As Seen by One of His Family Circle,” [ca. 1916], RSBP, box 99; SA, interviews by RSB, Feb. 8–11, 1925; Mar. 12, 1925, RSBP, box 99.
45. WW, “Leaderless Government,” Aug. 5, 1987, PWW, vol. 10; Bliss Perry, interview by RSB, Nov. 12, 1925, RSBP, box 119; SA comments on manuscript of RSB biography of WW, Sept. 1931, RSBP, box 100; Chicago Inter-Ocean, Jan. 14, 1899, PWW, vol. 11.
46. WW, Introduction, Aug. 15, 1900, PWW, vol. 11; WW, “Democracy and Efficiency,” [Mar. 1901], PWW, vol. 12. On the Wilsons’ fondness for Kipling, see EAW to WW, Feb. 11, 1897, PWW, vol. 10, and WW to EAW, Feb. 14, 1897, PWW, vol. 10.
47. WW to EAW, Feb. 4 and 17, 1898, PWW, vol. 10, 399.
48. WW to RB, Jan. 12, 1900, PWW, vol. 11; Edward S. Corwin, interview by HWB, June 6, 1939, HWBC, box 1.
49. WW to Frederick Jackson Turner, Jan. 21, 1902, PWW, vol. 12.
50. John Hibben to WW, July 20, 1899, PWW, vol. 11; WW to EAW, July 31, 1899; Mar. 8, 1900, PWW, vol. 11.
51. Samuel B. Dod to WW, June 25, 1902, PWW, vol. 12.
52. Annie B. Perry to EAW, June 10, 1902, PWW, vol. 12; EAW to Florence Hoyt, June 28, 1902, PWW, vol. 12; WW speech, June 11, 1902, PWW, vol. 12.
4 BOLD LEADER
1. TR to Cleveland H. Dodge, June 16, 1902, in TR, Letters, ed. Elting E. Morison, vol. 3, The Square Deal, 1901–1905 (Cambridge, Mass., 1951). For a description of the inaugural ceremony, see PWW, vol. 14.
2. WW, “The Making of a Nation,” [July 1897], PWW, vol. 10; Jessie Wilson Sayre, interview by RSB, Dec. 1, 1925, RSBP, box 121; Jessie Wilson Sayre to RSB, [Apr. 25, 1927], RSBP, box 121. The female representatives in the procession were the president of Mount Holyoke, the dean of Radcliffe, and a professor from Wellesley. Neither President M. Carey Thomas nor anyone else from Bryn Mawr was present. Examination of records at Princeton and Bryn Mawr does not reveal whether Thomas received an invitation, but it seems likely that she did.
3. WW, “Princeton for the Nation’s Service,” PWW, vol. 14.
4. On George Harvey’s spotting Wilson as a presidential possibility, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, The Road to the White House (Princeton, N.J., 1947).
5. WW to EAW, July 19, 1902, PWW, vol. 14; SA, “The Princeton Controversy,” [Feb. 1925], RSBP, box 99.
6. SA, “The Princeton Controversy.”
7. WW, Report to the Board of Trustees, Oct. 21, 1902, PWW, vol. 14.
8. Ibid..
9. WW draft to Benjamin F. Jones, Jr., [Mar. 30, 1904], PWW, vol. 15.
10. Mary W. Hoyt memoir, Oct. 1926, RSBP, box 111; WW to Peyton Harrison Hoge, Jan. 31, 1903, PWW, vol. 14; WW to TR, Feb. 1, 1903, PWW, vol. 14.
11. Henry B. Fine, interview by RSB, June 18, 1925, RSBP, box 108. On Wilson as a recruiter, see Edward Grant Conklin, “As a Scientist Saw Him,” in Woodrow Wilson: Some Princeton Memories, ed. William Starr Myers (Princeton, N.J., 1946), and Robert K. Root, “Wilson and the Preceptors,” in Myers, Princeton Memories.
12. Bliss Perry, And Gladly Teach: Reminiscences (Boston, 1935).
13. The Catholic was David McCabe, in Wilson’s own department, Politics, and the Jew was Horace M. Kallen, in English.
14. WW, Report to the Board of Trustees, Dec. 10, 1903, PWW, vol. 15.
15. WW to Edward Graham Elliott, July 15, 1902, PWW, vol. 14. On his befriending Fosdick, see Raymond B. Fosdick, Chronicle of a Generation: An Autobiography (New York, 1958).
16. On the changes at Princeton, see SA, “The Princeton Controversy;” Hardin Craig, Woodrow Wilson at Princeton (Norman, Okla., 1960), 39–41; and HWB, Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), 272–74.
17. Mary W. Hoyt memoir, Oct. 1926, RSBP, box 111.
18. WW, “Statement of the Tutorial System,” [ca. Feb. 18, 1905], PWW, vol. 16; WW, “The Princeton Preceptorial System,” [ca. June 1, 1905], PWW, vol. 16. On the use of the term preceptor, see PWW, vol. 16, n. 1 and 2.
19. Charles H. McIlwain, interview by HWB, Jan. 2, 1940, HWBC; Norman S. Mackie, interviews by HWB, Feb. 21–22, [1940?], HWBC. On the first group of preceptors, see WW reports to trustees, [ca. June 12], 1905; [ca. Oct. 21], 1905; Dec. 14, 1905,PWW, vol. 16, 198, 249–59.
20. WW speech at Morristown, N.J., Feb. 23, 1903, PWW, vol. 14; WW speech at Chicago, Nov. 22, 1902, PWW, vol. 14; Roland S. Morris, interviews by RSB, Mar. 7–8, 1926, RSBP, box 117; WW to John Rogers Williams, Sept. 2, 1904, PWW, vol. 15. No African American would receive an undergraduate degree from Princeton until 1947.
21. On the death of Edward Axson and his family and its impact on Ellen Wilson, see Frances Wright Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson: First Lady Between Two Worlds (Chapel Hill, N.C. 1985).
22. Margaret Axson Elliott, My Aunt Louisa and Woodrow Wilson (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944); J. Duncan Spaeth, “Wilson As I Knew Him and View Him Now,” in Myers, Princeton Memories.
23. Henry B. Fine, quoted in Elliott, My Aunt Louisa. On Wilson’s losing the sight in his left eye, see Editorial Note, PWW, vol. 16, n. 1, and Edwin A. Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography (Princeton, N.J., 1981).
24. EAW to Florence Hoyt, June 27, [1906], PWW, vol. 16; WW to EAW, Sept. 2, 1906, PWW, vol. 16.
25. Andrew West, “A Narrative of the Graduate College of Princeton University from Its Proposal in 1896 until Its Dedication in 1915,” Princeton University Archives, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University. That MIT offered its presidency to West, who had even less interest in or acquaintance with science than Wilson, seemed odd at the time and has remained a mystery ever since. According to one story, the delegation from MIT intended to make the offer to Fine, who would have been a natural choice and was subsequently offered the job, but they called at the wrong dean’s office and mistakenly delivered the offer to West. For the story of the mistaken offer, see Winthrop M. Daniels, interview by HWB, Mar. 30, 1940, HWBC; Jacob Beam, interview by HWB, May 3, 1941, HWBC.
26. WW, supplementary report to Princeton University trustees, [ca. Dec. 13, 1906], PWW, vol. 16.
27. Harry A. Garfield, interview by HWB, Feb. 14, 1940, HWBC; WW report to the Graduate School Committee, [ca. May 30, 1907], PWW, vol. 16.
28. WW, “Report on the Social Coordination of the University,” [ca. June 6], 1907, PWW, vol. 17; WW address to Princeton University trustees, June 10, 1907, PWW, vol. 17.
29. WW speech at Harvard University, June 26, 1907, PWW, vol. 17.
30. George Harvey speech, [Feb. 3, 1906], PWW, vol. 16; WW to St. Clair McKelway, Mar. 11, 1906, PWW, vol. 16.
31. WW speech at Cleveland, May 19, 1906, PWW, vol. 16; WW speech to the South Carolina Society of New York, Mar. 18, 1907, PWW, vol. 17.
32. WW to Adrian H. Joline, Apr. 29, 1907, PWW, vol. 17. On Wilson’s Senate candidacy, see PWW, vol. 17, n. 1.
33. Andrew West to WW, July 10, 1907, PWW, vol. 17; Henry van Dyke, “The ‘Residential Quad’ Idea at Princeton,” Princeton Alumni Weekly, Sept. 25, 1907, PWW, vol. 17.
34. WW to John Hibben, July 10, 1907, PWW, vol. 17; WW to Cleveland Dodge, July 1, 1907, PWW, vol. 17.
35. Elliott, My Aunt Louise and Woodrow Wilson. See also SA, “The Princeton Controversy;” Jessie Wilson Sayre, interview by RSB, Dec. 1, 1925, RSBP, box 121; Hibben, interviews by RSB, June 18, 1925; Oct. 27, 1926, RSBP, box 111; Charles H. McIlwain, interview by HWB, Jan. 2, 1940, HWBC; William Magie, interview by HWB, June 13, 1939, HWBC; Ralph Barton Perry, interview by HWB, May 29, 1945, HWBC.
36. WW to MAHP, Feb. 12, 1911, PWW, vol. 22; Margaret Wilson, quoted in Edith Gittings Reid, Woodrow Wilson: The Caricature, the Myth and the Man (New York, 1934).
37. William Starr Myers diary, entry for Sept. 30, [1907], PWW, vol. 17. For the vote, see faculty minutes, Sept. 30, 1907, PWW, vol. 17.
38. David B. Jones to WW, Mar. 15, 1904, PWW, vol. 14.
39. Henry B. Fine, interview by RSB, June 18, 1925, RSBP, box 108; WW draft statement, [ca. Oct. 4, 1907], PWW, vol. 17. See also trustees’ minutes, Oct. 17, 1907, PWW, vol. 17.
40. WW shorthand draft, [Oct. 17, 1907], PWW, vol. 17; WW to Melancthon William Jacobus, Oct. 23, 1907, PWW, vol. 17; New York Evening Sun, Oct. 18 and 23, 1907, PWW, vol. 17; WW talk, [Oct. 24, 1907], PWW, vol. 17.
41. Moses Pyne to WW, Dec. 24, 1907, PWW, vol. 18.
42. WW, Constitutional Government in the United States, PWW, vol. 18. The entire volume is reprinted.
43. WW, Constitutional Government, PWW, vol. 17.
44. Ibid., 132, 141, 158, 162.
45. Ibid.
46. WW speech, Nov. 12, 1907, PWW, vol. 18; Jessie Wilson Sayre, interview by RSB, Dec. 1, 1925, RSBP, box 121; WW, “A Credo,” Aug. 6, 1907, PWW, vol. 18.
47. This was not the first recurrence of the condition: during the summer of 1904, Wilson had complained of a weakness in his right hand that hampered his writing. The 1904 and 1907 incidents, like the first one, may have been the result of small strokes caused by arteriosclerosis, but the length of time between the incidents and the fact that they affected Wilson’s right side whereas the hemorrhage affected his left eye have raised questions about the exact nature of his condition. For speculation on the cause of these incidents, see PWW, vol. 17, n. 1, and Weinstein, Medical and Psychological Biography, 179.
48. WW to MAHP, Feb. 6, 1907; Mar. 27, 1907, PWW, vol. 17; Florence Hoyt interview by RSB, Oct. 1926, RSBP, box 121.
49. WW shorthand note, [ca. Feb. 1, 1908], PWW, vol. 17; WW to MAHP, Sept. 26, 1909, PWW, vol. 17.
50. WW to EAW, June 26, 1908, PWW, vol. 18; TR, quoted in William Allen White essay [1924], William Allen White Papers, series E, box 1, LC.
51. WW to EAW, July 20, 1908, PWW, vol. 18. The editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson observe that the first quoted sentence probably refers to Mrs. Peck. See PWW, vol. 18, n. 8.
52. CTG, quoted in Breckinridge Long diary, entry for Jan. 11, 1924, PWW, vol. 68.
53. WW shorthand draft, [ca. Sept. 20, 1915], PWW, vol. 34; WW to EBG, Sept. 21, 1915, PWW, vol. 34.
54. WW speech, Mar. 12, 1908, PWW, vol. 18.
5 ACADEMIC CIVIL WAR
1. SA, “The Princeton Controversy,” [Feb. 1925], RSBP, box 99; EAW to John Hibben, Feb. 10, 1912, PWW, vol. 24.
2. Frederick W. Yates to EAW, Sept 1, 1908, PWW, vol. 24.
3. Charles Grosvenor Osgood, interview by HWB, Apr. 12, 1939, HWBC.
4. WW, preface to The Proposed Graduate College of Princeton University, Feb. 17, 1903, PWW, vol. 14.
5. For descriptions of Merwick, see Raymond B. Fosdick, Chronicle of a Generation: An Autobiography (New York, 1958), and Maxwell Struthers Burt, “Life at Merwick,” Princeton Alumni Weekly, May 8, 1907.
6. SA, “The Princeton Controversy.”
7. Harlow Shapley, interview by HWB, Mar. 6, 1967, HWBC.
8. Cleveland quoted in Andrew West, “A Narrative of the Graduate College of Princeton University from Its Proposal to Its Dedication in 1915,” Princeton University Archives, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University.
9. WW speech, Oct. 16, 1908, PWW, vol. 18; WW speech, Nov. 6, 1908, PWW, vol. 18.
10. WW speeches, Apr. 3 and 13, 1908, PWW, vol. 18. On the faculty debate, see William Starr Myers diary, entry for May 8, [1908], PWW, vol. 18. The preceptor who rebutted Wilson’s arguments was Edward S. Corwin. See Corwin, “Departmental Colleague,” in Woodrow Wilson: Some Princeton Memories, ed. William Starr Myers (Princeton, N.J., 1946).
11. WW speech, Nov. 16, 1907, PWW, vol. 17.
12. WW to MAHP, Nov. 2, 1908, PWW, vol. 18.
13. For examples supporting the interpretation that Wilson’s turn toward progressivism was reflected in his struggles at Princeton, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, The Road to the White House (Princeton, N.J., 1947), and John M. Mulder, Woodrow Wilson: The Years of Preparation (Princeton, N.J., 1978).
14. WW, Constitutional Government in the United States, PWW, vol. 18.
15. WW speeches, Feb. 12 and 19, 1909; Nov. 2, 1909, PWW, vol. 19.
16. WW speech, Oct. 8, 1908, PWW, vol. 18; WW speeches, May 6, 1909; Oct. 29, 1909, PWW, vol. 19; WW, “The Tariff Make-Believe,” PWW, vol. 19.
17. Mary Yates diary, entry for July 31, [1908], PWW, vol. 18, Daily Princetonian, Apr. 3, 1909, PWW, vol. 19; WW memorandum, ca. Dec. 3, 1909, PWW, vol. 18.
18. On the digestive problems see Edwin A. Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography (Princeton, N.J., 1981).
19. WW speech, Mar. 20, 1909, PWW, vol. 19.
20. WW to Frank A. Vanderlip, Feb. 1, 1909, PWW, vol. 19; WW to MAHP, July 18, 1909, PWW, vol. 19.
21. WW speech, Mar. 11, 1910, PWW, vol. 20. On the Procter offer, see also William Cooper Procter to Andrew West, May 8, 1909; June 7, 1909, PWW, vol. 19, 237–38. On Cram’s change of mind, see also Ralph Adams Cram, interview by HWB, May 8, 1940, HWBC.
22. WW to MAHP, Oct. 24, 1909, PWW, vol. 19.
23. WW to Moses Pyne, Dec. 22 and 25, 1909, PWW, vol. 19.
24. Pyne to William Cooper Procter, Jan. 15, 1910, PWW, vol. 19. The editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson have observed, “[T]here can be no doubt that Wilson’s statement that the site of the Graduate College was not important was one of the great strategic errors of his career.” Editorial Note, “Wilson at the Meeting of the Board of Trustees of January 13, 1910,” PWW, vol. 20. By contrast, Cyrus McCormick later recalled that this statement was “an illustrative comparison to clinch his point that the kind of organization adopted be in close sympathy between teacher and scholar was the main goal to be reached.” McCormick to William Allen White, William Allen White Papers, series E, box 83, LC.
25. Pyne to Wilson Farrand, Jan. 25, 1910, PWW, vol. 20; Procter to Pyne, Jan. 30, 1910, PWW, vol. 20.
26. WW to Herbert B. Brougham, Feb. 1, 1910, PWW, vol. 20; New York Times, Feb. 3, 1910, PWW, vol. 20. For Farrand’s account, see Princeton University Archives, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University. For the reactions of alumni and Pyne, see PWW, vol. 20, n. 1.
27. WW to Cleveland H. Dodge, Feb. 7, 1910, PWW, vol. 20.
28. WW to Melancthon William Jacobus, Apr. 2, 1910, PWW, vol. 20; WW speech, Apr. 7, 1910, PWW, vol. 20.
29. WW to MAHP, Apr. 19, 1910, PWW, vol. 20; Pittsburgh Dispatch, Apr. 17, 1910, PWW, vol. 20; Pittsburgh Gazette-Times, Apr. 17, 1910, PWW, vol. 20.
30. On the Wyman bequest, see Andrew West, “A Narrative of the Graduate College of Princeton University from Its Proposal in 1896 until Its Dedication in 1916,” Princeton University Archives, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University, 87–88, 105–7, and John F. Raymond to West and WW, May 22, 1910, PWW, vol. 20.
31. Margaret Axson Elliott, My Aunt Louisa and Woodrow Wilson (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944); Eleanor Wilson McAdoo, The Woodrow Wilsons (New York, 1937); West, “Narrative of the Graduate College,” WW to Hiram Woods, May 28, 1910, PWW, vol. 20.
32. WW to MAHP, June 5, 1910, PWW, vol. 20; SA, “The Princeton Controversy.”
33. For speculation about strokes’ affecting Wilson’s behavior, see HWB, Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), and Weinstein, Medical and Psychological Biography. The comparison between the Graduate College and the League of Nations arose early. In 1925, both Stockton Axson and a faculty supporter of Wilson’s drew the comparison privately. See SA, “The Princeton Controversy,” and George McLean Harper, interview by RSB, Nov. 12, 1925, RSBP, box 107.
34. WW speeches, May 25, 1911; Sept. 2, 1912, PWW, vol. 23; vol. 25; EMHD, entries for Dec. 12, 1913; Jan. 22, 1914, PWW, vol. 29, 163.
35. WW to MAHP, Oct. 8, 1911, PWW, vol. 23; EMHD, entry for Jan. 24, 1913, PWW, vol. 26.
36. Henry B. Fine, interview by RSB, June 18, 1925, RSBP, box 105. For a superb account and interpretation of the rise of Princeton to the top rank of universities, see James Axtell, The Making of Princeton University: From Woodrow Wilson to the Present(Princeton, N.J., 2006).
6 GOVERNOR
1. On Smith and his role in New Jersey politics, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, The Road to the White House (Princeton, N.J., 1947).
2. George Harvey quoted in Editorial Note, “Colonel Harvey’s Plan for Wilson’s Entry into Politics,” PWW, vol. 20.
3. WW statement, July 15, 1910, PWW, vol. 20. On the meeting with the party bosses, see Editorial Note, “The Lawyers’ Club Conference,” PWW, vol. 20.
4. WW to Edgar Williamson, Aug. 25, 1910, PWW, vol. 21; WW speech, Aug. 31, 1910, PWW, vol. 21.
5. Audience member’s remark, quoted in SA comments, n.d., on manuscript of RSB biography of WW, RSBP, box 100. For accounts of the convention by people who were there, see James Kerney, The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1926), and JPT, Woodrow Wilson As I Know Him (Garden City, N.Y., 1921).
6. WW speech, Sept. 15, 1910, PWW, vol. 21.
7. Dan Fellows Platt to WW, Sept. 19, 1910, PWW, vol. 21. See also JPT, Wilson As I Know Him.
8. Kerney, Political Education; Eleanor Wilson McAdoo, The Woodrow Wilsons (New York, 1937); WW, The Priceless Gift: The Love Letters of Woodrow Wilson and Ellen Axson Wilson, ed. Eleanor Wilson McAdoo (New York, 1962).
9. For the estimate of campaign spending, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
10. Philadelphia Record, Oct. 2, 1910, PWW, vol. 21; WW speech at Long Branch, Oct. 3, 1910, PWW, vol. 21.
11. Vivian Lewis speech, Sept. 20, 1910, quoted in PWW, vol. 21, n. 1; WW speech, Oct. 3, 1910, PWW, vol. 21. On the New Idea Republicans, see Ransom E. Noble, Jr., New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson (Princeton, N.J., 1946).
12. WW speeches, Oct. 13, 20, and 22, 1910, PWW, vol. 21.
13. George Record to WW, Oct. 17, 1910, PWW, vol. 21.
14. WW to Record, Oct. 24, 1910, PWW, vol. 21. Wilson originally wrote some of his answers in shorthand on Record’s letter and later produced several drafts on his own typewriter. See PWW, vol. 21, n. 1.
15. Record, quoted in ASL, Wilson, vol. 1; Record, interview by RSB, Apr. 6, 1928, RSBP, box 114; WW speech, Nov. 5, 1910, PWW, vol. 21.
16. WW to Lawrence C. Woods, Oct. 27, 1910, PWW, vol. 21. On the trustees’ action, see minutes of the Board of Trustees, Oct. 20, 1910, PWW, vol. 21, and editorial comment, PWW, vol. 21, n. 1.
17. WW, quoted in ASL, Wilson, vol. 1. For an analysis of the returns, see PWW, vol. 21, n. 1. At that time, New Jersey elected governors to three-year terms, so the two previous elections had taken place in 1904 and 1907.
18. See PWW, vol. 22, n. 3, for both the quotations and the judgment of the editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson.
19. WW to George Harvey, Nov. 15, 1910, PWW, vol. 22.
20. WW, quoted in PWW, vol. 21, n. 1; WW statement, Dec. 8, 1910, PWW, vol. 22.
21. WW to MAHP, Dec. 9, 1910, PWW, vol. 22; WW to Thomas Jones, Dec. 8, 1910, PWW, vol. 22; WW speeches, Jan. 5 and 16, 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
22. WW to MAHP, Jan. 29, 1911, PWW, vol. 22. For an account of the caucus and legislative actions, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
23. New York World, Jan. 28, 1911; WW to MAHP, Jan. 3, 1911, PWW, vol. 23.
24. Trenton Evening Times, Nov. 10, 1910, PWW, vol. 22; WW speech, Nov. 29, 1910, PWW, vol. 22.
25. On the family affairs, see Frances Wright Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson: First Lady between Two Worlds (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985).
26. Much later, there would be two governors’ mansions in Princeton: from 1945 to 1981, Morven, the home of Richard Stockton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence; then, from 1981 to the present, Drumthwacket, which had been the home of Momo Pyne, Wilson’s nemesis on the board of trustees.
27. On Tumulty, see John M. Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era (Boston, 1951). Tumulty’s memoir, Woodrow Wilson As I Know Him, tends toward sentimental exaggeration, but it has useful parts.
28. New York Evening Post, Jan. 19, 1911, PWW, vol. 22. For an eyewitness account of the meeting, see Kerney, Political Education.
29. WW speech, Jan. 17, 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
30. Ida B. Taylor to RSB, Nov. 11, 1927, RSBP, box 116; WW to MAHP, Feb. 12, 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
31. WW to MAHP, Apr. 2, 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
32. On the Geran bill, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
33. WW speech at Harrison, Feb. 28, 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
34. WW to MAHP, Mar. 5, 1911, PWW, vol. 22; WW, quoted in PWW, vol. 22, n. 1.
35. Trenton Evening Times and Trenton True American, Mar. 14, 1911, PWW, vol. 22, n. 1.
36. WW statement, Mar. 20, 1911, PWW, vol. 22; WW to MAHP, Mar. 26, 1911, PWW, vol. 22. On Tumulty’s activities, see Blum, Tumulty and the Wilson Era.
37. On the passage of the Geran bill, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
38. On these bills, see, ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, and PWW, vol. 22, n. 4.
39. On these measures, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, and PWW, vol. 22, n. 2.
40. WW to MAHP, Apr. 23, 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
41. James Nugent, quoted in PWW, vol. 23, n. 1. On the committee meeting, n. 3. For another account of Nugent’s behavior, see Kerney, Political Education.
42. WW speeches, Sept. 19 and 21, 1911, PWW, vol. 23; Newark Evening News, Oct. 4, 1911, PWW, vol. 23.
43. WW speeches, Oct. 5 and 7, 1911, PWW, vol. 23, 416.
44. Eleanor Wilson McAdoo, The Wilsons.
45. Kerney, Political Education.
46. SA, Brother Woodrow: A Memoir of Woodrow Wilson (Princeton, N.J., 1993).
47. Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
7 NOMINEE
1. On Walter Page’s activities on Wilson’s behalf, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., Walter Hines Page: The Southerner as American, 1855–1918 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1977).
2. WW to MAHP, Mar. 26, 1911; Apr. 2, 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
3. WJB to WW, Jan. 5, [1911], PWW, vol. 22; WW to MAHP, Mar. 12, 1911, PWW, vol. 22; EAW, quoted in James Kerney, The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1926).
4. WW to MAHP, Apr. 9, 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
5. WW speech, Feb. 21, 1911, PWW, vol. 22; Archibald Butt to Clara Butt, Mar. 11, 1911, in Archibald Butt, Taft and Roosevelt: The Intimate Letters of Archie Butt (Garden City, N.Y., 1930), vol. 2; WW to MAHP, Mar. 13 [12], 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
6. WW speech, Apr. 13, 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
7. On Jefferson’s legacy, see Merrill D. Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (New York, 1960), esp.
8. WW speeches, Nov. 2, 1910; May 12, 1911, PWW, vol. 21; vol. 23.
9. Portland Oregonian, May 19, 1911, PWW, vol. 23; WW speeches, May 25, 1911; June 2, 1911, PWW, vol. 3.
10. Nebraska State Journal, May 27, 1911, PWW, vol. 23; WW to Walter Page, June 7, 1911, PWW, vol. 23. On the meeting in Washington, see Frank Stockbridge, interview by RSB, Nov. 2, 1927, RSBP, box 122.
11. William McCombs to WW, Sept. 26, 1911, PWW, vol. 23. On McCombs’s role, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, The Road to the White House (Princeton, N.J., 1947).
12. On McAdoo, see his autobiography, Crowded Years: The Reminiscences of William G. McAdoo (Boston, 1931), and a contemporary biography, Mary Synon, McAdoo: The Man and His Times, a Panorama in Democracy (Indianapolis, 1924).
13. WW speech, Oct. 26, 1911, PWW, vol. 23; WW to MAHP, Apr. 30, 1911, PWW, vol. 22.
14. Charlotte Observer, Dec. 7, 1911, quoted in ASL, Wilson, vol. 1; George Fred Williams, quoted in ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
15. WW statement, Dec. 5, 1911, PWW, vol. 23; EAW to Richard Heath Dabney, Feb. 12, 1912, PWW, vol. 24.
16. WW to MAHP, PWW, vol. 23. The original letter from WW to Adrian Joline, Apr. 29, 1907, is in vol. 17.
17. Dudley Field Malone, interview by RSB, Nov. 1, 1927, RSBP, box 111. On Daniels’s influence on Bryan, see JD, The Wilson Era, vol. 1, Years of Peace, 1910–1917 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944).
18. Malone, interview by RSB, Nov. 1, 1927, RSBP, box 116; WW speech, Jan. 8, 1912, PWW, vol. 24; WW to MAHP, Jan. 12, 1912, PWW, vol. 24.
19. EAW to Robert Ewing, Jan. 12, 1912, PWW, vol. 24; WW to George Harvey, Dec. 21, 1911, PWW, vol. 23; Commoner, Jan. 26, 1912, quoted in ASL, Wilson, vol. 1. On this incident, see also SA, interview by RSB, Mar. 12, 1925, RSBP, box 99, and Malone, interview by RSB, Nov. 1, 1927, RSBP, box 111.
20. On James Beauchamp Clark, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, 401. There is no biography of Clark, and his autobiography, My Quarter Century of American Politics (New York, 1920), is singularly unreflective and uninformative, even in a genre noteworthy for those failings.
21. On the division of support in the South, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, Mass., 1983). On the presidential candidacy of Oscar W. Underwood, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, and Evans C. Johnson, Oscar W. Underwood: A Political Biography (Baton Rouge, La., 1980).
22. WW, quoted in ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
23. For an excellent account of these primaries, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
24. On the appeal of James Beauchamp Clark, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
25. New York World, Dec. 24, 1911; WW speeches, Jan. 12, 1912; Apr. 17, 1912; May 23, 1912, PWW, vol. 24.
26. WW public letter, May 24, 1912, PWW, vol. 24; Newark Evening News, May 28, 1912, PWW, vol. 24. On the near encounter with Roosevelt, see William Starr Myers, “Wilson in My Diary,” in Woodrow Wilson: Some Princeton Memories, ed. William Starr Myers (Princeton, N.J., 1946). On the primary results, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
27. New York World, Apr. 25, 1912; May 28, 1912; WW to MAHP, June 9, 1912, PWW, vol. 24.
28. On Wilson’s organization and contributors, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, 402–3.
29. TR speech, June 17, 1912, Theodore Roosevelt, The Works of Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Hermann Hagedorn (New York, 1926), vol. 17; WW to Edith Gittings Reid, May 26, 1912, PWW, vol. 24. Of the many accounts of the 1912 Republican convention, the best is Lewis L. Gould, Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics (Lawrence, Kan., 2008).
30. On Roosevelt’s thinking, see Cooper, Warrior and Priest.
31. WW speech, Feb. 12, 1912, PWW, vol. 24; Kermit Roosevelt, quoted in JD, “Wilson and Bryan,” Saturday Evening Post, Sept. 5, 1925.
32. On these ballots, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
33. WJB to WW, June 21, 1912, PWW, vol. 24; WW to WJB, June 22, 1912, PWW, vol. 24; New York Times, July 4, 1912. On these incidents, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, 442–43.
34. WW telephone messages, June 29, 1912, PWW, vol. 24; New York Times, June 30, 1912. For Joseph Tumulty’s recollection and William McCombs’s claim, see PWW, vol. 24, n. 1.
35. WW to MAHP, July 6, 1912, PWW, vol. 24; New York World, June 30, 1912. On the back and forth among Wilson, McCombs, and McAdoo, see McAdoo, Crowded Years, and PWW, vol. 24, n. 3.
36. On the Wilson managers’ tactics and Sullivan’s switch, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
37. New York Times, July 3, 1912.
38. Eleanor Wilson McAdoo, The Woodrow Wilsons (New York, 1937); WW to MAHP, July 6, 1912, PWW, vol. 24.
8 THE GREAT CAMPAIGN
1. Soon after Wilson’s nomination, a Democratic senator told him that Robert La Follette, who nursed a grudge against Roosevelt for snatching away the insurgent Republican leadership, had said that “the real fight would be between you [Wilson] and Roosevelt in November and that Taft would not win the electoral vote of more than six states—a view very generally shared by the shrewdest of the Washington correspondents and by many well-informed members of Congress.” Luke Lea to WW, July 13, 1912, PWW, vol. 24.
2. TR speech at Chicago, Aug. 6, 1912, in TR, The Works of Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Hermann Hagedorn (New York, 1926), vol. 17, 292, 299.
3. WW speech, Aug. 7, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
4. TR to Hiram Johnson, Oct. 27, 1911, in TR, Letters, ed. Elting E. Morison, vol. 7, The Days of Armageddon, 1900–1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1954). On Roosevelt’s attitude toward Wilson, see also John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 160.
5. WW to MAHP, Dec. 17, 1911, PWW, vol. 23. On the discussion of the New Nationalism, see Winthrop M. Daniels to WW, Oct. 13, 1910, PWW, vol. 21, and WW to Daniels, Oct. 17, 1910, PWW, vol. 21. On Wilson’s attitude toward Roosevelt, see Cooper,Warrior and Priest.
6. On the early visits and arrangements, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, The Road to the White House (Princeton, N.J., 1947).
7. Eleanor Wilson McAdoo, The Woodrow Wilsons (New York, 1937); WW to MAHP, Aug. 25, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
8. McAdoo, The Wilsons; WJB to WW, Aug. [1]8, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
9. On Brandeis, see Alpheus T. Mason, Brandeis: A Free Man’s Life (New York, 1946), and Philippa Strum, Louis D. Brandeis: Justice for the People (Cambridge, Mass., 1984).
10. New York Times, Aug. 29, 1912; Louis Brandeis, interview by RSB, Mar. 3, 1929, RSBP, box 102.
11. WW to Brandeis, [Nov. 12, 1912], PWW, vol. 25. On the meeting and Brandeis’s influence, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, and Cooper, Warrior and Priest.
12. WW speech, Sept. 2, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
13. TR speech at Fargo, Sept. 6, 1912, Outlook, Sept. 11, 1912.
14. Oscar King Davis, Released for Publication: Some Inside Political History of Theodore Roosevelt and His Times, 1898–1918 (Boston, 1925).
15. WW speech, Sept. 9, 1912, PWW, vol. 25; TR speech at San Francisco, Sept. 14, 1912, in TR, Works of Roosevelt, vol. 17, 313–14.
16. Charles Willis Thompson to Bernice M. Thompson, Oct. 6, 1912, PWW, vol. 25. On this point, see also WW, A Crossroads of Freedom: The 1912 Campaign Speeches of Woodrow Wilson, ed. John Wells Davidson (New Haven, Conn., 1956).
17. WW speeches, Sept. 17, 18, and 20, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
18. WW speeches, Sept. 23 and 25, 1912, PWW, vol. 25, 236, 250.
19. New York Times, Sept. 27, 1912.
20. WHT to Myron T. Herrick, June 20, 1912, quoted in Henry F. Pringle, The Life and Times of William Howard Taft (New York, 1939), vol. 2; New York Times, Sept. 29, 1912.
21. Wilson speech at Boston, Sept. 27, 1912, quoted in WW, Crossroads of Freedom, 293. See also Louis Brandeis memoranda, Sept. 30, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
22. WW speeches, Oct. 3 and 5, 1912, PWW, vol. 25; Charles Willis Thompson to Bernice M. Thompson, Oct. 6, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
23. WW speeches, Oct. 8, 9, and 11, 1912, PWW, vol. 25; WW to MAHP, PWW, vol. 25.
24. TR speech at Chicago, Oct. 12, 1912, quoted in TR to WJB, Oct. 22, 1912, TR, Letters, vol. 7.
25. TR speech at Milwaukee, Oct. 14, 1912, TR, Works of Roosevelt, vol. 17. For speculation on Roosevelt’s feelings about the situation, see Cooper, Warrior and Priest; 391, n. 30.
26. McAdoo, The Wilsons.
27. WW speeches at Wilmington, Del., Oct. 17, 18, and 19, 1912, PWW, vol. 25, 429, 458, 464–65; speech at Clarksburg, W. Va., Oct. 18, 1912, WW, Crossroads of Freedom.
28. Crisis, [Aug 1912], quoted in David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. DuBois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919 (New York, 1993). On the overtures to Wilson and ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
29. WW to Alexander Walters, [Oct. 21, 1912], PWW, vol. 25.
30. New York Times, Oct. 20, 1912.
31. On the conflicts in New Jersey and New York and the campaign organization, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, 494–98.
32. On the campaign’s finances, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
33. WW speeches, Oct. 28, 1912, PWW, vol. 25; WW speech, Oct. 28, 1912, WW, Crossroads of Freedom; Trenton True American, Nov. 5, 1912, evening ed., PWW, vol. 25.
34. Dudley Field Malone, interview by RSB, Dec. 1, 1927, RSBP, box 116.
35. New York World, Nov. 6, 1912; Malone, interview by RSB, Dec. 1, 1927, RSBP, box 116; WW speech, Nov. 6, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
36. For analyses of the 1912 vote, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1, and Cooper, Warrior and Priest, 207.
37. On Debs’s vote, see Cooper, Warrior and Priest, n. 37.
38. William Allen White, Woodrow Wilson: The Man, His Times, and His Task (Boston, 1924). For a comparison of the Democrats’ and the Progressives’ 1912 platforms, see TR, Letters, vol. 7, n. 3.
39. On the early drift toward Wilson, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 1.
40. On the contest in California and Roosevelt’s chances in a two-man race, see David Sarasohn, The Party of Reform: Democrats in the Progressive Era (Jackson, Miss., 1989). The only state that Wilson campaigned in but did not carry was Pennsylvania, which, along with Vermont, was one of the most solidly Republican states in the country. The last election in which a Democrat had carried Pennsylvania was 1856, when a native son, James Buchanan, was the nominee and the Republicans were still a fledgling party. Pennsylvania would not go Democratic again until 1936.
41. This analysis and the following paragraphs follow the interpretation I have presented in somewhat different form in Warrior and Priestff.
42. On these later developments, see Cooper, Warrior and Priest.
43. WW speech, Dec. 28, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
44. WW speech, Dec. 28, 1912, PWW, vol. 25. The reference was to Representative Hal Flood, a leader of the Virginia machine.
45. Ibid..
9 PREPARATION
1. Edward Grant Conklin, interview by RSB, June 3, 1925, RSBP, box 104.
2. Edward House still needs a full biography—a need that will be filled by the work of Charles Neu. The best work thus far on his earlier life is Rupert N. Richardson, Colonel Edward M. House: The Texas Years, 1858–1912 (Abilene, Tex., 1964).
3. EMHD, entries for Nov. 8 and 16, 1912, PWW, pp. 532, 550.
4. EMH to WW, Nov. 22, 28, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
5. Trenton Evening Times, Dec. 16, 1912, PWW, vol. 25; WW speech, Dec. 17, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
6. WJB to WW, Dec. 25, 1912, PWW, vol. 25. See also WJB and Mary Baird Bryan, The Memoirs of William Jennings Bryan (Philadelphia, 1925).
7. WJB to WW, Dec. [22 and] 25, 1912, PWW, vol. 25. In later years, Brandeis’s protégé, Felix Frankfurter, would often quote with contempt a statement of Bryan’s: “Any man with real goodness of heart can write a good currency law.” See Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, vol. 3, The Politics of Upheaval (Boston, 1960).
8. WW speech, Jan. 11, 1913, PWW, vol. 27, 40.
9. Carter Glass to H. Parker Willis, Dec. 29, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
10. WW speech, Jan. 28, 1913, PWW, vol. 27; New York Times, Jan. 29, 1913.
11. On these legislative wrangles, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2, The New Freedom (Princeton, N.J., 1956).
12. John Dos Passos, U.S.A., pt. 2, Nineteen Nineteen (New York, 1940).
13. Their meetings and telephone calls are recounted in EMHD entries, PWW, vol. 27. Correspondence between the two men was sparse at this time, probably because they were meeting so often. House’s letters contain some matters of substance; Wilson’s are strictly routine.
14. The list is in EMH to WW, Jan. 9, 1913, PWW, vol. 27. See also EMHD, entry for Jan. 8, 1913.
15. EMHD, entry for Feb. 13, 1913, PWW, vol. 27. On the machinations against Brandeis, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
16. A. Mitchell Palmer to WW, Feb. 24, 1913, PWW, vol. 27; EMHD, entry for Feb. 22, 1913, PWW, vol. 27. On Garrison’s appointment, see PWW, p. 133, n. 3.
17. WW to JD, PWW, vol. 27; Oscar W. Underwood to WW, Jan. 13, 1913, PWW, vol. 27. On these appointments, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
18. EMHD, entry for Jan. 8, 1913, PWW, vol. 27. On these appointments, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
19. EMHD, entry for Dec. 12, 1912, PWW, vol. 25.
20. EMHD, entry for Aug. 16, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
21. JD to NDB, Feb. 3, 1936, NDB Papers, box 62, LC.
22. WW to EBG, Aug. 28, 1915, PWW, vol. 34.
23. EMHD, entry for Jan. 8, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
24. EMHD, entries for Jan. 8, 1913; Feb. 23, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
25. Helen Woodrow Bones to Jesse Bones Brower, Feb. 12, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
26. On the proposed amendment and Wilson’s response, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2, and PWW, vol. 27, n. 1.
27. WW to A. Mitchell Palmer, Feb. 5, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
28. On the handling of the amendment, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
29. WHT to EAW, Jan. 3, 1913, PWW, vol. 27; WHT to WW, Jan. 6, 1913, PWW, vol. 27. See also Frances Wright Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson: First Lady between Two Worlds (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985).
30. WW to MAHP, Mar. 2, 1913, PWW, vol. 27. For descriptions of the departure, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2, and Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson. For a recollection of the event by an eyewitness who was then a Princeton freshman, see Hamilton Fish Armstrong,Peace and Counterpeace: From Wilson to Hitler (New York, 1971).
10 BEGINNINGS
1. For descriptions of the inauguration, see New York World, Mar. 5, 1913; New York Times, Mar. 5, 1913.
2. WW inaugural address, Mar. 4, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
3. For a description of the family’s first evening in the White House, see Frances Wright Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson: First Lady between Two Worlds (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985).
4. See Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson, 239–42, 250–51.
5. For Ellen’s activities and the toll on her health, see Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
6. For descriptions of Wilson’s office routine and workday, see John M. Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era (Boston, 1951), and ASL, Wilson, vol. 2, The New Freedom (Princeton, N.J., 1956).
7. Enclosure, John Reed to JPT, June 30, 1914, PWW, vol. 30. This interview did not appear in print. The editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson speculate that Wilson may have refused permission to publish it because he spoke too frankly about Mexico.PWW, vol. 30, n. 2.
8. WW statement, Mar. 22, 1913, PWW, vol. 50. For an account of the first press conference, see Robert C. Hilderbrand, Power and the People: Executive Management of Public Opinion in Foreign Affairs, 1897–1921 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1981).
9. Press conference, Mar. 19, 1914, PWW, vol. 50. No transcripts of the press conferences were made for nearly seventy years, until the editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson had Charles Swem’s shorthand notebooks transcribed.
10. Richard V. Oulahan to RSB, Mar. 15, 1929, RSBP, box 112.
11. On the cessation of the press conferences, see Hilderbrand, Power and the People.
12. JD, The Wilson Era, vol. 1, Years of Peace, 1910–1917 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944).
13. JDD, entry for Apr. 11, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
14. On the effort to introduce segregation and the appointment of African Americans, see ASL, Wilson, vol 2; Kathleen Long Wolgemuth, “Woodrow Wilson’s Appointment Policy and the Negro,” Journal of Southern History 24 (Nov. 1958), and Morton Sosna, “The South in the Saddle: Racial Politics During the Wilson Years,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 54 (1970).
15. Oscar Garrison Villard to WW, July 21, 1913, PWW, vol. 28; WW to Villard, July 23, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
16. John Palmer Gavit to Villard, Oct. 1, 1913, PWW, vol. 28; WW statement, Nov. 6, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
17. The ascribing of blame to Franklin K. Lane first appeared in RSB, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, vol. 4, President, 1913–1914 (Garden City, N.Y., 1931), and was based on interviews with several cabinet members. It is also supported by McAdoo in his memoir, Crowded Years: The Reminiscences of William G. McAdoo (Boston, 1931). This interpretation is followed in ASL, Wilson, vol. 2. It is disputed in Keith W. Olson, Biography of a Progressive: Franklin K. Lane, 1864–1921 (Westport, Conn., 1979). Olson notes the lack of direct evidence of Wilson’s reaction and Lane’s not having the only loose tongue in the cabinet.
18. The stationery struck at least one New York acquaintance of House’s as an affectation. Hamilton Fish Armstrong, who later knew the colonel through the Council on Foreign Relations and the magazine Foreign Affairs, observed: “He prided himself on the variety of his contacts and the fact that they were spread all across the country and were not limited to the Eastern seaboard. Long after he had installed himself definitely in New York, his notepaper was still embossed, ‘Edward M. House, Austin, Texas.’” Armstrong, Peace and Counterpeace: From Wilson to Hitler (New York, 1971).
19. EMHD, entry for Dec. 2, 1913, PWW, vol. 29.
20. CTG, interviews by RSB, Feb. 18–19, 1926, RSBP, box 106.
21. WW to EAW, Aug. 10, 1913, PWW, vol. 28. On Cary Grayson’s care for Ellen, see Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson. The Wilsons evidently chose not to attend the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church, which was nearer the White House, because it was affiliated with the northern branch of the denomination.
22. Eleanor Wilson McAdoo, The Woodrow Wilsons (New York: 1937). On Grayson’s early care for Wilson and Wilson’s difficulty with golf, see Edwin A. Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography (Princeton, N.J., 1981).
23. EMHD, entry for Aug. 16, 1913, PWW, vol. 28. On the intraparty problems in New York and elsewhere, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
24. On diplomatic appointments, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
25. WW statement, Mar. 12, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
26. WW statement, Mar. 18, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
27. WW message to president of China, U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1913 (Washington, 1920).
28. WW to James D. Phelan, Apr. 9, 1913, PWW, vol. 27. On the effect of the withdrawal from the loan consortium, see Tien-yi Li, Woodrow Wilson’s China Policy, 1913–1917 (New York, 1952).
29. On the controversy with Japan, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
30. WW, Constitutional Government in the United States, PWW, vol.
11 TAKEN AT THE FLOOD
1. JDD, entry for Apr. 8, 1913, PWW, vol. 27; WW speech, Apr. 8, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
2. Eleanor Wilson McAdoo, The Woodrow Wilsons (New York, 1937).
3. Albert S. Burleson, interviews by RSB, Mar. 17–19, 1927, RSBP, box 103.
4. Burleson, interviews by RSB, Mar. 17–19, 1927, RSBP, box 103.
5. WW speeches, Apr. 14, 1913; May 2, 1913, PWW, vol. 27; Financial World, Apr. 12, 1913, quoted in ASL, Wilson, vol. 2, The New Freedom (Princeton, N.J., 1956).
6. WW to MAH, Sept. 21, 1913, PWW, vol. 28; WW speech, Apr. 8, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
7. WW press statement, May 26, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
8. La Follette’s Weekly, July 12, 1913. On reaction to the statement and the investigation, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
9. WW to Furnifold Simmons, Sept. 4, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
10. WW statement, Oct. 3, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
11. EAW to WW, Oct. 5, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
12. WW to MAH, June 22, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
13. William Gibbs McAdoo to EMH, June 18, 1913, EMH Papers, Yale University Library. On the June 17 meeting, see also New York Times, June 18, 1913, and New York World, June 18, 1913. On the positions and machinations of the various actors, see ASL,Wilson, vol. 2.
14. Louis Brandeis to WW, June 14, 1913, PWW, vol. 27; WW press conference, June 16, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
15. WW speech, June 23, 1913, PWW, vol. 27. On the meetings at the White House, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
16. New York Sun, June 21, 1913, quoted in ASL, Wilson, vol. 2; WW quoted in Carter Glass, An Adventure in Constructive Finance (Garden City, N.Y., 1927). On the bankers’ and conservative opposition, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
17. WW to EAW, July 27, 1913, PWW, vol. 28. On the revolt of the agrarians, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
18. On the House maneuvering and the bankers’ opposition, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2, and Glass, Adventure in Constructive Finance.
19. WW to EAW, Sept. 9, 1913, in PWW, vol. 28; WW to MAH, Sept. 28, 1913, PWW, vol. 28. Gilbert Hitchcock headed the faction of Nebraska Democrats that opposed Bryan, and he kept up a relentless battle with the secretary over patronage in that state. James O’Gorman was a Tammany man, and despite being Dudley Field Malone’s father-in-law, he resented Wilson’s friendliness toward the machine’s reformist opponents. James Reed, a flowery orator and ally of the machine in his hometown of Kansas City, also conducted patronage fights with the administration.
20. WW to Oscar W. Underwood, Oct. 20, 1913, PWW, vol. 28. On the meeting with the senators, see New York Times, Oct. 17, 1913, and New York World, Oct. 17, 1913.
21. WW to Frank A. Vanderlip, Oct. 24, 1913, PWW, vol. 28. On the Vanderlip plan and its presentation, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
22. On the last debates and final passage of the Federal Reserve Act, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
23. WW speech, Dec. 23, 1913, PWW, vol. 29.
24. Formally, there were two sessions, the first, which adjourned in November 1913, and the second, which began in December. In fact, Congress had never taken such a brief recess between sessions before.
25. On how Glass’s approach came out, see Adventure in Constructive Finance. A decade later, under Republican presidents, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York would effectively become the nation’s central bank, and its chairman—a collaborator of Vanderlip’s in 1913 with the fitting surname of Strong—would become a European-style central banker.
26. For an excellent characterization and analysis of these approaches, see Marc Winerman, “The Origins of the FTC: Concentration, Cooperation, Control, and Competition,” Antitrust Law Journal 71, no. 1 (2003).
27. WW to MAH, Oct. 12, 1913, PWW, vol. 28; WW address, Dec. 2, 1913, PWW, vol. 29.
28. WW address, Jan. 20, 1914, PWW, vol. 29.
29. On Wilson’s desire for flexibility and his divergent thoughts, see WW to John Sharp Williams, Jan. 27, 1914, PWW, vol. 29.
30. On the final vote, see New York Times, June 6, 1914. Nearly all of the Republicans voting for the bill were insurgents from the Midwest and West; one Progressive, from New York, opposed the bill.
31. On Wilson’s meeting with labor leaders and his refusal to go further, see New York World, Apr. 14, 1914; May 1, 1914.
32. Samuel Gompers to WW, Oct. 16, 1914, PWW, vol. 31. On the Senate’s actions and Gompers’s reaction, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
33. On the Senate action and final passage, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2. On the first Senate vote, every Democrat favored the bill, joined by seven Republicans and one Progressive. On the second vote, three Democrats broke ranks—Harry Lane of Oregon, James Martine of New Jersey, and James Reed of Missouri—and all the Republicans who voted were opposed.
34. See George Rublee, “The Original Plan and Early History of the Federal Trade Commission,” Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science 11 (Jan. 1926), and ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
35. Norman Hapgood to WW, Apr. 21, 1914, PWW, vol. 29. Why Brandeis did not involve himself more in advising Wilson on the anti-trust issue is a matter of disagreement among scholars. Thomas K. McCraw argues that this was an “abdication” on Brandeis’s part. McCraw, Prophets of Regulation: Charles Francis Adams, Louis D. Brandeis, James M. Landis, Alfred E. Kahn (Cambridge, Mass., 1984). McCraw offers no explanation, however, for Brandeis’s behavior. The historian of the Federal Trade Commission, Marc Winerman, believes that Hapgood was correct in saying that Brandeis was simply too busy with other matters to advise Wilson closely. See Winerman, “Origins of the FTC,” n. 398. On Rublee, see Marc Eric McClure, Earnest Endeavors: The Life and Public Work of George Rublee (Westport, Conn., 2003).
36. WW to Henry F. Hollis, June 2, 1914, PWW, vol. 29. On Murdock’s criticisms of the Covington bill and later support of the Stevens bill, see Winerman, “Origins of the FTC,”. Starting late in 1913, Colonel House had been wooing one of the Progressives’ leading publicists and financial backers, William Rockhill Nelson, owner of The Kansas City Star. See EMHD, entry for Jan. 16, 1914, PWW, vol. 29.
37. 37. George Rublee memoir, Dec. 1950–Feb. 1951, Microfiche Collection, Oral History Research Office, Columbia University Libraries; WW to Charles A. Culberson, July 30, 1914, PWW, vol. 29.
38. WW to William C. Adamson, Aug. 5, 1914, PWW, vol. 30. On the votes, see Winerman, “Origins of the FTC,”. On final passage of the Federal Trade Commission bill, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
39. WW to Oscar W. Underwood, Oct. 17, 1914, PWW, vol. 31.
40. On the early history of the FTC, see Winerman, “Origins of the FTC,”.
41. Winerman, “Origins of the FTC,”. McCraw also uses the term “rocky start” and stresses the ambiguity of the agency’s charter. See Prophets of Regulation. Among historians, the leading proponent of the “reluctant progressive” view of Wilson is Arthur Link in his earlier work. See “The South and the ‘New Freedom,’” American Scholar 20 (summer 1951), and Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917 (New York, 1954), esp. In the volume of his larger work that treats this legislation, he modifies this view. See Wilson, vol. 2, 444, 471. In one of the later volumes, Wilson, vol. 3, The Struggle for Neutrality, 1914–1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1960), he downplays the view, and in the final volume, Wilson, vol. 5, Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 1916–1917(Princeton, N.J., 1965), he abandons it altogether.
42. New Republic, Jan. 9, 1915; Winerman, “Origins of the FTC,”. The claim of Wilson’s gradual conversion to the New Nationalism is advanced by Link in the works cited in n. 41, above.
12 TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY
1. JDD, entry for Apr. 18, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
2. Ibid. On British policy toward Mexico and the influence of oil interests there, see Peter Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1914: The Diplomacy of Anglo-American Conflict (Cambridge, U.K., 1968).
3. Memorandum enclosed with Delbert J. Haff to WW, May 12, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
4. WW press conference, May 26, 1913, PWW, vol. 27.
5. William Bayard Hale report, July 9, 1913, PWW, vol. 28. There was also a secret mission by a friend of William Jennings Bryan’s to make contact with and assess the Constitutionalists, but it turned into a fiasco. See ASL, Wilson, vol. 2, The New Freedom(Princeton, N.J., 1956).
6. Hale report, July 9, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
7. WW instructions, [Aug. 4, 1913], PWW, vol 28.
8. WW speech, Aug. 27, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
9. WW to EAW, Sept. 9, 1913, PWW, vol. 28; WW draft diplomatic note, Oct. 24, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
10. On William Tyrrell’s meeting with Wilson, see EMHD, entries for Nov. 12 and 13, 1913, PWW, vol. 28; Tyrrell to Sir Edward Grey, Nov. 14, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
11. WW speech, Dec. 2, 1913, PWW, vol. 29; EMHD, entry for Oct. 30, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
12. On these developments, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
13. WW press conference, Nov. 14, 1914, PWW, vol. 32. On this incident and its repercussions, see Robert E. Quirk, An Affair of Honor: Woodrow Wilson and the Occupation of Vera Cruz (Lexington, Ky., 1962).
14. Samuel G. Blythe, “Mexico: The Record of a Conversation with President Wilson,” Saturday Evening Post, May 23, 1914, PWW, vol. 29; WW speech, Apr. 20, 1914, PWW, vol. 29.
15. Venustiano Carranza, quoted in George C. Carothers to WJB, Apr. 22, PWW, vol. 29. The only Mexican leader who seemed to approve the action was the guileful Pancho Villa, who privately told a State Department agent that “no drunkard, meaning Huerta, was going to draw him into war” and he would try to change Carranza’s mind. Carothers to WJB, Apr. 23, 1914, PWW, vol. 29.
16. H. J. Forman to RSB, RSBP, box 109; WW press conference, Apr. 23, 1914, PWW, vol. 29.
17. For a sample of reactions, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
18. New York World, May 19, 1914; WW to Lindley M. Garrison, Aug. 8, 1914, PWW, vol. 30.
19. For this characterization, see Samuel G. Blythe, “A Talk with the President,” Saturday Evening Post, Jan. 9, 1915, PWW, vol. 30: “He showed me why a writer was wrong who said he could not be a progressive Democrat if he admired Edmund Burke.” Unfortunately, Blythe did not record how Wilson explained his synthesis of Burke and progressivism.
20. WJB to WW, Aug. 16, 1913, PWW, vol. 28; TR to William J. Stone, July 11, 1914, in TR, Letters, ed. Elting E. Morison, vol. 7, The Days of Armageddon, 1900–1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1954). Ironically, in 1921, after Roosevelt’s death, Lodge would manage Senate approval of a similar treaty under Wilson’s successor, a Republican—a treaty that dropped mention of regret but paid the same indemnity and had strong backing from American oil interests. On the Colombian treaty, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
21. WW speech, Oct. 27, 1913, PWW, vol. 28.
22. EMHD, entry for Dec. 16, 1914, PWW, vol. 31; WW draft of Pan-American pact, [Dec, 16, 1914], PWW, vol. 30. On the Pan-American pact, see Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York, 1992). On James Slayden, see Ellen Maury Slayden, Washington Wife: Journal of Ellen Maury Slayden from 1897–1919 (New York, 1963).
23. New York World, Aug. 3, 1913. On the Nicaraguan affair, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
24. On Wilson’s involvement in the Dominican affair, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2, 538–48.
25. WW to RL, Aug. 4, 1915, PWW, vol. 34. On the Haitian affair, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 3, The Struggle for Neutrality, 1914–1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1960).
26. For the phrase and the interpretation, see ASL, Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917 (New York, 1954).
27. WW statement, Aug. 29, 1916, PWW, vol. 38. On the legislative wrangle and passage of the Jones Act, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4, Confusion and Crises, 1915–1916 (Princeton, N.J., 1960).
28. WW to Walter Page, Jan. 6, 1914, PWW, vol. 29.
29. WW to William L. Marbury, Feb. 5, 1914, PWW, vol. 29; WW speech to Congress, Mar. 5, 1914, PWW, vol. 29. On congressional repeal of the tolls exemption, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
30. WW speech, June 13, 1914, PWW, vol. 30; WW to James Bryce, July 6, 1914, PWW, vol. 30.
31. EMH to WW, May 29, 1914; June 19, 1914; July 3, 1914, PWW, vol. 30.
32. WW to EMH, June 16 and 23, 1914, PWW, vol. 30; EMHD, entry for Aug. 30, 1914, PWW, vol. 30.
33. WW to John Sharp Williams, Apr. 2, 1914, PWW, vol. 29. On the Terrell appointment, see George C. Osborn, “Woodrow Wilson Appoints a Negro Judge,” Journal of Southern History 24 (Nov. 1958). On Wilson’s broader appointments record, see Kathleen Long Wolgemuth, “Woodrow Wilson’s Appointment Policy and the Negro,” Journal of Southern History 24 (Nov. 1958).
34. WW remarks, June 30, 1914, PWW, vol. 30.
35. WW speech, May 11, 1914, PWW, vol. 30.
36. Arthur Krock memorandum of conversation with WW, Apr. 30, 1915, Henry Watterson Papers, LC. For an account of this complicated and sometimes ludicrous situation, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2. The veto of the Volstead Act occurred after Wilson’s stroke. Tumulty wrote the veto message, and there is some question about whether Wilson was aware of the action. Mrs. Wilson did review and approve the veto message, and it was consistent with his views.
37. WW speech, Dec. 2, 1913, PWW, vol. 29.
38. Wilson later shifted his stands on this issue and child labor. Interestingly, Arthur Link is less categorical in viewing his position on rural credits as insufficiently progressive: “Wilson would not adhere forever to New Freedom doctrines that denied the demands of the organized farmers, politically the most powerful pressure group in the United States.” ASL, Wilson, vol. 2.
39. WW speech, June 25, 1914, PWW, vol. 30; WW to Frank E. Doremus, Sept. 4, 1914, PWW, vol. 30; EMHD, entry for Sept. 28, 1914, PWW, vol. 31.
40. On passage of the seamen’s act, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 2, and Belle Case La Follette and Fola La Follette, Robert M. La Follette, June 14, 1855–June 18, 1925 (New York, 1953), vol. 1.
41. WW quoted in La Follette and La Follette, Robert La Follette, vol. 1; WW to NDB, Mar. 5, 1915, PWW, vol. 32.
42. WW speeches, Mar. 20, 1914; May 29, 1914; June 13, 1914, PWW, vol. 29; vol. 30, 177.
43. WW speech, July 4, 1914, PWW, vol. 30.
44. For Wilson’s borrowing from the Library of Congress, see William W. Bishop to WW, Nov. 14, 1914, PWW, vol. 31. Given the pressures on him in the fall of 1914, it is doubtful that he read all or many of the books Bishop listed, but the list does show where his interests ran.
45. On the summer in Cornish, see Frances Wright Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson: First Lady between Two Worlds (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985). Harlakenden was owned by the popular novelist and Progressive Party activist Winston Churchill—no relation to the rising British political star of the same name.
46. WW to EAW, July 27, 1914, PWW, vol. 28; EAW to WW, July 28, 1914, PWW, vol. 28.
47. New York Times, Nov. 26, 1913.
48. EMHD, entry for Nov. 29, 1913, PWW, vol. 28. See also New York Times, Nov. 30, 1913.
49. WW to Benjamin M. King, Mar. 22, 1914, PWW, vol. 29. On Ellen’s health, see Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson, 270–71.
50. EAW to Jessie Wilson Sayre, Feb. 20, 1914, quoted in Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson. On the romance and engagement.
51. New York Times, May 8, 1914; WW to MAH, May 10, 1914, PWW, vol. 30. See also Eleanor Wilson McAdoo, The Woodrow Wilsons (New York, 1937), and Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
52. McAdoo, Crowded Years: The Reminiscences of William G. McAdoo (Boston, 1931).
53. SA, Brother Woodrow: A Memoir of Woodrow Wilson (Princeton, N.J., 1993).
54. McAdoo, Crowded Years.
55. WW to MAH, July 12, 1914, PWW, vol. 30. On the final weeks of Ellen’s illness, see Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson.
56. New York Times, Aug. 7, 1914; CTG, interviews by RSB, Feb. 18–19, 1926, RSBP, box 106.
57. McAdoo, The Wilsons.
58. WW to MAH, [Aug. 7, 1914], PWW, vol. 30. A moving tribute to Ellen came sixty-five years later, when the editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson stated in their preface, “In this volume, we say farewell to Ellen Axson Wilson, whom, over the years we have come to know, admire, and love.” PWW, vol. 30.
13 IRONY AND THE GIFT OF FATE
1. Henry James to Howard Sturgis, Aug. 5, 1914, in Henry James, The Letters of Henry James, vol. 2, ed. Percy Lubbock (New York, 1920); New York Times, Sept. 27, 1914. For a survey of American reactions to the outbreak of World War I that is both comprehensive and incisive, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 3, The Struggle for Neutrality, 1914–1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1960).
2. For a description of the funeral services and burial, see Frances Wright Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson: First Lady between Two Worlds (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985).
3. WW to MAH, Aug, 23, 1914, PWW, vol. 30; Walter Page to WW, July 29, 1914, PWW, vol. 30. On Hoover’s work, see George H. Nash, The Life of Herbert Hoover, vol. 2, The Humanitarian, 1914–1917 (New York, 1988).
4. WW statement, [Aug. 18, 1914], PWW, vol. 30.
5. On the economic issues, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 3.
6. WJB to WW, Aug. 10, 1914, PWW, vol. 30; New York Times, Aug. 16, 1914.
7. On the reversal of the loan ban, see Vanderlip testimony, Jan. 7, 1936, U.S. Senate, Hearings before the Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry, 73rd Congress (Washington, D.C., 1936), esp. and Charles A. Beard, “New Light on Bryan and the Wilson War Policies,” New Republic June 17, 1936. The committee before which Vanderlip testified was the Senate subcommittee chaired by Gerald Nye of North Dakota and popularly known as the Nye Committee.
8. EMHD, entry for Sept. 27, 1914, PWW, vol. 31.
9. EMHD, entry for Sept. 30, 1914, PWW, vol. 31; SA, interviews by RSB, Feb. 8, 10, and 11, 1925, RSBP, box 99.
10. Sir Cecil Spring-Rice to Sir Edward Grey, Oct. 1, 1914, PWW, vol. 31. See also George M. Trevelyan, Grey of Fallodon: The Life and Letters of Sir Edward Grey (Boston, 1937), and ASL, Wilson, vol. 3.
11. EMHD, entry for Nov. 6, 1914, PWW, vol 31.
12. EMH to WW, Dec. 26, 1914, PWW, vol. 31.
13. WW to Nancy Saunders Toy, Dec. 12, 1914, PWW, vol. 31; New York Times, Oct. 16, 1914.
14. WW press conference, Oct. 19, 1914, PWW, vol. 50; New York Times, Oct. 20, 1914; WW speech, Dec. 8, 1914, PWW, vol. 31. On Wilson’s looking Gardner in the eye, see Gus J. Karger to WHT, July 27, 1915, WHTP, box 316 (general correspondence). On the response to Wilson’s declaration, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 3, and John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Vanity of Power: American Isolationism and the First World War, 1914–1917 (Westport, Conn., 1969).
15. For the survey of editorial opinion, see Literary Digest, Nov. 14, 1914, 974–78. There was considerable regional variation in sentiment, with the South and Northeast registering the strongest pro-Allied feelings. In no region did sentiment favoring the Central powers (pro-German sentiment) register above 9 percent.
16. EMHD, entry for Aug. 30, 1914, PWW, vol. 30; Sir Cecil Spring-Rice to Sir Edward Grey, Sept. 3, 1914, PWW, vol. 30; WW to WJB, Sept. 4, 1914, PWW, vol. 30.
17. Literary Digest, Nov. 14, 1914; New Republic, Jan. 9, 1915. For the assessment of public sentiment, see Mark Sullivan, Our Times: The United States, 1900–1925, vol. 5 (New York, 1926). On the arms-embargo drive, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 3, and Cooper,Vanity of Power.
18. Bryan may have reacted so readily against the idea because of past clashes in Nebraska with brewing interests over prohibition and because his home-state foe, Senator Gilbert Hitchcock, was sponsoring an embargo resolution. For the vote on the embargo amendment, see 63rd Cong., 3rd Sess., Congressional Record 4916 (Feb. 15, 1915).
19. WW speech, Jan. 8, 1915, PWW, vol. 32. On the ship-purchase fight, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 3.
20. William Monroe Trotter statement, Nov. 12, 1914, PWW, vol. 31; transcript of meeting, Nov. 12, 1914, PWW, vol. 31.
21. New York Times, Nov. 13, 1914; JD to Franklin D. Roosevelt, June 10, 1933, quoted in PWW, vol. 3, n. 2. The exchange between Trotter and Wilson survived only because Wilson had his stenographer, Charles Swem, record what was said. No published transcript would appear until the editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson deciphered Swem’s shorthand sixty-five years later.
22. WW remarks, [Dec. 15, 1914], PWW, vol. 31.
23. Thomas Dixon to JPT, May 1, 1915, PWW, vol. 32, n. 5.
24. The “history with lightning” remark appeared in Milton MacKaye, “The Birth of a Nation,” Scribner’s Magazine, Nov. 1937. The recollection of the last survivor of the showing, Marjorie Brown King, comes from an interview by Arthur Link. See PWW, vol. 32, n. 1.
25. WW to JPT, Apr. [24 and] 28, 1915, PWW, vol. 33; WW to JPT, [ca. Apr. 22, 1918], PWW, vol. 47, n. 3.
26. TR to William Allen White, Nov. 7, 1914, TR, Letters, ed. Elting E. Morison, vol. 8, The Days of Armageddon, 1900–1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1954).
27. WW to Nancy Saunders Toy, Nov. 9, 1914; Jan. 31, 1915, PWW, vol. 31, vol. 32; WW speeches, Dec. 8, 1914; Jan. 8, 1915, PWW, vol. 31; vol. 32.
28. On the Dacia affair, see Ross Gregory, “A New Look at the Case of the Dacia,” Journal of American History 55 (Sept. 1968). On the Asian controversy, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 3.
29. The best discussions in English of the background to the submarine declaration are ASL, Wilson, vol. 3, and Ernest R. May, The World War and American Isolation, 1914–1917 (Cambridge, Mass., 1959).
30. WJB to James W. Gerard, Feb. 10, 1915, PWW, vol. 32; WW to MAH, Feb. 14, 1915, PWW, vol. 32. For an analysis of “strict accountability,” see May, World War and American Isolation.
31. Herbert B. Brougham, memorandum, Dec. 14, 1914, PWW, vol. 31.
32. SA, interviews by RSB, Feb. 8, 10, and 11, 1925, RSBP, box 99. I agree with Thomas Knock in dating this statement February 1915, not August 1914. See Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York, 1992).
33. EMHD, entry for Jan. 25, 1915, PWW, vol. 32; WW to EMH, Jan. 29, 1915, PWW, vol. 32.
34. WW to WJB, Apr. 3, 1915, PWW, vol. 32; WJB to WW, Apr. 6 and 7, 1915, PWW, vol. 32.
35. WW speech, Apr. 20, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
36. WW to WJB, Apr. 22, 1915, PWW, vol. 33, 81; WJB to WW, Apr. 23, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
37. Nancy Saunders Toy, diary, entry for Jan. 3, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
38. EMHD, entry for Jan. 13, 1915, PWW, vol. 33 WW to Nancy Saunders Toy, Dec. 12, 1914, PWW, vol. 21; Toy diary, entry for Jan. 3, 1915, PWW, vol. 32.
39. WW speech, [Oct. 24, 1914], PWW, vol. 31.
40. Memoir. The exact date of the meeting is not known.
41. On Edith Galt’s background, see Memoir, and Phyllis Lee Levin, Edith and Woodrow: The Wilson White House (New York, 2001).
42. Memoir. See also Levin, Edith and Woodrow.
43. CTG, Woodrow Wilson: An Intimate Memoir (New York, 1960); EBG to Annie Litchfield Bolling, Mar. 23, 1915, PWW, vol. 32; Memoir.
44. Memoir.
45. Ibid..
46. EBG to WW, May 4 [sic], 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
47. WW to EBG, May 7, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
14 THE SHOCK OF RECOGNITION
1. See Mark Sullivan, Our Times, 1900–1925, vol. 5, Over Here, 1914–1918 (New York, 1933), n. 5.
2. WW to WJB, June 7, 1915, PWW, vol. 33. On the newspaper poll and public reactions, see David Lawrence, The True Story of Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1924).
3. WW to EBG, [May 8, 1915], PWW, vol. 33. See also New York Times, May 8, 1915; New York World, May 8, 1915.
4. For the statement, see New York Times, May 10, 1915.
5. Charles E. Swem diary, entry for May 10, [1915], PWW, vol. 33.
6. WW speech, May 10, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
7. WW to EBG, May 11, 1915, PWW, vol. 33; WW press conference, May 11, 1915, PWW, vol. 33; Frank Parker Stockbridge memorandum, RSBP, box 11. Wilson tried to unsay the words, after a fashion. In the fall of 1915, when a publisher printed a volume of his presidential speeches, he deleted the sentence that contained “too proud to fight.” See PWW, vol. 33, n. 3
8. EMH to WW, May 9, 1915, PWW, vol. 33; WW to WJB, May 11, 1915, PWW, vol. 33; WW draft diplomatic note, [May 11, 1915], PWW, vol. 33. For an account of the cabinet meeting by Attorney General Thomas Gregory, see EMHD, entry for June 20, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
9. WW to WJB, May 13, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
10. For accounts of this affair, see EMHD, entry for Nov. 3, 1916, Yale University Library, Lindley M. Garrison to RSB, Nov. 12, 1928, RSBP, box 1, and memorandum on “postscript,” RSB chronology, RSBP, box 63. The speculation that Wilson may have changed his mind on his own comes from Joseph V. Fuller, a historian who advised Ray Stannard Baker.
11. Johann von Bernstorff to Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, May 29, 1915, PWW, vol. 33. On Wilson’s planting the newspaper stories, see WW to WJB, May 14, 1915, PWW, vol. 33. For the interpretation of Bernstorff’s dispatch by the editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, see PWW, vol. 33, n. 1.
12. EBG to WW, May 24, 1915, PWW, vol. 33; WW to EBG, May 28, [1915], PWW, vol. 33. On the encounter in the automobile, see PWW, vol. 33, n. 1.
13. EBG to WW, [May 28, 1915], PWW, vol. 33. For Edith’s admission of attraction to the presidency, see Memoir.
14. Johann von Bernstorff to German Foreign Office, June 2, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
15. Draft of second Lusitania note [June 4, 1915], PWW, vol. 33; WW to WJB, June 7, 1915, PWW, vol. 33. For the visit from Senator Martin and Congressman Flood, see WJB to WW, June 4, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
16. WJB to WW, June 5, 1915, PWW, vol. 33; WW to WJB, June 5, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
17. EBG to WW, May [June] 5–6, 1915, PWW, vol. 33; McAdoo, Crowded Years: The Reminiscences of William G. McAdoo (Boston, 1931).
18. EBG to WW, May [June], 5–6, 1915, PWW, vol. 33. On Tumulty’s advice, see James Kerney, The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1926).
19. EMHD, entry for June 24, 1915, PWW, vol. 33. The story about Bryan’s spilling the water comes from RSB, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, vol. 5, Neutrality, 1914–1915 (Garden City, N.Y., 1935).
20. WJB to George Derby, Aug. 1, 1924, RSBP, box 103; WW, quoted in David F. Houston, Eight Years with Wilson’s Cabinet, 1913 to 1920 (Garden City, N.Y., 1926), vol. 1.
21. Grace Bryan Hargreaves manuscript biography of Bryan, WJB Papers, box 65, LC; WJB quoted in Houston, Wilson’s Cabinet, vol. 1.
22. WW to EBG, June 19, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
23. SA comments on manuscript of RSB biography of WW, Aug. 29, 1928, RSBP, box 100.
24. WHT to Mabel T. Boardman, May 10, 1915, WHTP, series 8, letterbook 31. For the story of Wilson’s holding up his fingers, see Gus J. Karger to WHT, May 12, 1915, WHTP, box 309.
25. EMHD, entries for June 14 and 24, 1915, PWW, vol. 33; EMH to WW, June 16, 1915, PWW, vol. 33. See also Houston, Wilson’s Cabinet, vol. 1.
26. Lansing later wrote that when Wilson offered him the post, he objected that he had no political influence, to which the president replied, “By experience and training you are especially equipped to conduct the foreign affairs of the United States. This, under present conditions, is far more important than political influence.” RL, War Memoirs of Robert Lansing, Secretary of State (Indianapolis, 1935). Lansing was also the son-in-law of John W. Foster, who had served as secretary of state under President Benjamin Harrison. Two of Lansing’s nephews, John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles, would later play large roles in foreign policy.
27. EMHD, entry for June 24, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
28. Memoir, 71–72.
29. WW to EMH, July 7, 1915, PWW, vol. 33.
30. Lindley M. Garrison memorandum, July 20, 1916, PWW, vol. 33; WW to EBG, July 20, 1916, PWW, vol. 33.
31. WW statement, July 21, 1915, PWW, vol. 34.
32. New York Times, July 25, 1915.
33. On the navy proposals, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4, Confusion and Crises, 1915–1916 (Princeton, N.J., 1964). The best treatment of the cultural conflict and personal divisions surrounding Josephus Daniels is the part memoir, part history of this time by his son, Jonathan Daniels, The End of Innocence (Philadelphia, 1954).
34. WW to EBG, Aug. 31, 1915, PWW, vol. 34. On the army plan, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4.
35. WW to EBG, Aug, 5, 1915, PWW, vol. 34; EBG to WW, Aug. 26, 1915, PWW, vol. 34.
36. WW to EBG, Aug. 28, 1915, PWW, vol. 34.
37. EMHD, entry for July 31, 1915, EMH Papers, Yale University Library.
38. On the cotton affair, see ASL, “The Cotton Crisis, the South, and Anglo-American Diplomacy, 1914–1915,” in Studies in Southern History in Memory of Albert Ray Newsome, ed. J. Carlyle Sitterson (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1957). For assessments of public opinion, see New York Times, Aug. 20 and 21, 1915, and “The Attack on the Arabic,” Literary Digest, Aug. 28, 1915.
39. New York World, Aug. 23, 1915. On the German response, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 3, The Struggle for Neutrality, 1914–1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1960).
40. New York Evening Post, Sept. 2, 1915.
41. JD, The Wilson Era, vol. 1, Years of Peace, 1910–1917 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944). For the story of McAdoo’s confrontation, see EMHD, entry for Sept. 25, 1915, PWW, vol. 34. According to Edith’s recollection, McAdoo later told her that the story about the anonymous letter had been House’s idea. Memoir.
42. WW shorthand drafts, [ca. Sept. 20, 1915], PWW, vol. 34; WW to EBG, Sept. 18 and 19, 1915, PWW, vol. 34. The editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson admit that the dating of the shorthand drafts is “somewhat conjectural.” PWW, vol. 34, n. 1.
43. EBG to WW, Sept. 19, 1915, PWW, vol. 34.
44. WW to EBG, Sept. 19, 1915, PWW, vol. 34; Edmund W. Starling with Thomas Sugrue, Starling of the White House: The Story of the Man Whose Secret Service Detail Guarded Five Presidents from Woodrow Wilson to Franklin D. Roosevelt (New York, 1946).
45. EMHD, entries for Sept. 22 and 24, 1915, PWW, vol. 34, 518; EBG to WW, Sept. 24, PWW, vol. 34.
46. A good deal of preparation preceded the announcement. Stockton Axson wrote a draft of the statement, and Wilson privately told Mary Hulbert and his friend Edith Gittings Reid in advance. The draft and letters are in PWW, vol. 35, 153–54.
47. WW statement, Oct. 6, 1915, PWW, vol. 35.
48. WW to EMH, Sept. 20, 1915, PWW, vol. 34. On the submarine negotiations, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 3.
49. On the anti-preparedness activity, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4; on Villard’s activities, see Oswald Garrison Villard, Fighting Years: Memoirs of a Liberal Editor (New York, 1939).
50. WW speeches, Oct. 6 and 28, 1915; Nov. 4, 1915, PWW, vol. 35.
51. WW speech, Dec. 7, 1915, PWW, vol. 35.
52. WW speeches, Dec. 8 and 10, 1915, PWW, vol. 35.
53. Starling, Starling of the White House. For descriptions of the wedding, see New
54. York Times, Dec. 19, 1915; Memoir; and Irwin Hood Hoover, Forty-Two Years in the White House (Boston, 1934). 54. JPT memorandum, Jan. 4, 1916, PWW, vol. 35.
15 SECOND FLOOD TIDE
1. JPT memorandum, Jan. 4, 1916, PWW, vol. 35.
2. On these negotiations, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4, Confusions and Crises, 1915–1916 (Princeton, N.J., 1964).
3. JPT to WW, Jan. 17, 1916, PWW, vol. 35.
4. Wilson speeches, Jan. 27 and 29, 1916, PWW, vol. 36, 41–48.
5. Arthur Capper to Oswald Garrison Villard, Feb. 3, 1916, Oswald Garrison Villard Papers, Houghton Library, Harvard University. For a description of the tour, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4.
6. WW speeches, Feb. 1 and 3, 1916, PWW, vol. 36. Wilson seems to have realized that he got carried away in speaking about the navy: he changed the officially published text of the speech to read “incomparably the most adequate navy in the world.” The original wording could have been interpreted as a challenge to Britain. See n. 2.
7. WJB to JD, Feb. 4, 1916, JD Papers, box 37, LC; Claude Kitchin to WJB, Feb. 9, 1916, Claude Kitchin Papers, box 8, Southern Historical Collection, University of North Carolina Library, Chapel Hill. On the congressional opposition to Wilson’s preparedness program, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Vanity of Power: American Isolationism and the First World War, 1914–1917 (Westport, Conn., 1969).
8. The main advocate of the armor-plate factory was South Carolina’s aging senator Pitchfork Ben Tillman. On the navy bill, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4, 335–38.
9. On the role of James Hay, see George C. Herring, Jr., “James Hay and the Preparedness Controversy, 1915–1916,” Journal of Southern History 30 (Nov. 1964).
10. Lindley M. Garrison to WW, Feb. 9, 1916, PWW, vol. 36; WW to Garrison, Feb. 10, 1916, PWW, vol. 36.
11. James Hay to WW, Feb. 11, 1916, PWW, vol. 36. On the subsequent fortunes of the army bill, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4. The nitrate plant, with a hydroelectric power–generating facility, would be located on the Tennessee River at Muscle Shoals, Alabama. This power-generating facility would become a political football in the 1920s when successive Republican administrations tried to sell it to private utilities. A coalition of Democrats and Republican insurgents, led by Senator George Norris, successfully prevented the sale, and this plant would later serve as the nucleus of the Tennessee Valley Authority.
12. EMH to RL, Feb. 14, 1916, in U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: The Lansing Papers, 1914–1920 (Washington, D.C., 1939), vol. 1. On the modus vivendi, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4, and Ernest R. May,The World War and American Isolation, 1914–1917 (Cambridge, Mass., 1959).
13. New York Times, Feb. 23, 1916. See also William J. Stone to WW, Feb. 23, 1916, PWW, vol. 36.
14. New York Times, Feb. 26, 1916; Mar. 3, 1916.
15. WW to William J. Stone, Feb. 24, 1916, PWW, vol. 36; WW to Edward W. Pou, Feb. 29, 1916, PWW, vol. 36; WW to Albert S. Burleson and William Gibbs McAdoo, Mar. 2, 1916, PWW, vol. 36. For an analysis of these moves, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4.
16. WW to William Gordon, Mar. 2, 1916, PWW, vol. 36. For the vote on the Gore resolution, see Cooper, Vanity of Power.
17. Statement by Cyrus Cline, Democrat of Indiana, 64th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record 3706 (Mar. 7, 1916). See also New York Times, Mar. 8, 1916. For an analysis of the vote on the McLemore resolution, see Cooper, Vanity of Power, 229–32.
18. EMHD, entry for Mar. 7, 1916, PWW, vol. 36.
19. House-Grey Memorandum, Feb. 22, 1916, PWW, vol. 36, n. 2.
20. Participants and historians alike have written extensively about the House-Grey Memorandum, including not only House in his subsequently published diary but also Sir Edward Grey and David Lloyd George in their memoirs. The most incisive historical accounts and analysis are in ASL, Wilson, vol. 4, and Patrick Devlin, Too Proud to Fight: Woodrow Wilson’s Neutrality (New York, 1975). Devlin lays particular stress on personal and psychological elements in the relationship between House and Wilson.
21. Walter Hines Page diary, entry for Feb. 13, 1916, Houghton Library, Harvard University; Jonathan Daniels, The End of Innocence (Philadelphia, 1954). On House’s dealings with Clifford Carver, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., Walter Hines Page: The Southerner as American, 1855–1918 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1977), 353.
22. It is not clear how much of a personal stake Edward Grey felt he had in the scheme. When he brought the plan up before the cabinet’s War Committee, he argued for it somewhat tepidly, but he later revised the meeting’s minutes to show himself backing it more vigorously, though not wholeheartedly. See John Milton Cooper, Jr., “The British Response to the House-Grey Memorandum: New Evidence and New Questions,” Journal of American History 59 (Mar. 1973). This article reproduces the minutes of the meeting and Grey’s revisions, which are in “Addendum to the Proceedings of the War Committee on March 21, 1916,” CAB [Cabinet] 22, 13 (1), Public Record Office, London.
23. “Conversation du Colonel House avec M. Jules Cambon,” Feb. 2, 1916, PWW, vol. 36, n. 1; EMH to WW, Feb. 3, 1916, PWW, vol. 36; WW to EMH, Dec. 24, 1915, PWW, vol. 35.
24. EMH to WW, Feb. 9, 1916, PWW, vol. 36.
25. “Deuxieme Entrevue du Colonel House,” Feb. 7, 1916, PWW, vol. 36, n. 1; Jonathan Daniels to John Milton Cooper, Jr., Sept. 6 and 22, 1977, Jonathan Daniels Papers, Southern Historical Collection, University of North Carolina Library, Chapel Hill.
26. EMHD, entry for Mar. 6, 1916, PWW, vol. 36. Wilson wrote House no letters while he was abroad and sent him just four telegrams. Only the first of those telegrams, right after House arrived in London, concerned his mission: “Would be glad if you would convey my assurance that I shall be willing and glad when the opportunity comes to cooperate in a policy seeking to bring about and maintain permanent peace among the civilized nations.” WW to EMH, Jan. 9, 1916, PWW, vol. 35. The other three telegrams dealt with submarine and blockade matters.
27. Lloyd George, War Memoirs of David Lloyd George (Boston, 1933), vol. 2. On the intelligence interception and code breaking, see Devlin, Too Proud to Fight, and on Grey’s equivocation, see n. 22 above.
28. For an account of the raid, see Friedrich Katz, The Life and Times of Pancho Villa (Stanford, Calif., 1998). Army reports of the raid are reproduced in PWW, vol. 36.
29. WW statement, [Mar. 10, 1916], PWW, vol. 36. See also New York Times, Mar. 10 and 11, 1916, and ASL, Wilson, vol. 4.
30. “Memorandum to the Adjutant General,” PWW, vol. 36.
31. Much has been written about the Punitive Expedition and the political and diplomatic circumstances surrounding it. The most detailed account from the American side is found in ASL, Wilson, vol. 4, 280–318, and ASL, Wilson, vol. 5, Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 1916–1917 (Princeton, N.J., 1965), 131–34, 328–38. For an account that takes in the Mexican side, see Katz, Pancho Villa.
32. For an estimate of Villa, see Katz, Pancho Villa. A junior officer on the expedition would also find future glory in combat: Lieutenant George S. Patton, Jr. He typified many of his fellow officers when he chafed at not being able to wage a wider war, and he unleashed the sharp tongue, if not the foul mouth, for which he would later become famous when he complained to his father about Wilson, “He has not the soul of a louse nor the mind of a worm or the backbone of a jellyfish.” George S. Patton, Jr., to George S. Patton, Sept. 28, 1916, in Martin Blumenson, ed., The Patton Papers (Boston, 1972), vol. 1. Ironically, the senior Patton was running on the same ticket with Wilson as the Democratic nominee for senator in California.
33. JPT, Wilson As I Know Him (Garden City, N.Y., 1921). The remarks about valor are from a speech the president had given at the Gridiron Club dinner in Washington two weeks earlier.
34. RSB memorandum, [May 12, 1916], PWW, vol. 37.
35. WW speech, June 30, 1916, PWW, vol. 37.
36. EMHD, entry for Mar. 17, 1916, PWW, vol. 36.
37. On the attack on the Sussex and Wilson’s routine, see New York Times, Mar. 25, 26, and 27, 1916.
38. RL to WW, Mar. 27, 1916, PWW, vol. 36; EMHD, entry for Mar. 29, 1916, PWW, vol. 36. See also WW draft, [Apr. 10, 1916], PWW, vol. 36.
39. On House’s effort, see EMHD, entry for Apr. 11, 1916, PWW, vol. 36. On Lansing’s activities, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4.
40. WW speech, Apr. 13, 1916, PWW, vol. 36.
41. WW speech, Apr. 19, 1916, PWW, vol. 36. See also New York Times, Apr. 20, 21, and 22, 1916, and ASL, Wilson, vol. 4.
42. On the German debates and decision, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4.
43. WW statement, [May 7, 1916], PWW, vol. 36. For Lansing’s amended version, see PWW, vol. 36.
44. WW statement, May 8, 1916, in Charles Swem transcript of meeting, PWW, vol. 36.
45. HCL, War Addresses, 1915–1917 (Boston, 1917); WW speech, May 27, 1916, PWW, vol. 37. Ironically, as it turned out, Lodge’s phrase would lead to the later internationalist watchwords and the title of a future international peacekeeping organization: “united nations.”
46. WW speech, May 27, 1916, PWW, vol. 37.
47. WW speech, May 27, 1910, PWW, vol. 37. The best exposition of the difference between Wilson and the LEP, or “conservative internationalists,” and Wilson’s affinity for socialist- and progressive-inspired “liberal internationalists” is found in Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York, 1992).
48. WW speech, May 30, 1916, PWW, vol. 37; draft of Democratic Party platform, [June 10, 1916], PWW, vol. 37. On Democrats’ and insurgent Republicans’ attraction to Bryan’s isolationism, see Cooper, Vanity of Power.
49. Asbury F. Lever to RSB, Mar. 22, 1927, RSBP, box 109.
50. Gus Karger to WHT, Jan. 29, 1916, WHTP, microfilm ed., reel 162. House was reportedly appalled when he heard the news. See Chandler P. Anderson diary, entry for Feb. 10, 1916, Chandler P. Anderson Papers, LC.
51. On the House Democrats’ program, see PWW, vol. 36, n. 1.
52. On the public and senatorial controversies over Brandeis’s nomination, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4, Alpheus T. Mason, Brandeis: A Free Man’s Life (New York, 1946), and Philippa Strum, Louis D. Brandeis: Justice for the People (Cambridge, Mass., 1984). The following paragraphs are based on those accounts.
53. WW to Charles Culberson, May 5, 1916, PWW, vol. 36.
54. WW to Henry Morgenthau, June 5, 1916, PWW, vol. 37; Hapgood, The Changing Years: Reminiscences of Norman Hapgood (New York, 1930).
55. Memoir. On their early months together in the White House.
56. Memoir.
16 TO RUN AGAIN
1. WW speech, Apr. 13, 1916, PWW, vol. 36; Robert Owen to WW, June 2, 1916, PWW, vol. 37.
2. WW draft platform, [ca. June 10, 1916], PWW, vol. 37.
3. WW speech, July 4, 1916, PWW, vol. 37; WW draft platform, [ca. June 10, 1916], PWW, vol. 37. For statements of the interpretation of the conversion from the New Freedom to the New Nationalism, see ASL, “The South and the ‘New Freedom,’” American Scholar 20 (summer 1951), and Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917 (New York, 1954), esp. In the volumes of his full-scale biography produced later, Link modified, downplayed, and finally abandoned this interpretation. For a counterargument see John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); 400, n. 9.
4. TR statement, Mar. 9, 1916, in TR, The Works of Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Hermann Hagedorn (New York, 1926), vol. 17. The Republican platform is in Kirk H. Porter and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds., National Party Platforms, 1840–1956 (Urbana, Ill., 1956).
5. The best biography of Hughes is Merlo J. Pusey’s two-volume Charles Evans Hughes (New York, 1951).
6. Daily News Bulletin, Feb. 4, 1924, quoted in Alpheus T. Mason, Brandeis: A Free Man’s Life (New York, 1946). For Hughes’s recollection of meeting Wilson, see Hughes, The Autobiographical Notes of Charles Evans Hughes, ed. David J. Danelski and Joseph S. Tulchin (Cambridge, Mass., 1973).
7. TR to Austin Wadsworth, June 23, 1916, in TR, Letters, ed. Elting E. Morison, vol. 8, The Days of Armageddon, 1900–1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1954). Roosevelt’s biographers have described the Progressive convention and his treatment of the delegates many times. For two good recent treatments, see Kathleen Dalton, Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life (New York, 2002), and Patricia O’Toole, When the Trumpets Call: Theodore Roosevelt after the White House (New York, 2005). The fullest treatment of this convention is in John A. Gable, The Bull Moose Years: Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Party Movement (Port Washington, N.Y., 1978).
8. On the Democratic campaign organization, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5, Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 1916–1917 (Princeton, N.J., 1965).
9. EMHD, entry for May 24, 1916, PWW, vol. 37.
10. Ibid..
11. EMHD, entry for May, 24, 1916, PWW, vol. 34. On the possible impact of this decision on the later crisis of disability, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations (New York, 2001).
12. Martin Glynn speech, June 14, 1916, official reporter’s transcript of the Democratic convention, copy in WWP, series 2, box 136. See also New York Times and New York World, June 15 and 16, 1916. For an account of the convention, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
13. Ollie James and WJB speeches, June 15, 1916, in official reporter’s transcript of the Democratic convention, copy in WWP, series 2, box 136.
14. Democratic Party platform, June 16, 1916, in official reporter’s transcript of the Democratic convention, copy in WWP, series 2, box 136.
15. WW to EMH, July 23, 1916, PWW, vol. 37. On these controversies, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
16. “About Washton,” [ca. Sept. 1916], Walter Hines Page diary, Houghton Library, Harvard University; Page memorandum, [Sept. 23, 1916], PWW, vol. 38. For an account of Page’s visit home, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., Walter Hines Page: The Southerner as American, 1855–1918 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1977).
17. WW statement, Sept. 1, 1916, PWW, vol. 38. Ten of the no votes in the Senate came from southern Democrats, but nine other senators from the South voted in favor. Two Republicans, George Oliver and Boies Penrose of Pennsylvania, also voted no.
18. Among Democrats, 196 voted for the bill and only one voted against it. Among Republicans, 139 voted against it and 37 voted for it. All but four of the Republican dissidents came from the West or the farther reaches of the Midwest, and most of them were insurgents. On the framing and passage of the revenue bill, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 4, Confusions and Crises, 1915–1916 (Princeton, N.J., 1964).
19. The senators who nearly came to blows were Henry Ashurst, Democrat of Arizona, and Charles Curtis, Republican of Kansas. On the retaliatory measures, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
20. On Wilson’s appearance, see New York Times, Aug. 30, 1916. On the bargaining that led to the strike threat, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
21. Of House Democrats voting, 167 supported the bill and only 3 opposed it. Republicans split almost down the middle: 70 in favor and 53 against, with most of the no votes coming from northeasterners. For the signing of the bill, see New York Times, Sept. 4, 1916.
22. Hughes speech, July 31, 1916, Charles Evans Hughes Papers, box 182, LC; WW to Bernard Baruch, Aug. 19, 1916, PWW, vol. 38; WW to RL, Oct. 2, 1916, PWW, vol. 38. For Hughes’s explanation, see Hughes, Autobiographical Notes.
23. Farmer’s remark quoted in Pusey, Hughes, vol. 1.
24. For accounts of the Long Beach incident, see Hughes, Autobiographical Notes, and Pusey, Hughes, vol. 1.
25. WW speeches, July 4 and 20, 1916, PWW, vol. 37.
26. WW speech, Sept. 2, 1916, PWW, vol. 38.
27. WW speech, Sept. 8, 1916, PWW, vol. 38.
28. See Memoir.
29. Vance McCormick to EMH, Sept. 11, 1916, EMH Papers, Yale University Library.
30. New York Times, Sept. 6, 1916; Charles Evans Hughes to WHT, Sept. 16, 1916, WHTP microfilm ed., reel 169.
31. New York Times, Sept. 30, 1916, Oct. 1, 1916; TR speech, Nov. 3, 1916, in TR, Works of Roosevelt, vol. 18.
32. WW speech, Sept. 23, 1916, PWW, vol. 38; WW to Jeremiah O’Leary, Sept. 29, 1916, PWW, vol. 38.
33. WW speech, Sept. 30, 1916, PWW, vol. 38. Before making this speech, Wilson spent an hour and a half talking with the young New Republic editor Walter Lippmann, who evidently advised him to make such an appeal to Progressives. On Lippmann’s visit and influence, see WW to Lippmann, Sept. 29, 1916, PWW, vol. 38; WW to NDB, Sept. 30, 1916, PWW, vol. 38; and Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Boston, 1980).
34. JD, interview by RSB, Mar. 20, 1929, RSBP, box 103. For the speculation that it was the sight of the young men that moved Wilson to make those statements, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
35. WW speech, Nov. 4, 1916, PWW, vol. 38; EMHD, entry for Nov. 2, 1916, PWW, vol. 38.
36. EMHD, entry for Sept. 30, 1916, Yale University Library. On the smears and efforts to counteract them, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
37. New York Times, Oct. 28, 1916; WW to Walter [sic; i.e., Jonas] Lippmann, Oct. 30, 1916, PWW, vol. 38; TR speech at New York, Nov. 3, 1916, in TR, Works of Roosevelt, vol. 18.
38. On socialist and other liberal support for Wilson, see Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York, 1992).
39. New Republic, Oct. 14, 1916, and Oct. 21, 1916.
40. On the Catholic opposition to Wilson, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
41. WW to J. R. Wilson, Jr., Oct. 16, 1916, PWW, vol. 38; EMHD, entry for Oct. 19, 1916, PWW, vol. 38. See also ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
42. WW to RL, Nov. 5, 1916, PWW, vol. 38; EMHD, entry for Nov. 2, 1916, PWW, vol. 38.
43. Curiously, the plan did not begin to become well known until Arthur Link reproduced Wilson’s letter to Lansing in “President Wilson’s Plan to Resign in 1916,” Princeton University Library Chronicle 23 (summer 1962). At some point, Hughes obtained a copy of the letter. It is in the Charles Evans Hughes Papers, LC. Edith Wilson makes no mention of the plan in her memoirs. In 1926, excerpts from House’s diary and his letter to Wilson about possibly resigning were published in EMH, The Intimate Papers of Colonel House, ed. Charles Seymour (Boston, 1926), vol. 2. In 1937, Ray Stannard Baker also published Wilson’s letter to Lansing, in RSB, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, vol. 6, Facing War, 1915–1917 (Garden City, N.Y., 1937). On the later interregnum, see Jordan A. Schwarz, The Interregnum of Despair: Hoover, Congress, and the Depression (Urbana, Ill., 1970).
44. Memoir.
45. WW to J. R. Wilson, Jr., Nov. 27, 1916, PWW, vol. 40.
46. Hiram Johnson won his race for the Senate by more than 300,000 votes, defeating the father of Lieutenant George S. Patton.
47. Hughes believed that he carried Michigan only because he did some last-minute campaigning there. See Hughes, Autobiographical Notes. This seems exaggerated, because he carried Michigan by a comfortable margin. Wilson’s least impressive showings came in New York and New Jersey, where he barely increased his share of the vote over 1912. The result in New York was not surprising because it was Hughes’s home state, and Democrats there were divided, as usual. New Jersey, however, was a big disappointment.
48. EMHD, entry for Nov. 2, 1916, PWW, vol. 38. The Rhode Island winner, Peter Gerry, had a name that sounded Irish, but he was an old-stock Yankee and a descendant of Elbridge Gerry, the vice president and Massachusetts politician for whom the gerrymander was named.
49. W. E. B. DuBois to WW, Oct. 10, 1916, PWW, vol. 38; WW to JPT, [ca. Oct. 17, 1916], PWW, vol. 38.
50. WW to J.A.H. Hopkins, Nov. 16, 1916, PWW, vol. 38.
17 PEACE AND WAR
1. EMHD, entry for Nov. 14, 1916, PWW, vol. 38; WW, Prolegomenon to a Peace Note, [ca. Nov. 25, 1916], PWW, vol. 40.
2. WW draft peace note, [ca. Nov. 25, 1916], PWW, vol. 40.
3. EMHD, enties for Nov. 26, 1916; Jan. 3, 1917, PWW, vol. 40.
4. RL memorandum, “What Will the President Do?” Dec. 3, 1916, RL Papers, LC.
5. WW to W.P.G. Harding, Nov. 26, 1916, PWW, vol. 40. On these machinations with the Federal Reserve Board, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5, Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 1916–1917 (Princeton, N.J., 1965), and John Milton Cooper, Jr., “The Command of Gold Reversed: American Loans to Britain, 1915–1917,” Pacific Historical Review 45 (May 1976).
6. David Lawrence, The True Story of Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1924). On the attempt to remove Tumulty, see also John M. Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era (Boston, 1951), and ASL, Wilson, vol. 2, The New Freedom (Princeton, N.J., 1956).
7. WW speech, Dec. 5, 1916, PWW, vol. 40.
8. WW to EMH, Dec. 8, 1916, PWW, vol. 40.
9. RL to WW, Dec. 10, 1916, PWW, vol. 40, pp, 209–11; EMHD, entry for Dec. 14, 1916, PWW, vol. 40.
10. WW draft, Dec. 17, 1916, PWW, vol. 40; EMHD, entry for Dec. 20, 1916, PWW, vol. 40–5.
11. Jean-Jules Jusserand’s reports to Paris are paraphrased in ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
12. New York Times, Dec. 22, 1916; JPT to WW, Dec. 21, 1916, PWW, vol. 40.
13. WW to RL, Dec. 21, 1916, PWW, vol. 40. See also RL, War Memoirs of Robert Lansing, Secretary of State (Indianapolis, 1935).
14. The closest Lansing came to explaining his actions was when he wrote to a friend a month later, “I will one of these days tell you the whole story. The inside facts are most interesting, and I believe that you will find my course was justified.” RL to E. N. Smith, Jan. 21, 1917, RL Papers, LC. In a memorandum to himself, Lansing justified his statement by saying that he wanted to dissociate the United States from the German overture and reassure the Allies. He explained his backing down by saying that after Wilson wrote and talked to him, “I saw that my words were open to such an erroneous interpretation” (i.e., that America was abandoning neutrality). RL, “Confidential Memorandum in re: The Two Statements I Issued to the Press on December 21, 1916,” RL Papers, Princeton University Library.
15. Sir Horace Plunkett to Arthur James Balfour, Dec. 22, 1916, PWW, vol. 40, n. 1; Roy Howard, quoted in Lord Northcliffe to David Lloyd George, Dec. 27, 1916, PWW, vol. 40, n. 1; EMHD, entry for Dec. 23, 1916, PWW, vol. 40. On House’s dealings with Plunkett, see also Sir Horace Plunkett diary, entry for Dec. 21, 1916, PWW, vol. 40, n. 2, and Plunkett to EMH, Dec. 27, 1916, PWW, vol. 40.
16. 64th Cong., 2nd Sess., Congressional Record 792–97 (Jan. 3, 1917); New York Times, Jan. 4, 1917.
17. 64th Cong., 2nd Sess., Congressional Record 792–97 (Jan. 3, 1917); 892–95 (Jan. 5, 1917). The senators voting in favor included thirty-eight Democrats and ten Republicans; eight of those Republicans were insurgents, including Borah. Lodge had been privately edging away from the league idea for several months. See HCL to W. Sturgis Bigelow, Apr. 5, 1916, HCLP; HCL to TR, Dec. 21, 1916, TR Papers, LC, box 316. On Borah’s conversion to isolationism, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Vanity of Power: American Isolationism and the First World War, 1914–1917 (Westport, Conn., 1969).
18. For two expressions of these conflicting views of Lloyd George’s response, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5, 237–39, and Patrick Devlin, Too Proud to Fight: Woodrow Wilson’s Neutrality (New York, 1975).
19. On the German reply, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
20. EMHD, entries for Jan. 3 and 4, 1917, PWW, vol. 40.
21. EMHD, entry for Jan. 11, 1917, PWW, vol. 40; WW press conference, Jan. 15, 1917, PWW, vol. 40. Some question has arisen about whether, in writing this speech, Wilson was influenced by The New Republic editors. House had sent him two editorials from the magazine: “Peace without Victory” (Dec. 23, 1916) and an unsigned piece (Jan. 6, 1917). Wilson later told Herbert Croly, “I was interested and encouraged, when preparing my recent address to the Senate, to find an editorial in the New Republic which was not only written along the same lines but which served to clarify and strengthen my thought not a little.” WW to Croly, Jan. 25, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. Wilson may have taken the speech’s signature phrase, “peace without victory,” from The New Republic, but its main ideas were ones that he had formulated on his own. Walter Lippmann later doubted that he and Croly had much influence on Wilson, and he believed there was only a coincidental congruence of thinking. See Lippmann, “Notes for a Biography,” New Republic, July 16, 1930.
22. WW speech, Jan. 22, 1917, PWW, vol. 40.
23. Ibid..
24. New York Times, Jan. 23 and 27, 1917; 64th Cong., 2nd Sess. Congressional Record 1950 (Jan. 25, 1917); 2361–64 (Feb. 1, 1917); 2749 (Feb. 7, 1917). Other senators who attacked the league idea were James Reed, Democrat of Missouri, and Albert Cummins, Republican of Iowa.
25. 64th Cong., 2nd Sess., Congressional Record 2364–70 (Feb. 1, 1917).
26. New York Times, Jan. 27 and 29, 1917; WJB to WW, Jan. 26, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. On Republican defections from the LEP and other unfavorable reactions to “peace without victory,” see Cooper, Vanity of Power.
27. WW to Cleveland Dodge, Jan. 25, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. On foreign reactions to “peace without victory,” see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
28. Johann-Heinrich von Bernstorff to RL, Jan. 31, 1917, PWW, vol. 41.
29. Comment about “a shopkeeper’s peace” quoted in von Bernstorff to RL, Jan. 31, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. For analyses of this decision, see Cooper, “Command of Gold Reversed,” and “The United States,” in The Origins of World War I, ed. Richard F. Hamilton and Holger H. Herwig (New York, 2003).
30. Arthur Zimmermann to Heinrich von Eckhardt, Jan. 16, 1917, in Official German Documents Relating to the World War (New York, 1923), vol. 2. The classic work on this affair is Barbara W. Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram (New York, 1958). Tuchman follows William Reginald Hall’s biographer in maintaining that the captain sat on the telegram until after February 1 in order to protect his operation. That is extremely doubtful. See John Milton Cooper, Jr., Walter Hines Page: The Southerner as American, 1855–1918 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1977).
31. RL memorandum, Feb. 4, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. On Wilson’s possible acceptance of limited submarine warfare, see WW to RL, Jan. 31, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. See also the interpretation of this exchange in ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
32. EMHD, entry for Feb. 1, 1917, PWW, vol. 41; Louis Lochner memorandum, Feb. 1, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. House did not come to Washington at Wilson’s request. The number two person in the State Department, Frank L. Polk, had telephoned and asked the colonel to come.
33. David F. Houston, Eight Years with Wilson’s Cabinet, 1913–1920 (Garden City, N.Y., 1926), vol. 1; William B. Wilson to RSB, Sept. 17, 1932, RSBP, series 1, box 58. For an account of the meetings at the Capitol, see New York World, Feb. 3, 1917. Evidently the most energetic gesticulator was Hoke Smith of Georgia.
34. JD to WW, Feb. 2, 1917, PWW, vol. 41; JD, The Wilson Era, vol. 1, Years of Peace, 1910–1917 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944); WW speech, Feb. 3, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. Daniels incorrectly recalled this conversation taking place in January.
35. HCL to TR, Feb. 13, 1917, TR Papers, LC; TR to Hiram Johnson, Feb. 17, 1917, Hiram Johnson Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, part 2, box 28. For a description of the speech, see New York Times, Feb. 4, 1917. The no votes on the Senate resolution came from three insurgent Republicans—La Follette, Asle Gronna of North Dakota, and John Works of California—and two Bryanite Democrats, William F. Kirby of Arkansas and James K. Vardaman of Mississippi; another Democrat, Harry Lane of Oregon, announced that he also opposed the resolution.
36. WW to EMH, Feb. 12, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. The Junkerthum was Germany’s militarist big business clique.
37. WW veto message, Jan. 29, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. On this legislative session, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
38. Franklin K. Lane to George W. Lane, Feb. 25, 1917, Lane, The Letters of Franklin K. Lane, Personal and Political, ed. Anne W. Lane and Louise H. Wall (Boston, 1922).
39. WW speech, Feb. 26, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. On the scene in the Capitol, see New York Times, Feb. 27, 1917, and RSBD, entry for Feb. 26, 1917, RSBP. On the Laconia sinking, see New York Times, Feb. 27, 1917. On editorial reactions to the speech and the sinking of the Laconia, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
40. On the British operation to cover the tracks of their interception, see Tuchman, Zimmermann Telegram, and on the decision to publish the telegram, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
41. For a survey of editorial opinion, see Literary Digest, Mar. 17, 1917. For an analysis of the votes on the armed-ships bill and the amendment to bar munitions shipments, see Cooper, Vanity of Power, 233–35.
42. See New York Times, Mar. 4 and 5, 1917.
43. Robert M. La Follette, Jr., to Robert M. La Follette, [Mar. 4, 1917], La Follette Family Papers, LC. This note and others exchanged between La Follette and his son are reprinted, along with a description of the scene, in Belle Case La Follette and Fola La Follette, Robert M. La Follette, June 14, 1855–June 18, 1925 (New York, 1953), vol. 1.
44. EMHD, entry for Mar. 5, 1917, PWW, vol. 41; WW statement, Mar. 4, 1917, PWW, vol. 41.
45. WW speech, Mar. 5, 1917, PWW, vol. 41.
46. EMHD, entries for Mar. 5 and 28, 1917, PWW, vol. 41.
47. Winston S. Churchill, World Crisis, vol. 3, 1916–1918 (London, 1927). On armed neutrality and the financial situation, see ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
48. For estimates of congressional opinion, see Gus J. Karger to WHT, Apr. 6, 1917, WHTP, box 374; David Starr Jordan to Jessie Jordan, Apr. 6, 1917, David Starr Jordan Papers, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Stanford University; David Starr Jordan, The Days of a Man: Being Memories of a Naturalist, Teacher, and Minor Prophet of Democracy (Yonkers, N.Y., 1922), vol. 2, n. 1; Arthur Wallace Dunn, From Harrison to Harding: A Personal Narrative, Covering a Third of a Century, 1888–1921(New York, 1922), vol. 2, and Fiorello H. La Guardia, The Making of an Insurgent: An Autobiography, 1882–1919 (Philadelphia, 1948).
49. Thomas W. Brahany diary, entry for Mar. 26, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. Brahany, a member of the stenography staff, got the story from John Mays, the president’s barber.
50. William C. Adamson memorandum, RSBP, box 99.
51. Frank Irving Cobb, Cobb of “The World,” ed. John L. Heaton (New York, 1924). A heated academic debate has raged over the authenticity of Cobb’s recollection. In 1965, Arthur Link pointed out that the meeting took place on March 19, not April 1, as Cobb had stated. See ASL, Wilson, vol. 5, n. 33. Two years later, Jerold S. Auerbach called much of the interview into question, particularly the prediction of the repression of civil liberties. See Auerbach, “Woodrow Wilson’s ‘Prediction’ to Frank Cobb: Words Historians Should Doubt Ever Got Spoken,” Journal of American History 54 (Dec. 1967). Several other historians subsequently weighed in, and one uncovered the manuscript of Cobb’s account. Link eventually rejoined the debate, upholding the authenticity of the interview in his presidential address to the Organization of American Historians. See ASL, “That Cobb Interview,” Journal of American History 72 (June 1985). On balance, Link has the better of the argument, not only because of his unparalleled knowledge of Wilson but also because Cobb’s recollection is consonant with what Wilson said to other people in February and March 1917.
52. JDD, entry for Mar. 20, 1917, PWW, vol. 41; RL, “Memorandum of the Cabinet Meeting, 2:30–5 p.m., Tuesday, March 20, 1917,” PWW, vol. 41. For Attorney General Thomas Gregory’s brief account of the meeting, see EMHD, entry for Mar. 22, 1917,PWW, vol. 41. For a later recollection of this meeting, see Houston, Wilson’s Cabinet, vol. 1.
53. EMHD, entries for Mar. 27 and 28, 1917, PWW, vol. 41, 497–98.
54. WW to Matthew Hale, Mar. 31, 1917, WWP, series 2, box 148; RL memorandum, Mar. 20, 1917, PWW, vol. 41; EMHD, entry for Mar. 29, 1917, PWW, vol. 41.
55. RL memorandum, Mar. 20, 1917, PWW, vol. 41.
56. Irwin Hood Hoover, quoted in Thomas W. Brahany diary, entry for Mar. 31, 1917, PWW, p. 515; EMHD, entry for Apr. 2, 1917, PWW, vol. 41.
57. WW speech, Apr. 2, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. For the description of the scene and Edward White’s clapping, see New York Times, Apr. 3, 1917.
58. WW speech, Apr. 2, 1917, PWW, vol. 41; New York Times, Apr. 3, 1917.
59. WW speech, Apr. 2, 1917, PWW, vol. 41; New York Times, Apr. 3, 1917.
60. WW speech, Apr. 2, 1917, PWW, vol. 41. Wilson made a slip when he said “Gentlemen of the Congress.” Representative Jeannette Rankin of Montana had just taken her seat as the first woman to serve in either house.
61. JPT, Wilson As I Know Him (Garden City, N.Y., 1921). On the reactions to the speech, see also New York Times, Apr. 3, 1917; New York World, Apr. 3, 1917; and ASL, Wilson, vol. 5.
62. 65th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record 261 (Apr. 4, 1917). The Republicans were Robert La Follette, George Norris, and Asle Gronna, and the Democrats were William Stone, James K. Vardaman, and Harry Lane. One other Democrat, Thomas Gore, announced against the war but did not vote.
63. Lawrence, True Story. For a description of Claude Kitchin’s speech, see New York Times, Apr. 7, 1917, and New York World, Apr. 7, 1917. On Bryan’s opposition to intervention, see WJB to Louis Lochner, Apr. 2, 1917, Louis Lochner Papers, Wisconsin Historical Society, box 52, and WJB to David Starr Jordan, Mar. 28, 1917, David Starr Jordan Papers.
64. New York Times, Apr. 7, 1917. Four representatives also announced against the resolution.
65. For a description of Wilson signing the war resolution, see Thomas W. Brahany diary, entry for Apr. 6, 1917, PWW, vol. 41.
18 WAGING WAR
1. Fitz W. Woodrow to Arthur C. Walworth, Apr. 12, 1948, quoted in Walworth, Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1958), vol. 2. Walworth claimed that Woodrow verified this statement in May 1956. n. 1, and “Interview with Col. FitzWilliam McMaster Woodrow at his home, 4409 Que St., Washington, D.C., April 12, 1948, March 16, 1955, and over the phone on March 15, 1956,” Arthur C. Walworth Papers, Yale University Library, folder 61. The original of the letter is not among these papers. Wilson had not criticized Lincoln’s war leadership in any of his published work.
2. WW, “Programme,” Apr. 7, 1917, PWW, vol. 42; WW to Walter Lippmann, Apr. 7, 1917, PWW, vol. 42.
3. WW to Carter Glass, Apr. 9, 1919, PWW, vol. 42; JDD, entry for Apr. 9, 1917, PWW, vol. 42; WW executive order, [Apr. 13, 1917], PWW, vol. 42. On George Creel, see his autobiography, Rebel at Large: Recollections of Fifty Crowded Years (New York, 1947).
4. On Baruch’s personality and background, see Jordan A. Schwarz, The Speculator: Bernard Baruch in Washington, 1917–1965 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1981).
5. WW statement, Apr. 15, 1917, PWW, vol. 42.
6. WW to Guy T. Helvering, Apr. 19, 1917, PWW, vol. 42; 65th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record 1120 (Apr. 25, 1917). On the passage of the draft act, see John Whiteclay Chambers II, To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (New York, 1987).
7. Their fears were justified. As soon as word got out that the ex-president wanted to lead a division to fight on the Western Front, officers of all ranks scrambled to climb aboard, including a young lieutenant from Kansas less than two years out of West Point—Dwight Eisenhower.
8. Thomas W. Brahany diary, entry for Apr. 10, 1917, PWW, vol. 42; Roosevelt to J. Callan O’Laughlin, Apr. 13, 1917, TR, Letters, ed. Elting E. Morison, vol. 8, The Days of Armageddon, 1900–1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1954); JPT, Woodrow Wilson As I Know Him (Garden City, N.Y., 1921).
9. John J. Leary, Jr., Talks with T.R. (Boston, 1920); NDB to TR, Apr. 10, 1917, PWW, vol. 42.
10. J. H. Whitehouse, “The House Report, 14 November 1916 to 14 April 1917,” PWW, vol. 42.
11. W.B. Fowler, British-American Relations, 1917–1918: The Role of Sir William Wiseman (Princeton, N.J., 1969). On Wiseman and the beginning of his relationship with House. For an example of their conspiring together.
12. EMHD, entries for Apr. 26, 28, and 30, 1917, PWW, vol. 42.
13. Jean-Jules Jusserand to council of ministers, May 1 and 3, 1917, PWW, vol. 42.
14. On the draft registration and the choosing of the first inductees, see Chambers, To Raise an Army.
15. On the suspension of these publications, see also Harry N. Scheiber, The Wilson Administration and Civil Liberties, 1917–1921 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1960), and James Weinstein, The Decline of Socialism in America, 1912–1915 (New York, 1967).
16. WW to Max Eastman, Sept. 13, 1917, PWW, vol. 44; EMH to WW, Oct. 17, 1917, PWW, vol. 44.
17. On the plight of German Americans during World War I, see Frederick C. Luebke, Bonds of Loyalty: German-Americans and World War I (Dekalb, Ill., 1974).
18. On these incidents, see Melvyn Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Chicago, 1969).
19. JDD, entry for July 31, 1917, PWW, vol. 43. On the raids and indictments, see Dubofsky, We Shall Be All.
20. Steffens, The Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens (New York, 1931); WW speech, Dec. 4, 1917, PWW, vol. 44.
21. On the choice of Pershing and the internal politics of the military, see Edward M. Coffman, The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (New York, 1968), and Frank E. Vandiver, Black Jack: The Life and Times of John J. Pershing (College Station, Tex., 1977), vol. 2.
22. NDB to Pershing, May 26, 1917, PWW, vol. 42. On Pershing’s arrival in France, see Vandiver, Black Jack, vol. 2.
23. NDB to Pershing, Dec. 18, 1917, PWW, vol. 45.
24. WW speech, Aug. 11, 1914, PWW, vol. 43. On William Sims’s dealings with the British over the convoy system, see Elting E. Morison, Admiral Sims and the Modern American Navy (Boston, 1942).
25. For a concise account of the shipbuilding program, see Robert H. Ferrell, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 1917–1921 (New York, 1985).
26. Benjamin Tillman to WW, July 17, 1917, PWW, vol. 43.
27. On the railroad situation, see David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1982).
28. WW speech, Jan. 4, 1918, PWW, vol. 45.
29. WW to Asbury F. Lever, July 23, 1917, PWW, vol. 43. On the debate over the Lever Act, see Seward W. Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned: Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916–1918 (Middletown, Conn., 1966). On Hoover’s role in drafting the Lever Act, see Witold S. Sworakowski, “Herbert Hoover, Launching the Food Administration,” in Herbert Hoover—the Great War and Its Aftermath, 1914–1923, ed. Lawrence E. Gelfand (Iowa City, Iowa, 1979).
30. Charles Seymour, Woodrow Wilson and the World War: A Chronicle of Our Own Times (New Haven, Conn., 1921).
31. Slogans quoted in Ferrell, Wilson and World War I. On Hoover’s work as food administrator, see George H. Nash, The Life of Herbert Hoover, vol. 3, Master of Emergencies, 1917–1918 (New York, 1996).
32. On the coal crisis, see James P. Johnson, “The Wilsonians as War Managers: Coal and the 1917–18 Winter Crisis, “Prologue 9 (winter 1977).
33. On the early months of the War Industries Board, see Robert D. Cuff, The War Industries Board: Business-Government Relations during World War I (Baltimore, 1973).
34. WW to Thomas W. Gregory, July 7, 1917, PWW, vol. 43. On this incident, see Elliott M. Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale, Ill., 1964).
35. JPT to WW, Aug. 1, 1917, PWW, vol. 43; JDD, entry for Aug. 24, 1917, PWW, vol. 44. For the black leaders’ statement, see Washington Post, Aug. 17, 1917. On the violence in Houston, see Robert V. Haynes, A Night of Violence: The Houston Riot of 1917(Baton Rouge, La., 1976).
36. Crisis, August 1917. On the army’s rare policies, see Coffman, War to End All Wars, and Kennedy, Over Here. For Wilson’s involvement in the Charles Young incident, see WW to NDB, June 28, 1917, PWW, vol. 43, and WW to John Sharp Williams, June 28, 1917, PWW, vol. 43. Young was called back from retirement for active duty in late 1918 but was never given the opportunity to serve in Europe.
37. Charles H. Williams, quoted in Coffman, War to End All Wars. On the labor battalion’s experience.
38. Johnson, Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson (New York, 1933). The petition is reprinted on and in PWW, vol. 48.
39. Robert R. Moton to WW, June 15, 1918, PWW, vol. 48; WW to Moton, June 18, 1918, PWW, vol. 48.
40. WW statement, July 26, 1918, PWW, vol. 49.
41. For an examination of Wilson’s political thought that emphasizes southern influences, see Stephen Skowronek, “The Reassociation of Ideas and Purposes: Racism, Liberalism, and the American Political Tradition,” American Political Science Review 100 (Aug. 2006), and for an examination that puts him in a larger context of “racial nationalism,” see Gary Gerstle, “Race and Nation in the Thought and Politics of Woodrow Wilson,” in Reconsidering Woodrow Wilson: Progressivism, Internationalism, War, and Peace, ed. John Milton Cooper, Jr. (Washington, D.C., 2008).
42. For accounts of the NWP incident see Washington Post, July 15, 18, 19, and 20, 1917, and New York Times, July 17 and 19, 1917.
43. Louis Brownlow, A Passion for Anonymity: The Autobiography of Louis Brownlow, Second Half (Chicago, 1958); WW to EMH, July 29, 1917, PWW, vol. 43. On the break with Malone, see also EMHD, entry for July 26, 1917, PWW, vol. 43; WW to EMH, July 26 1917, PWW, vol. 43; and Dudley Field Malone to WW, Sept. 7, 1917, PWW, vol. 44.
44. Carrie Chapman Catt to WW, May 7, 1917, PWW, vol. 42; WW to Edward W. Pou, May 14, 1917, PWW, vol. 42. See also Helen Hamilton Gardener to WW, May 10, 1917, PWW, vol. 42. For an account of how Catt, Gardener, and other NAWSA leaders skillfully appealed to Wilson, see Victoria Brown, “Did Woodrow Wilson’s Gender Politics Matter?” in Cooper, Reconsidering Wilson.
45. WW statement, [Oct. 25, 1917], PWW, vol. 44; Elizabeth Merrill Bass to WW, Jan. 8, 1918, PWW, vol. 45.
46. WW statement, Jan. 10, 1918, PWW, vol. 45.
47. Carrie Chapman Catt to WW, Sept. 29, 1918, PWW, vol. 49; McAdoo, Crowded Years: The Reminiscences of William G. McAdoo (Boston, 1931).
48. WW speech, Sept. 30, 1918, PWW, vol. 50. See also New York Times, Oct. 1, 1918.
49. This assessment agrees with the one in the excellent treatment in Christine A. Lunardini and Thomas J. Knock, “Woodrow Wilson and Woman Suffrage: A New Look,” Political Science Quarterly 95 (winter, 1980–81).
50. On the veto and Wilson’s likely lack of knowledge about it, see PWW, vol. 63, n. 3.
51. WW to Henry B. Fine, May 14, 1917, PWW, vol. 42; Memoir.
52. EMHD, entry for Nov. 15, 1916, vol. 38; Memoir. On the conversations between Wilson and John Singer Sargent, see also Sargent to WW, Nov. 6, 1917, WWP, series 2, box 473, and WW to Sargent, Nov. 8, 1917, PWW, vol. 44.
53. Sargent to Mary Hale, Oct. 20, 1917, quoted in Evan Charteris, John Sargent (New York, 1927). Cf. Sargent to Isabella Stewart Gardner, n.d., also quoted.
54. Memoir; EMHD, entry for Dec. 30, 1917, PWW, vol. 45; RB to WW, Feb. 2, 1918, PWW, vol. 46.
55. EMH to WW, June 27, 1917, PWW, vol. 43. On Wiseman’s meeting with Wilson, see Arthur Willert, The Road to Safety: A Study in Anglo-American Relations (London, 1952), and on Reading’s appointment and work in Washington, see Fowler, British-American Relations.
56. Root, quoted in Philip C. Jessup, Elihu Root (New York, 1938), vol. 2; Creel, Rebel at Large. On the Root mission, see Jessup, Root, vol. 2, and George F. Kennan, Soviet-American Relations, 1917–1920, vol. 1, Russia Leaves the War (Princeton, N.J., 1956).
57. WW speech, June 14, 1917, PWW, vol. 42; WW to EMH, July 21, 1917, PWW, vol. 43.
58. WW reply to Pope Benedict XV’s peace appeal, Aug. 27, 1917, PWW, vol. 44.
59. EMHD, entry for Aug. 15, 1917, PWW, vol. 43.
60. EMHD, entries for Sept. 9 and 10, 1917, PWW, vol. 45, 184–86.
61. WW to EMH, Sept. 2, 1917, PWW, vol. 44; EMH to WW, Sept. 4, 1917, PWW, vol. 44.
62. On the beginning of the Inquiry, see the excellent account in Lawrence E. Gelfand, The Inquiry: American Preparations for Peace, 1917–1919 (New Haven, Conn., 1963).
63. WW speech, Dec. 4, 1917, PWW, vol. 45.
64. EMHD, entry for Dec. 18, 1917, PWW, vol. 45.
65. Margaret Axson Elliott, My Aunt Louisa and Woodrow Wilson (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944).
66. EMHD, entries for Jan. 4 and 9, 1918, PWW, vol. 45. On the Inquiry memorandum, see Gelfand, Inquiry.
67. EMHD, entry for Jan. 9, 1918, PWW, vol. 45.
68. WW speech, Jan. 8, 1918, PWW, vol. 45.
69. Ibid..
70. Ibid..
19 VICTORY
1. On the senatorial attacks and the Chamberlain bill, see Seward W. Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned: Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916–1918 (Middletown, Conn., 1966). On Oregon’s political culture, see Robert D. Johnston, The Radical Middle Class: Populist Democracy and the Question of Capitalism in Progressive Era Portland, Oregon (Princeton, N.J., 2003).
2. WW press release, Jan. 21, 1918, PWW, vol. 46; JDD, entry for Jan. 22, 1918, PWW, vol. 46.
3. Ollie James quoted in RSB, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, vol. 7, War Leader, April 6, 1917–February 28, 1918 (Garden City, N.Y., 1966).
4. WW to Bernard Baruch, Mar. 4, 1918, PWW, vol. 46.
5. On the WIB under Baruch, see Robert D. Cuff, The War Industries Board: Business-Government Relations during World War I (Baltimore, 1973). In the 1930s, Johnson drew upon his experience with the WIB as director of the National Recovery Administration under the New Deal.
6. WW speech, Feb. 11, 1918, PWW, vol. 46.
7. WW to Theodore Marburg, Mar. 8, 1918, PWW, vol. 46. For the cracks about “butters-in” and “woolgathers,” see WW to EMH, Mar. 20, 1918, PWW, vol. 47. On the LEP’s wartime activities, see Ruhl J. Bartlett, The League to Enforce Peace (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944). See also John Milton Cooper, Jr., “The Not So Vital Center: The League to Enforce Peace and the League of Nations, 1919–1920,” in Gesellschaft und Diplomatie im transatlantischen Kontext: Festschrift für Reinhard R. Dorries, ed. Michael Wala (Stuttgart, Germany, 1999).
8. WHT memorandum, [ca. Mar. 29, 1918], PWW, vol. 47.
9. EMHD, entry for Jan. 27, 1918, PWW, vol. 46. During this discussion, Edith chimed in, “I thought you and Woodrow would go alone,” PWW, vol. 46.
10. On William Howard Taft and the NWLB, see Valerie Jean Conner, The National War Labor Board: Stability, Social Justice, and the Voluntary State in World War I (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1983).
11. No minutes were taken at the meetings of the War Cabinet, and virtually the only record of its deliberations comes from Josephus Daniels’s diary. On the War Cabinet, see Robert D. Cuff, “We Band of Brothers—Woodrow Wilson’s War Managers,”Canadian Review of American Studies 5 (fall 1974).
12. On the efforts to appease the Bolsheviks and deter the Japanese, see George F. Kennan, Soviet-American Relations, 1917–1920, vol. 1, Russia Leaves the War (Princeton, N.J., 1956). and on the flap with David Lloyd George, see W. B. Fowler, British-American Relations, 1917–1918: The Role of Sir William Wiseman (Princeton, N.J., 1969).
13. WW speech, Apr. 6, 1918, PWW, vol. 47.
14. WW remarks, Apr. 8, 1918, PWW, vol. 47.
15. On the Sedition Act, see Harry N. Scheiber, The Wilson Administration and Civil Liberties, 1917–1921 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1960). Gregory’s doubts about censorship are expressed in Thomas Gregory to WW, May 14, 1918, PWW, vol. 48.
16. Eugene V. Debs, “Statement to the Court,” [Sept. 14, 1918], in Debs, Writings and Speeches of Eugene V. Debs (New York, 1948).
17. WW to Thomas Gregory, Oct. 7, 1918, PWW, vol. 51. The recommendation against prosecuting Debs is in John Lord O’Brian to E. S. Wertz, June 20, 1919, Records of the Department of Justice, record group 60, box 687, file 77175, National Archives, College Park, Md.
18. SA, interview by RSB, Sept. 2, 1931, RSBP, box 99; EMHD, entry for Feb. 24, 1918, PWW, vol. 46. Wilson made the same statement about government ownership a year later to Bernard Baruch and Vance McCormick. See Vance McCormick diary, entry for July 1–2–3, 1919, in PWW, vol. 63.
19. The intricacies of dealing with the manpower crisis are ably covered in Fowler, British-American Relations. See also Edward M. Coffman, The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (New York, 1968).
20. On both Gutzon Borglum and the congressional restiveness, see Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned.
21. WW speech, May 18, 1918, PWW, vol. 48.
22. WW address, May 27, 1918, PWW, vol. 48; WW to Joseph E. Davies, Mar. 18, 1918, PWW, vol. 47. Davies would later serve as ambassador to the Soviet Union and would write a controversial memoir about his experience, which was made into a Hollywood movie.
23. James Slayden, who had originated the idea of the Pan-American Pact, had voted for the McLemore resolution, and he had run afoul of both Albert Burleson and Colonel House in Texas politics. His wife, as a young woman in Charlottesville, had known Wilson when he was a law student at Virginia and had disliked him ever since. In her diary, she wrote that the president had never forgiven her husband for having “committed the unpardonable sin of not wanting him nominated.” Ellen Maury Slayden, entry for July 25, 1918, in Slayden, Washington Wife: Journal of Ellen Maury Slayden from 1897–1919 (New York, 1963). Her nephew, Maury Maverick, later served as congressman from the same district and as mayor of San Antonio.
24. WW to Frank P. Glass, Aug. 9, 1918, PWW, vol. 49. On the campaigns against John Shields and George Huddleston, see Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned.
25. WW to Myron S. McNeil, Aug. 5, 1919, PWW, vol. 49. On Vardaman’s campaign, see William F. Holmes, The White Chief: James Kimble Vardaman (Baton Rouge, La., 1970).
26. WW to Clark Howell, Aug. 7, 1918, PWW, vol. 49. On Watson’s bid for a House seat, see C. Vann Woodward, Tom Watson: Agrarian Rebel (New York, 1938). Georgia politics had not seen the last of Thomas Hardwick and Tom Watson. Two years later, they brought off a spectacular comeback, with Hardwick winning the governorship and Watson a Senate seat, defeating Wilson’s sometime supporter and onetime nemesis Hoke Smith.
27. The transformation of the Democrats on foreign policy is insightfully recounted and analyzed in Anthony Gaughan, “Woodrow Wilson and the Rise of Militant Interventionism in the South,” Journal of Southern History 65 (Nov. 1999).
28. Jean le Pierrefeu, quoted in Winston Churchill, The World Crisis, vol. 4, 1916–1918 (London, 1927). On the AEF operations, see Coffman, War to End All Wars.
29. On the controversy over Wood, see Hermann Hagedorn, Leonard Wood: A Biography (New York, 1931), vol. 2, and Jack McCallum, Leonard Wood: Rough Rider, Surgeon, Architect of American Imperialism (New York, 2006).
30. On the Czechs in Russia and the seizure of Vladivostock, see George F. Kennan, Soviet-American Relations, 1917–1920, vol. 2, The Decision to Intervene (Princeton, N.J., 1958), 393–94.
31. WW to EMH, July 8, 1918, PWW, vol. 48; William Wiseman, “Notes of an Interview with the President at the White House, Wednesday, October 16th, 1918,” PWW, vol. 51.
32. Wiseman to Lord Reading, Aug. 16, 1918, PWW, vol. 49.
33. Ibid.; EMHD, entry for Aug. 15, 1918, PWW, vol. 49.
34. EMHD, entry for Aug. 18, 1918, PWW, vol. 49.
35. For Brandeis’s speculation, see Louis Brandeis, interview by RSB, Jan. 23, 1929, RSBP, box 102. For speculation about Wilson’s health at this time, see Edwin A. Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography (Princeton, N.J., 1981).
36. WW speech, July 4, 1918, PWW, vol. 48.
37. WW press statement, Sept. 9, 1918, PWW, vol. 49.
38. WW speech, Sept. 27, 1918, PWW, vol. 51.
39. WW statement, Sept. 16, 1916, PWW, vol. 51.
40. Thomas Lamont memorandum of interview with WW, Oct. 4, 1918, PWW, vol. 51. Lamont must have had a near-photographic memory, because right after this meeting he dictated an eight-page typewritten account that reads like a stenographic transcript. The typewritten-manuscript account of the interview is in the Thomas W. Lamont Papers, Baker Library, Harvard Business School.
41. RL to Frederich Oederlin, Oct. 8, 1918, PWW, vol. 51. For the Senate debate, see 65th Cong., 2nd Sess., Congresisonal Record 11155–63 (Oct. 7, 1918).
42. Jean-Jules Jusserand to French foreign ministry, enclosed in Jusserand to Colville Barclay, Oct. 11, 1918, PWW, vol. 51.
43. Henry F. Ashurst diary, entry for Oct, 14, 1918, PWW, vol. 51; Homer Cummings diary, entry for Oct. 20, 1918, PWW, vol. 51.
44. WW note, [Oct. 14, 1918], PWW, vol. 51.
45. EMHD, entry for Oct. 15, 1918, PWW, vol. 51.
46. WW diplomatic note, Oct. 23, 1918, PWW, vol. 51. For an incisive and detailed treatment of House’s views and negotiations in Europe, see Inga Floto, Colonel House in Paris: A Study of American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 (Princeton, N.J., 1980).
47. WW statement, [Oct. 25, 1918], PWW, vol. 51. On the meeting with Cummings and McCormick, see Homer Cummings memorandum, Oct. 20, 1918, PWW, vol. 51; Vance McCormick, interview by RSB, July 21, 1926, RSBP, box 116; and Cummings memorandum, Nov. 21, 1928, RSBP, box 104.
48. Franklin K. Lane memorandum, Nov. 1, 1918, PWW, vol. 51. For McCormick’s and Daniels’s judgments, see McCormick, interview by RSB, July 21, 1926, RSBP, box 116, and Josephus Daniels memorandum, Aug. 8, 1936, RSBP, box 105. For the claim that the Democrats might have won without the appeal, see Albert S. Burleson, interview by RSB, Mar. 27, 1927, RSBP, box 103, and Thomas Gregory, interviews by RSB, Mar. 14–15, 1927, RSBP, box 109.
49. EBGW, interview by RSB, Jan. 4, 1926, RSBP, box 124; Franklin K. Lane memorandum, Nov. 1, 1918, PWW, vol. 51. On party machinations leading up to the appeal, see Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned.
50. On the campaign and salient issues, see Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned.
51. For an analysis of the results, see Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned.
52. For contemporary analyses that stress Republican use of patriotic appeals, particularly in the West, see memorandum enclosed with Homer Cummings to WW, Nov. 7, 1918, PWW, vol. 49, and George Creel to WW, Nov. 8, 1918, PWW, vol. 49.
53. TR to Arthur James Balfour, Dec. 15, 1918, TR, Letters, ed. Elting E. Morison, vol. 8, The Days of Armageddon, 1900–1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1954).
54. TR to Balfour, Dec. 15, 1918, TR, Letters, vol. 8; HCL to Balfour, Nov. 25, 1918, HCLP. For Lodge’s visits to the embassies, see Colville Barclay to Balfour, Nov. 21, 1918, Arthur James Balfour Papers, British Museum. These contacts are also covered in Fowler, British-American Relations.
55. Homer Cummings memorandum, Nov. 8 or 9, 1918, PWW, vol. 51.
56. WW to EMH, [Oct. 30, 1918], PWW, vol. 51.
57. EMH to WW, [Oct. 31], 1918, PWW, vol. 51.
58. WW to EMH, [Oct. 30, 1918], PWW, vol. 51; Harold Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919 (London, 1933). Frank Cobb and Walter Lippmann’s memorandum is in EMH to WW, Oct. 29, 1918, PWW, vol. 51.
59. On the final negotiations, see Harry R. Rudin, Armistice, 1918 (New Haven, Conn., 1944).
60. Memoir; WW statement, [ca. Nov. 11, 1918], PWW, vol. 53; EMH to WW, [Nov. 11, 1918], PWW, vol. 53; David Lloyd George, Parliamentary
61. Debates, H.C. Deb., 110, 2463 (Nov. 11, 1918). Lloyd George appears to have taken the phrase from the title of a book by H. G. Wells: The War That Will End War (London, 1914). 61. WW address, Nov. 11, 1918, PWW, vol. 53. For a description of the scene in the House chamber, see Henry F. Ashurst diary, entry for Nov. 11, 1918, PWW, vol. 51
20 COVENANT
1. CTGD, entry for Dec. 28, 1918, PWW, vol. 53; WW remarks, Dec. 29, 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
2. EMH to WW, Nov. 14, 1918, PWW, vol. 53; WW to EMH, Nov. 16, 1918, PWW, vol. 53; EMHD, entry for Dec. 3, 1918, and EMH, “Memories,” ca. 1928, EMH Papers, Yale University Library.
3. RL memorandum, “Will the President Go to the Peace Congress?” Nov. 12, 1918, PWW, vol. 53; Key Pittman to WW, Nov. 15, 1918, PWW, vol. 53. The editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson raise doubts about whether Lansing did confront Wilson the way he said he did. See PWW, vol. 53, n. 1.
4. William Emmanuel Rappard memorandum of conversation with WW, [Nov. 20, 1918], PWW, vol. 53.
5. One appealing choice might have been the second-ranking Republican on the Foreign Relations Committee, Porter J. McCumber of North Dakota, who would be his party’s strongest advocate of League membership in the Senate. This possibility is discussed in John Milton Cooper, Jr., Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations (New York, 2001).
6. Thomas Gregory, interviews by RSB, Mar. 14–15, 1927, RSBP, box 109.
7. HCL to James Bryce, Dec. 14, 1918, HCLP; WW to Richard Hooker, Nov. 29, 1918, PWW, vol. 53; WW to Frank Morrison, Nov. 22, 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
8. For a discussion of this failure of bipartisanship, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World. FDR’s first major bipartisan overture—appointing Henry Stimson secretary of war and Frank Knox secretary of the navy—did not result in any appreciable rise in Republican support for his foreign policies. Such support came only after Pearl Harbor, when the Republicans felt badly burned by their earlier support for isolationism.
9. On assembling the staff, see Arthur Walworth, America’s Moment, 1918: American Diplomacy at the End of World War I (New York, 1977).
10. On the post-war situation at home, see Burl Noggle, Into the Twenties: The United States from Armistice to Normalcy (Urbana, Ill., 1974).
11. WW address, Dec. 2, 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
12. JDD, entry for Dec. 2, 1918, PWW, vol. 53; 65th Cong., 3rd Sess., Congressional Record 23 (Dec. 3, 1918); 189–197 (Dec. 6, 1918). On these attacks on the league idea in the Senate, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
13. Memoir.
14. CTGD, entry for Dec. 4, 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
15. Henry White memorandum, Dec. [18], 1918, quoted in Allan Nevins, Henry White: Thirty Years of American Diplomacy (New York, 1930); CTGD, entry for Dec. 8, 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
16. William C. Bullitt diary, entry for Dec. 10, 1918, PWW, vol. 53; Isaiah Bowman memorandum, Dec. 10, 1918, PWW, vol. 53. For other accounts of this meeting, see Charles Seymour to family, Dec. 10, 1918, PWW, vol. 53; Clive Day to Elizabeth Day, Dec. 10, 1918, PWW, vol. 53; George Louis Beer diary, entry for Dec. 10, 1918, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University; and William Linn Westermann diary, entry for Dec. 10, 1918, William Linn Westermann Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University. All these accounts agree on what Wilson said.
17. Bullitt diary, entry for [Dec. 11, 1918], PWW, vol. 53; George Creel, The War, the World and Wilson (New York, 1920). See also Raymond Fosdick diary, entry for Dec. 11, 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
18. Fosdick diary, entry for Dec. 14, 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
19. EBGW to family, Dec 15 [and 17], 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
20. WW to Herbert B. Brougham, Dec. 17, 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
21. Lord Derby to Arthur James Balfour, Dec. 22 and 24, 1918, PWW, vol. 53, 498.
22. CTGD, entry for Dec. 26, 1918, PWW, vol. 53. For the encounter with Churchill, see Edith Benham Helm diary, entry for Jan. 27, 1919, PWW, vol. 54. The impression that Wilson cared only about the League comes from “Draft Minutes of a Meeting held at 10 Downing Street, S.W., on Monday, December 30, 1918, at 3:30 p.m.,” PWW, vol. 53. That was a meeting of the Imperial War Cabinet, and the record states that Wilson discussed such matters as intervention in Russia, financial reparations, disarmament, the Turkish straits, and the Dalmatian coast. See Imperial War Cabinet minutes, Dec. 30, 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
23. WW speeches, Dec. 28, 1918, PWW, vol. 53; Frank Worthington, “Statements made by President Wilson to me on the evening of Saturday, the 28th of December, 1918,” PWW, vol. 53; C. P. Scott diary, entry for Dec. 29, 1918, PWW, vol. 53, n. 1.
24. WW speech, Jan. 3, 1918, PWW, vol. 53.
25. CTGD, entry for Jan. 4, 1919, PWW, vol. 53; “Digest of the President’s Conference with On. Bissolati,” [Jan. 4, 1919], PWW, vol. 53.
26. State Department proclamation, Jan. 7, 1919, PWW, vol. 53. For WW’s rewriting the proclamation, see CTGD, entry for Jan. 7, 1919, PWW, vol. 53, and for his reading the essay about Roosevelt, see Edith Benham diary, entry for Jan. 10, 1919, PWW, vol. 53.
27. On what Roosevelt’s death meant for the conflict over the League of Nations, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
28. WW draft, [ca. Jan. 8, 1919], PWW, vol. 53. A facsimile copy of this draft is reproduced in PWW, vol. 53. Colonel House claimed that the draft embodied what “I wrote at Magnolia [his summer home], embellished with some of General Smuts’ ideas and a paragraph or two of the President’s own.” EMHD, entry for Jan. 8, 1919, PWW, vol. 53. House was both egotistic and mistaken. Wilson had written that earlier draft, and this “First Paris Draft” was largely his own.
29. WW draft, [ca. Jan. 8, 1919], PWW, vol. 53.
30. RL memorandum, Jan. 11, 1919, PWW, vol. 54; Tasker H. Bliss, “Suggestions in Regard to the Draft of the Covenant,” Jan. 14, 1919, PWW, vol. 54; Gustav Ador, interview with WW [Jan. 23, 1919], PWW, vol. 54.
31. Edith Benham diary, entry for Jan. 10, 1919, PWW, vol. 53; CTGD, entry for Jan. 12, 1919, PWW, vol. 54.
32. CTGD, entry for Jan. 13, 1919, PWW, vol. 54.
33. [Sir Maurice Hankey], minutes of the Council of Ten, Jan. 17, 1919, PWW, vol. 54.
34. Protocol of the plenary session of the Paris Peace Conference, Jan. 18, 1919, PWW, vol. 54.
35. WW to JPT, Jan. 20, 1919, PWW, vol. 54; CTGD, entry for Jan. 19, 1919, PWW, vol. 54.
36. Robert Cecil diary, entry for Jan. 19, 1919, PWW, vol. 54.
37. WW quoted in minutes of the protocol of the Paris Peace Conference, Jan. 25, 1919, PWW, vol. 54. For a description of meetings of the Council of Ten, see Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (New York, 2002).
38. CTGD, entry for Jan. 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 54; Charles Seymour to family, Jan. 30, 1919, PWW, vol. 54.
39. EMHD, entry for Feb. 3, 1919, PWW, vol. 54. See also David Hunter Miller diary, entry for Feb. 2 [3], [1919], PWW, vol. 54.
40. EMHD, entry for Feb. 3, 1919, PWW, vol. 54; Robert Cecil diary, entry for Feb. 3, [1919], PWW, vol. 54; Herbert Hoover quoted in Henry L. Stimson diary, entry for Mar. 18, 1920, Henry L. Stimson Papers, Department of Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library; HCL, quoted in Stephen Bonsal, Unfinished Business (Garden City, N.Y., 1944).
41. EMHD, entry for Feb. 4, 1919, PWW, vol. 54; Robert Cecil diary, entry for Feb. 6, [1919], PWW, vol. 54. About Wilson himself, Cecil wrote, “I am coming to the conclusion that I do not personally like him. I do not quite know what it is that repels me: a certain hardness coupled with vanity and an eye for effect. He supports idealistic causes without being in the least an idealist himself.” PWW, vol. 54.
42. WW, quoted in minutes of the League of Nations Commission, Feb. 11, 1919, PWW, vol. 55.
43. Minutes of the League of Nations Commission, Feb. 13, 1919, PWW, vol. 55.
44. Minutes of the Council of Ten, Feb. 6 and 13, 1919, PWW, vol. 54; vol. 55.
45. CTGD, entry for Feb. 10, 1919, PWW, vol. 55; EMHD, entry for Feb. 11, 1919, PWW, vol. 55.
46. New York World, Feb. 15, 1919.
47. For the Draft Covenant as Wilson read it to the conference, see PWW, vol. 55.
48. WW remarks, Feb. 14, 1919, PWW, vol. 55.
49. WW to JPT, Feb. 14, 1919, PWW, vol. 55.
21 PEACEMAKING ABROAD AND AT HOME
1. William E. Borah, quoted in New York World, Feb. 1, 1919; CTGD, entry for Feb. 22, 1919, PWW, vol. 55. On reactions to the Draft Covenant, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations (New York, 2001).
2. WW speech, Feb. 24, 1919, PWW, vol. 55, n. 2.
3. New York Times, Feb. 27, 1919; Mar. 1, 1919; New York World, Feb. 27, 1919; New York Sun, Feb. 27, 1919. See also 65th Cong., 3rd Sess., Congressional Record 4528–30 (Feb. 28, 1919), 4881 (Mar. 1, 1919). For Frank Brandegee’s account and complaints, see Chandler P. Anderson diary, entry for Mar. 13, 1919, Chandler P. Anderson Papers, LC. For a retrospective account of the meeting, see Tom Connally and Alfred Steinberg, My Name Is Tom Connally (New York, 1954).
4. HCL to Henry White, Apr. 8, 1919, HCLP; John Jacob Rogers to White, Mar. 3, 1919, quoted in Allan Nevins, Henry White: Thirty Years of American Diplomacy (New York, 1930). See also WW to Thomas J. Walsh, Feb. 26, 1919, PWW, vol. 55, and New York Times, Feb. 28, 1919.
5. 65th Cong., 3rd Sess., Congressional Record 4520-28 (Feb. 28, 1919); 4687–94 (Mar. 1, 1919). For an analysis of these speeches, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
6. WW speech, Feb. 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 55. On the promise to bring up the Monroe Doctrine, see WW to Samuel McCall, Feb. 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 55; on changes in the Draft Covenant, see John Jacob Rogers memorandum, [ca. Mar. 1, 1919], Henry White Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University, box 1.
7. 65th Cong., 3rd Sess., Congressional Record 4974 (Mar. 4, 1919). On the round-robin, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 67–68.
8. See New York Times, Mar. 4 and 5, 1919; New York World, Mar. 4 and 5, 1919. On Lodge’s motives, see HCL, The Senate and the League of Nations (New York, 1925), and HCL to Robert E. Annin, Apr. 4, 1924, HCLP.
9. CTGD, entry for Mar. 4, 1919, PWW, vol. 55.
10. WHT speech, Mar. 4, 1919, in WHT, Taft Papers on League of Nations, ed., Theodore Marburg and Horace Flack (New York, 1920).
11. WW speech, Mar. 4, 1919, PWW, vol. 55. For Republican criticisms of the speech, see Nicholas Murray Butler to Alfred Holman, Mar. 4, 1919, Nicholas Murray Butler Papers, Rare Book and Manuscrip Library, Columbia University, and George W. Wickersham to Henry White, Mar. 9, 1919, Henry White Papers, LC, box 40.
12. CTGD, entry for Mar. 5, 1919, PWW, vol. 55.
13. New York Times, Mar. 15, 1919.
14. EMHD, entry for Mar. 14, 1919, PWW, vol. 55.
15. Root quoted in enclosure, Thomas W. Lamont to WW, Mar. 19, 1919, PWW, vol. 56.
16. HCL to Henry White, Mar. 15, 1919, HCLP. On these contacts, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
17. Georges Clemenceau, quoted in Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (New York, 2002); EMHD, entry for Feb. 14, 1919, PWW, vol. 55.
18. For the speculations of the editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson about this proposal, see PWW, vol. 55, n. 1. For an exhaustive examination of House’s activities during this time, see Inga Floto, Colonel House in Paris: A Study of American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 (Princeton, N.J., 1980).
19. Memoir; CTGD, entry for Mar. 14, 1919, PWW, vol. 55. For evaluations of this incident and relations between Wilson and House, see PWW, vol. 55, n. 2, and Floto, Colonel House in Paris.
20. Memoir; CTGD, entry for Mar. 14, 1919, PWW, vol. 55.
21. CTGD, entry for Mar. 22, 1919, PWW, vol. 56; EMHD, entry for Mar. 22, 1919, PWW, vol. 56; RL memorandum, Mar. 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 56.
22. For a description of the Council of Four, see MacMillan, Paris 1919. On Mantoux’s notes, see Paul Mantoux, Author’s Preface, in Paris Peace Conference, the Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919): Notes of the Official Interpreter, trans. and ed. ASL and Manfred F. Boemeke (Princeton, N.J., 1992), vol. 1; To the Delivery to the German Delegation of the Preliminaries of Peace; and “Mantoux and His Notes,”.
23. Mantoux notes, Mar. 24 and 27, 1919, PWW, vol. 56. Mantoux’s notes are reproduced in this and successive volumes of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson and in Paris Peace Conference, the Deliberations of the Council of Four. Wilson was in the habit of telling his wife and Grayson about the meetings, and his view of what transpired is often reproduced in the excerpts from Grayson’s diary, in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson.
24. EMHD, entry for Mar. 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 56; CTGD, entry for Mar. 29, 1919, PWW, vol. 56. For Mantoux’s notes of the afternoon meeting.
25. Mantoux notes, Mar. 27, 1919; Apr. 1, 1919, PWW, vol. 56; WW statement, [May 6, 1919], PWW, vol. 57. The dating of the statement in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson is speculative.
26. RSBD, entry for Mar. 31, 1919, PWW, vol. 56.
27. CTGD, entry for Apr. 3, 1919, PWW, vol. 56. There would be speculations that the president suffered a small stroke or an attack of encephalitis, but medical specialists who recently examined his symptoms concluded that the illness was almost certainly a viral infection and probably a strain of influenza. For the examination of his symptoms by physicians and review of previous speculations, see PWW, vol. 56, n. 2.
28. CTGD, entry for Apr. 6, 1991, PWW, vol. 57; RSBD, entry for Apr. 7, 1919, PWW, vol. 57. On the press leak about the George Washington, n. 1.
29. WW to EMH, [ca. Apr. 7, 1919], PWW, vol. 57; RSBD, entries for [Mar. 31, 1919]; Apr. 4, [1919], PWW, vol. 56. On Colonel House’s dealing with reporters, n. 2. On his performance as Wilson’s substitute, see Floto, Colonel House in Paris.
30. CTGD, entries for Apr. 6, 7, and 8, 1919, PWW, vol. 57.
31. CTGD, entry for Apr. 8, 1919, PWW, vol. 57; notes of the Council of Four, Apr. 8 and 9, 1919, PWW, vol. 57.
32. League Commission minutes, Apr. 10, 1919, PWW, vol. 57; Robert Cecil diary, entry for Apr. 11, [1919], PWW, vol. 57. For the debates, see League Commission minutes, Apr. 11, 1919, PWW, vol. 57.
33. WW remarks, [Apr. 11, 1919], PWW, vol. 57.
34. On Keynes’s resigning and writing The Economic Consequences, see Robert Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes, vol. 1, Hopes Betrayed, 1883–1920 (New York, 1986).
35. WW memorandum, [Apr. 14, 1919], PWW, vol. 57; RSBD, entry for May 28, [1919], PWW, vol. 57.
36. EMHD, entries for Apr. 14, 15, and 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 57; vol. 58.
37. Notes of the Council of Four, Apr. 15, 1919, PWW, vol. 57. On the Chinese memorandum, see, n. 1.
38. CTGD, entry for Apr. 17, 1919, PWW, vol. 57.
39. RSBD, entries for April 19 and 20, [1919], PWW, vol. 57; Memoir.
40. WW statement, [Apr. 21, 1919], PWW, vol. 57.
41. Minutes of the Council of Four, Apr. 22, 1919, PWW, vol. 57.
42. RSBD, entries for Apr. 25 and [Apr. 30], 1919; May 1, [1919], PWW, vol. 58, 270–71, 327.
43. WW remarks, Apr. 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 58; minutes of the Council of Four, Apr. 22, 1919, PWW, vol. 57. On possible physical causes for the shortcomings of the remarks, see PWW, vol. 58, n. 1, and for three neurologists’ speculation about a small stroke, see Bert E. Park, “The Impact of Wilson’s Neurologic Disease during the Paris Peace Conference,” PWW, vol. 58; Edwin A. Weinstein, “Woodrow Wilson’s Neuropsychological Impairment at the Paris Peace Conference,” PWW, vol. 58; and James F. Toole, “Some Observations on Wilson’s Neurological Illness,” PWW, vol. 58.
44. Minutes of the Council of Four, May 1, 1919, PWW, vol. 58.
45. CTGD, entry for May 2, 1919, PWW, vol. 58; RSBD, entry for May 3, 1919, PWW, vol. 58.
46. Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau remarks, [May 7, 1919], PWW, vol. 58. For firsthand accounts of the session, see RSBD, entry for May 7, [1919], PWW, vol. 58; CTGD, entry for May 7, 1919, PWW, vol. 58; and EMHD, entry for May 7, 1919, PWW, vol. 58. For a description of the session, see MacMillan, Paris 1919.
47. RSBD, entry for May 3, [1919], PWW, vol. 58; William C. Bullitt to WW, May 17, 1919, PWW, vol. 59; Nation, Apr. 26, 1919; New Republic, Mar. 29, 1919; May 24, 1919. See also Herbert Hoover, The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1958). For other examples of disappointment with the terms, see MacMillan, Paris 1919. On the resignations, see also Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World. On progressives’ attacks on the League and the peace terms, see Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York, 1992), and Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 97–100.
48. These matters are all covered in MacMillan, Paris 1919; my views agree largely with hers.
49. On the mandates, see MacMillan, Paris 1919. For DuBois’s assessment, see Crisis, May 1919, and also Manning Marable, W. E. B. DuBois, Black Radical Democrat (Boston, 1986), and David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. DuBois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919 (New York, 1993).
50. Despite John Maynard Keynes’s stature as one of the greatest economists in history, his analysis of the settlement has not gone without attack. See Etienne Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace; or, the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes (New York, 1946).
51. WW speeches, May 9 and 10, 1919, PWW, vol. 58; vol. 59. Two of the neurologists consulted by the editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson detect in the May 9 speech signs of a serious underlying condition. See Park, “Wilson’s Neurological Disease,”PWW, vol. 58, p., 627, and Weinstein, “Wilson’s Neuropsychological Impairment,” PWW, vol. 58.
52. CTGD, entry for May 24, 1919, PWW, vol. 59.
53. RSBD, entry for May 21, 1919, PWW, vol. 59; WW message to Congress, [May 20, 1919], PWW, vol. 59; CTGD, entry for May 13, 1919, PWW, vol. 59.
54. WW speech, May 30, 1919, PWW, vol. 59; RSBD, entry for May 30, 1919, PWW, vol. 59.
55. See RSBD, entry for May 28, [1919], PWW, vol. 59. For speculation about the significance of Ray Stannard Baker’s observations, n. 1.
56. On David Lloyd George and the meeting of the British delegation, see MacMillan, Paris 1919.
57. Transcript of the meeting of the American delegation, [June 3, 1919], PWW, vol. 60. For eyewitness descriptions of this meeting, see Vance McCormick diary, entry for June 3, [1919], PWW, vol. 60; Charles Seymour to family, June 3, 1919, PWW, vol. 60; and RSBD, entry for June 3, 1919, PWW, vol. 60.
58. William Orpen, An Onlooker in France, 1917–1919 (London, 1921). For evidence of how well known Colonel House’s loss of influence was, see William Linn Westermann diary, entry for June 13, [1919], PWW, vol. 60, and RL memorandum, Aug, 21, 1919,PWW, vol. 62.
59. RSBD, entry for June 19, [1919], PWW, vol. 60. See also Memoir.
60. WW speech, June 19, 1919, PWW, vol. 60.
61. On the events and conflict in Germany, see MacMillan, Paris 1919.
62. On the visit to Versailles, see CTGD, entry for June 24, 1919, PWW, vol. 61.
63. WW speech, June 26, 1919, PWW, vol. 61.
64. Walter E. Weyl, notes of press conference, June 27, 1919, PWW, vol. 61. Other accounts of the conference are in CTGD, entry for June 27, 1919, PWW, vol. 61, and Charles T. Thompson report, [June 27, 1919], PWW, vol. 61.
65. For eyewitness accounts of the scene, see EMHD, entry for June 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 61; William Linn Westermann, “The Signing of the Treaty of Versailles,” PWW, vol. 61; and New York Times, June 29, 1919. For a historian’s description, see MacMillan,Paris 1919.
66. RL memorandum, June 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 61; Orpen Onlooker in France.
67. WW statement, June 27, 1919, PWW, vol. 61.
68. CTGD, entry for June 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 61.
69. WW to JPT and JPT to WW, June 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 61; EMHD, entry for June 29, 1919, PWW, vol. 61.
22 THE LEAGUE FIGHT
1. WW to William Allen White, Apr. 2, 1919, PWW, vol. 56; WW speech, Sept. 19, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
2. For the senatorial lineup, see Chicago Tribune, June 24, 1919. On the developments in opinion since March, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations (New York, 2001), 90–94, 99–108.
3. CTGD, entry for July 1, 1919, PWW, vol. 61.
4. WW press conference, July 10, 1919, PWW, vol. 61. Wilson might have felt less touched by his reception if he had known that Alice Roosevelt Longworth, Roosevelt’s daughter, had made the sign of the evil eye as his limousine passed and muttered a curse: “A murrain on him, a murrain on him.” Alice Roosevelt Longworth, Crowded Hours: Reminiscences of Alice Roosevelt Longworth (New York, 1933).
5. CTGD, entry for July 10, 1919, PWW, vol. 61. See also New York Times, July 11, 1919.
6. WW speech, July 10, 1919, PWW, vol. 61.
7. New York World, July 11, 1919; Henry F. Ashurst diary, entry for July 11, 1919, PWW, vol. 61. See also New York Times, July 11, 1919.
8. See New York Times, July 11, 1919.
9. On the race riots of 1919, see especially William M. Tuttle, Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York, 1970).
10. Gus J. Karger to WHT, July 19, 1919, WHTP, microfilm ed., reel 211; Chandler P. Anderson diary, entry for July 30, 1919, Chandler P. Anderson Papers, microflim ed., reel 2, LC.
11. WW speech, Aug. 8, 1919, PWW, vol. 62. On Wilson’s difficulty composing the speech and possible effects of his health on this speech, n. 1.
12. SA memoir, quoted in PWW, vol. 61, n. 1; SA memorandum, PWW, vol. 67.
13. WW to A. Mitchell Palmer, Aug. 4, 1919, PWW, vol. 62. For Palmer’s recommendation to wait until ratification, see Palmer to WW, July 30, 1919, PWW, vol. 6.
14. On William Howard Taft’s and Charles Evans Hughes’s espousal of reservations, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 131–32.
15. 66th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record 2592–2600 (July 15, 1919). On the committee’s actions, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
16. RL diary, entry for Aug. 7, 1919, RL papers, LC; Johnson to Hiram Johnson, Jr., and Arch M. Johnson, Aug. 7, 1919, in Johnson, The Diary Letters of Hiram Johnson, vol. 3, 1919–1921 (New York, 1983); HCL to Constance Lodge Gardner, Aug. 9, 1919, HCLP. Lansing’s testimony is in U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Treaty of Peace with Germany Hearings, 66th Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington, D.C., 1919).
17. McAdoo, Crowded Years: The Reminiscences of William G. McAdoo (Boston, 1931). On the mild reservationists, see Herbert F. Margulies, The Mild Reservationists and the League of Nations Controversy in the Senate (Columbia, Mo., 1989).
18. New York World, Aug. 11, 1919; HCL to Elihu Root, Aug. 15, 1919, Elihu Root Papers, LC. On these dealings, see Margulies, Mild Reservationists, and Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
19. RL diary, entry for Aug. 11, 1919, PWW, vol. 62.
20. On Wilson’s sparring with the Senate Foreign Relations Committee over the documents from the peace conference, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World. During the Civil War, Lincoln met twice at the White House with a “committee” named by the Republican caucus in the Senate. These were strictly private meetings and did not involve either a standing committee of either house of Congress or any items of legislation. See James G. Randall, Lincoln, the President, vol. 2, Springfield to Gettysburg (New York, 1945); Phillip Shaw Paludan, The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln (Lawrence, Kans., 1994); and David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York, 1995). In the twentieth century, presidents met informally with members of committees, and in the 1950s and ‘60s, presidents Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson would often consult with members of the Foreign Relations Committee, sometimes the whole committee, especially in times of crisis.
21. WW statement, Aug. 19, 1919, PWW, vol. 62. For descriptions of the scene, see New York World, Aug. 20, 1919, and New York Times, Aug. 20, 1919.
22. Transcript of meeting, Aug. 19, 1919, PWW, vol. 62.
23. Ibid.; Hiram Johnson to Hiram Johnson, Jr., and Arch Johnson, Aug. 23, 1991, in Johnson, Diary Letters, vol. 3. On what the president knew and when he knew it about the secret treaties, see PWW, vol. 62, n. 27.
24. Transcript of meeting, Aug. 19, 1919, PWW, vol. 62. On the lunch, see New York Times, Aug. 20, 1919.
25. HCL to James T. Williams, Jr., Aug. 20, [1919], HCLP; HCL to W. Sturgis Bigelow, Aug. 25, 1919, HCLP; Hiram Johnson to Hiram Johnson, Jr., and Arch Johnson, Aug. 23, 1919, in Johnson, Diary Letters, vol. 3.
26. New York Times, Aug. 21, 1919. The editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson speculate, based on circumstantial evidence, that Wilson may have authorized Pittman’s resolution as a trial balloon. See PWW, vol. 62, n. 2. Pittman, however, later said, “I purposely refrained from consulting with the president with regard to such resolution, as I realized it was not proper or advisable for him to approve … any reservation at that time.” Key Pittman to William Hard, July 27, 1926, Key Pittman Papers, LC.
27. Entry for Aug. 30, 1919, in Henry Fountain Ashurst, A Many-Colored Toga: Diary, ed., George F. Sparks (Tucson, Ariz., 1962).
28. New York World, Aug. 24, 1919; HCL, quoted in Chandler P. Anderson diary, entry for Aug. 22, 1919, Chandler P. Anderson Papers, microfilm ed., reel 2, LC.
29. Memoir. For the view that the decision was “made without much thought, in anger, and on the spur of the moment” and was, therefore “irrational,” see PWW, vol. 62, n. 2. For a contrary view, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., “Fool’s Errand or Finest Hour? Woodrow Wilson’s Speaking Tour in September 1919,” in The Wilson Era: Essays in Honor of Arthur S. Link, ed. John Milton Cooper, Jr., and Charles E. Neu (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1991).
30. New York Times, Sept. 3, 1919. For Irvine Lenroot’s recollection, see Washington Post, Mar. 4, 1945.
31. WW, “Suggestion,” [Sept. 3, 1919], PWW, vol. 62. This is a draft; the original is enclosed with Hitchcock to EBGW, Jan. 5, 1920, PWW, vol. 64. See also Hitchcock, “Events Leading to the World War,” [Jan. 13, 1925], Gilbert M. Hitchcock Papers, LC. On the unlikelihood that the mild reservationists would have accepted these reservations, see Margulies, Mild Reservationists.
32. WW remarks, Aug. 25, 1919, PWW, vol. 62; Memoir.
33. On the train arrangements, see CTGD, entry for Sept. 3, 1919, PWW, vol. 62, and Memoir.
34. On the use of outlines, see Editorial Note, “Wilson’s Speeches on His Western Tour,” PWW, vol. 63. On the distribution of speeches and on finances, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
35. WW speech, Sept. 4, 1919, PWW, vol. 63. For reports of the speech, see CTGD, entry for Sept. 4, 1919, PWW, vol. 63, and New York World, Sept. 5, 1919.
36. CTGD, entry for Sept. 4, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
37. Kansas City Star, Sept. 6, 1919.
38. WW speech, Sept. 8, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
39. WW speeches, Sept. 5 and 6, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
40. 66th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record 5113 (Sept. 10, 1919); HCL to James T. Williams, Jr., Sept. 6, 1919, HCLP. On the reservations and the speaking tour, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
41. U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Treaty of Peace Hearings, document 106, 1276–77; RL to Frank L. Polk, Oct. 1, 1919, PWW, vol. 63. On William Bullitt’s testimony and Robert Lansing’s reaction, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
42. RL to WW, Sept. 17, 1919, PWW, vol. 63; JPT, Wilson As I Know Him (Garden City, N.Y., 1921). Tumulty’s version of events is often unreliable, but this account is supported by Breckinridge Long memorandum, 1924, PWW, vol. 63, n. 4.
43. In his diary, Grayson made comments about Wilson’s condition retrospectively, suggesting that he was covering himself after the fact. For a diagnosis of Wilson’s symptoms as stemming from hypertension and congestive heart failure, see Bert E. Park, “Woodrow Wilson’s Stroke of October 2, 1919,” PWW, vol. 63.
44. WW speech, Sept, 11, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
45. WW speeches, Sept. 13 and 15, 1919, PWW, vol. 63. For Tumulty’s advice, see JPT to WW, Sept. 12, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
46. WW speeches, Sept. 18 and 19, 1919, PWW, vol. 63, 352–61.
47. WW speech, Sept. 19, 1919, PWW, vol. 63. On Wilson’s experience with the microphone, see CTGD, entry for Sept. 18, 1919, PWW, vol. 63. As one of Bryan’s biographers pointed out, this innovation robbed him of an advantage he had hitherto enjoyed: his powerful voice. See Paolo E. Coletta, William Jennings Bryan, vol. 3, 1915–1925 (Lincoln, Neb., 1969).
48. Memoir; Mary Allen Hulbert, The Story of Mrs. Peck: An Autobiography (New York, 1933).
49. CTG, quoted in Breckinridge Long memorandum, 1924, PWW, vol. 63, n. 4; WW speech, Sept. 23, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
50. Memoir; WW speech, Sept. 23, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
51. WW speeches, Sept. 24 and 25, 1919, PWW, vol. 63, 493–95.
52. WW speech, Sept. 25, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
53. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, On the Law of Nations (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
54. See CTGD, entry for Sept. 25, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
55. CTGD, entry for Sept. 26, 1919, PWW, vol. 63; Memoir.
56. RSBD, entry for Nov. 5, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
57. CTGD, entry for Sept. 26, 1919, PWW, vol. 63; JPT statement, Sept. 26, 1919, PWW, vol. 63. There are also accounts of the cancellation of the trip in Memoir, and JPT, Wilson As I Know Him. Edith’s account agrees with Grayson’s; Tumulty’s is doubtful because he says Wilson was paralyzed on his left side during the night. The paralysis did not begin until after Wilson suffered a stroke on October 2.
58. NDB to Hugh C. Wallace, NDB Papers, box 11, LC; Charles Grasty, quoted in Gilbert Parker to Theodore Marburg, Dec. 18, 1919, in Marburg, The Development of the League of Nations Idea: Documents and Correspondence of Theodore Marburg, ed. John H. Latané (New York, 1932), vol. 2. For other assessments of the tour’s effectiveness, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, n. 58.
59. On the possibilities of radio, see Thomas A. Bailey, Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal (New York, 1945), and Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
60. For an excellent exposition of Wilson in this great oratorical tradition, see Robert A. Kraig, Woodrow Wilson and the Lost World of the Oratorical Statesman (College Station, Tex., 2004). See also Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
61. Memoir. For the accounts closer to the event, see Francis X. Dercum memorandum [Oct. 20, 1919], PWW, vol. 64; CTG memorandum, ca. Jan. 1920, PWW, vol. 64. The White House head usher, Ike Hoover, also later claimed that Wilson fell in the bathroom, lost consciousness, and gashed his head. See Irwin Hood Hoover, “The Facts about President Wilson’s Illness,” PWW, vol. 63. It seems odd that neither physician mentioned such a traumatic fall.
62. Frances X. Dercum memorandum, [Oct. 20, 1919], PWW, vol. 64. In a memorandum probably written in January 1920, Grayson stated, “THE DIAGNOSIS made October 2nd and confirmed in subsequent examinations was that of a thrombosis[thrombosiscrossed out] involving the internal capsule of the right cerebral hemisphere.” PWW, vol. 64. For a discussion of the cause of the stroke aided by consultation with neurologists, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, n. 3.
63. Washington Post, Oct. 4, 1919; JDD, entries for Oct. 4 and 6, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
23 DISABILITY
1. For a discussion of Wilson’s case in light of previous and subsequent instances of presidential incapacity, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., “Disability in the White House: The Case of Woodrow Wilson,” in The White House: The First Two Hundred Years, ed. Frank Freidel and William Pencak (Boston, 1994).
2. Irwin Hood Hoover, “The Facts about President Wilson’s Illness,” PWW, vol. 63.
3. Memoir.
4. CTG memorandum, [ca. late 1919 or early 1920], PWW, vol. 64. For the judgment of a distinguished neurologist that neither Dercum nor any other physician would have said what Edith Wilson remembered, see Edwin A. Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography (Princeton, N.J., 1981).
5. Memoir.
6. Memoir. The editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson agree that Wilson knew nothing about this veto. See PWW, vol. 63, n. 3.
7. RL, “Cabinet Meetings during the Illness of the President,” Feb. 23, 1920, PWW, vol. 64. In JPT, Woodrow Wilson As I Know Him (Garden City, N.Y., 1921), Tumulty depicts Lansing as actively seeking Wilson’s removal and Grayson and himself angrily quashing the idea. Lansing’s recollection seems closer to the truth. At the time, he recorded in his diary, “Conferred with Tumulty and Grayson in Cabinet room. Tumulty pointed to left side significantly. Discussed V. P. acting as Prest. Decided to call Cabinet meeting Monday.” RL diary, entry for Oct. 3, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
8. CTG memorandum, Oct. 6, 1919, PWW, vol. 63; JDD, entry for Oct. 6, 1919, PWW, vol. 63.
9. Chandler P. Anderson diary, entry for Sept. 27, 1919, Chandler P. Anderson Papers, microfilm ed., reel 2, LC; EMHD, entry for Mar. 28, 1920, PWW, vol. 65.
10. In May 1996, Arthur Link suggested to me in a private conversation that Lansing may have been scheming to make himself president.
11. J. Fred Essary, quoted in Charles M. Thomas, Thomas Riley Marshall, Hoosier Statesman (Oxford, Ohio, 1939). The account of Essary’s visit to Marshall is based upon correspondence with Marshall’s secretary in July 1937. See Thomas, Marshall, 266.
12. Marshall, Recollections of Thomas R. Marshall, Vice-President and Hoosier Philosopher: A Hoosier Salad (Indianapolis, 1925). The account of the senators’ approaching Marshall in Thomas’s biography appears to be based upon correspondence with the vice president’s secretary, his wife, and senators George Moses and James Watson in August 1937. See Thomas, Marshall.
13. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Oct. 24, 1919, quoted in Herbert F. Margulies, The Mild Reservationists and the League of Nations, Controversy in the Senate (Columbia, Mo., 1989). On these negotiations and John Milton Cooper, Jr., Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations (New York, 2001).
14. 66th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record 7417 (Oct. 24, 1919). On the bargaining in the Foreign Relations Committee that produced these reservations, see Lloyd E. Ambrosius, Woodrow Wilson and the American Diplomatic Tradition: The Treaty Fight in Perspective (New York, 1987).
15. Porter J. McCumber, who was by far the mildest of the reservationists, made the point about the absence of input from Democrats: “If we make the reservations as mild as I would wish to have them, the treaty would be defeated. I wish to concede as little as possible and still be certain of ratification. To accomplish this, I must agree to a compromise, even though that compromise is far from my convictions of what should be done.” McCumber to Courtenay Crocker, Oct. 26, 1919, A. Lawrence Lowell Papers, Harvard University Archives.
16. Prince Edward to EBGW, Nov. 14, 1919, PWW, vol. 64. On the visits and the wheeled chair, see New York Times, Oct. 31, 1919; Nov. 12 and 16, 1919, and Washington Post, Nov. 14, 1919. Two years later, after being paralyzed with poliomyelitis, Franklin Roosevelt also found current wheelchairs unsatisfactory and designed a smaller, more mobile version using a kitchen chair.
17. Hitchcock memoir, “Wilson’s Place in History,” Gilbert M. Hitchcock Papers, LC; New York Times, Nov. 8, 1919. The editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson claim that Hitchcock met with Wilson around October 20, but that was a visit on which he talked with Grayson and did not see the president. See PWW, vol. 64, n. 1.
18. Hitchcock to EBGW, Nov. 13, 1919, PWW, vol. 64.
19. EBGW note, [ca. Nov. 15, 1919], PWW, vol. 64; CTG memorandum, Nov. 17, 1919, PWW, vol. 64.
20. CTG memorandum, Nov. 17, 1919, PWW, vol. 64.
21. On possible psychological effects of the stroke on Wilson, see Bert E. Park, “Woodrow Wilson’s Stroke of October 2, 1919,” PWW, vol. 63.
22. New York Times, Nov. 18, 1919; WW to Gilbert Hitchcock, Nov. 18, 1919, PWW, vol. 64. On the drafting of the letter, see Hitchcock to EBGW, Nov. 17, 1919, PWW, vol. 64, and letter draft with her emendations and additions.
23. RSBD, entry for Nov. 5, 1919, PWW, vol. 63. On these efforts at compromise, including a detailed analysis of the Bonsal affair, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World. It was to Stephen Bonsal that Henry Cabot Lodge reportedly made his crack about the League Covenant as a literary performance: “It might get by at Princeton but certainly not at Harvard.” See also chapter 20, n. 40.
24. 66th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record 8768, 8803 (Nov. 19, 1919). The four Democrats who voted for consent with reservations included Hoke Smith; those four voted against consent without reservations, joined by Park Trammell of Florida, who did not explain his vote. Another Republican, Knute Nelson of Minnesota, probably would have joined McCumber in voting for the treaty without reservations, but he had left the chamber. A sixteenth irreconcilable, Albert Fall of New Mexico, was not present but was recorded as against the treaty on both votes. On this last day of debating, maneuvering, and voting, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
25. Memoir; HCL to George Harvey, Nov. 20, 1919, HCLP.
26. HCL to John H. Sherburne, Dec. 4, 1919, HCLP; WW message, Dec. 2, 1919, PWW, vol. 64.
27. For a recent treatment of the troubles of this year, see Ann Hagedorn, Savage Peace: Hope and Fear in America, 1919 (New York, 2007).
28. On Wilson’s refusal to see Hitchcock, see JPT to EBGW, Dec. 1, 1919, PWW, vol. 64; Gilbert Hitchcock to WJB, Nov. 30, 1919, WJB Papers, box 32, LC; and Charles D. Warner memorandum, Nov. 29, 1919, RL Papers, vol. 49, LC.
29. On the “smelling committee,” see New York Times, Dec. 5, 1919. On November 29, someone at the White House had also admitted Wilson’s lack of involvement in the Mexican business. See New York Times, Nov. 30, 1919.
30. EBGW notes, [Dec. 5, 1919], PWW, vol. 64; Memoir. See also CTG memorandum, Dec. 5, 1919, PWW, vol. 64. The closest thing to “Which way, Senator?” was Houston’s recollection that sometime afterward Wilson told him, “If I could have got out of bed, I would have hit the man. Why did he want to put me in bad with the Almighty?” David F. Houston, Eight Years with Wilson’s Cabinet, 1913–1920 (Garden City, N.Y., 1926), vol. 2.
31. New York Times, Dec. 6, 1919. Finley Peter Dunne was the satirical newspaper columnist, best known for his fictional Chicago Irish American bartender, “Mr. Dooley.”
32. Ibid.
33. Gilbert Hitchcock pamphlet, “Brief View of the Late War and the Struggle for Peace Aims,” Jan. 13, 1925, Gilbert W. Hitchcock Papers, LC; New York Times, Dec. 15, 1919.
34. Draft statement, [ca. Dec. 17, 1919], PWW, vol. 64.
35. On the list of senators, see PWW, vol. 64, n. 1.
36. On the efforts to reconsider the treaty, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
37. JPT to WW, Dec. 28, 1919, PWW, vol. 64. On Edward Grey’s mission and Charles Kennedy Craufurd-Stuart, see PWW, vol. 63, n. 1. For a detailed rendition of the incident, see Phyllis Lee Levin, Edith and Woodrow: The Wilson White House (New York, 2001).
38. JPT draft, [Jan. 6, 1920], PWW, vol. 64, pp., 247–49; EBGW handwritten addition, [Jan. 7, 1920], PWW, vol. 64. See also Houston, Wilson’s Cabinet, vol. 2.
39. Philadelphia Public Ledger, Jan. 11, 1920; New York Times, Jan. 23, 1920. On the bipartisan conference, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
40. JPT to EBGW, Jan. 15, 1920, PWW, vol. 64. See also RL desk diary, entries for Jan. 14 and 15, 1920, PWW, vol. 64 and EBGW notes, [ca. Jan. 14, 1920], PWW, vol. 64, n. 1.
41. JPT draft, Jan. 15, 1920, PWW, vol. 64; JPT to EBGW, Jan. 17, 1920, PWW, vol. 64.
42. RSBD, entry for Jan. 23, 1920, PWW, vol. 64. The neurologist, Bert E. Park, uses the terms “focal psychosyndrome” and “caricature of himself” to describe Wilson’s condition. See Park, “The Aftermath of Wilson’s Stroke,” PWW, vol. 64. Other neurologists are less categorical about divorcing such conditions from the effects of isolation.
43. CTG to SA, Jan. 24, 1920, PWW, vol. 64; RSBD, entry for Jan. 23, 1920, PWW, vol. 64; WW to Gilbert Hitchcock, Jan. 26, 1920, PWW, vol. 64. The editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson state that Tumulty wrote this letter to Hitchcock. See PWW, vol. 64, n. 1. Its tone and approach persuade me, however, that Wilson either dictated it or substantially revised it. On this new referendum scheme, see EBGW to Albert S. Burleson, with enclosed list, Jan. 28, 1920, PWW, vol. 64, and Burleson to EBGW, Jan. 28, 1920,PWW, vol. 64.
44. CTG note, n.d., quoted in PWW, vol. 64, n. 1. For Grayson’s divulgences about the resignation scheme, see EMHD, entry for June 10, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; John W. Davis diary, entry for Sept. 2, 1920, quoted in PWW, vol. 64, n. 1; and RSBD, entry for Nov. 28, 1920, PWW, vol. 66. For the treatment of the matter by the editors of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, see PWW, vol. 64, n. 1.
45. RSBD, entry for Feb. 5, [1920], PWW, vol. 64. On British and French attitudes toward the deadlock, see George W. Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations: Strategy Politics, and International Organization, 1914–1919 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1978).
46. WW to RL, Feb. 7, 1920, PWW, vol. 64; RL memorandum, Feb. 7, 1920, PWW, vol. 64; RL to WW, Feb. 9, 1920, PWW, vol. 64. In his memorandum, Lansing also speculated that Tumulty, a Catholic, might have conspired against him because he was active in the Inter Church World Movement, a Protestant organization.
47. Memoir; JPT, Wilson As I Know Him.
48. Carter Glass to WW, Feb. 9, 1920, PWW, vol. 64; EBGW to Glass, [Feb. 11, 1920], PWW, vol. 64. Edith Wilson’s letter is a handwritten draft; a reply from Glass indicates that he received a more polished version.
49. Diplomatic note sent by RL to Hugh C. Wallace, Feb. 10, 1920, PWW, vol. 64. For Wilson’s restoration of harsh language, n. 1.
50. WW to RL, Feb. 11, 1920, PWW, vol. 64; RL to WW, Feb. 12, 1920, PWW, vol. 64; RL memorandum, Feb. 13, 1920, PWW, vol. 64. On Long’s visit to the White House, see Breckinridge Long diary, entry for Feb. 13, 1920, Breckinridge Long Papers, box 2, LC.
51. RSBD, entry for Feb. 15, [1920], PWW, vol. 64; New York Times, Feb. 11, 1920; Philadelphia Press, Feb. 16, 1920.
52. Literary Digest, Feb. 28, 1920; McAdoo to Zach Lamar Cobb, Feb. 25, 1920, William Gibbs McAdoo Papers, box 230, LC.
53. CTG memorandum, Feb. 25, 1920, PWW, vol. 64.
54. HCL, quoted in Raymond Clapper diary, entry for Feb. 25, 1920, Raymond Clapper Papers, box 6, LC.
55. Keynes, The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes, ed. Elizabeth Johnson, vol. 2, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (Cambridge, U.K., 1971); JPT to WW, Feb. 27, 1920, PWW, vol. 64. Whether Tumulty sent this letter is not clear. The only copy is in Tumulty’s papers, not Wilson’s, and there is no record of a reply from Wilson. On the publication of Keynes’s book in America, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
56. Edward N. Hurley, The Bridge to France (Philadelphia, 1927). On this meeting and whether there was any follow-up, see Homer Cummings diary, entry for Feb. 29, 1920, PWW, vol. 64; Albert S. Burleson to JPT, Mar. 5, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; and Cooper,Breaking the Heart of the World.
57. WW draft, [ca. Feb. 28, 1920], PWW, vol. 6.
58. WW to Gilbert Hitchcock, Mar. 8, 1920, PWW, vol. 65.
59. Washington Post, Mar. 9, 1920; New York World, Mar. 10, 1920; 66th Cong., 2nd Sess., Congressional Record 4050–51 (Mar. 9, 1920). On the final debate and vote on reservations, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
60. On this final day and the voting, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
61. On the repercussions of the vote and Lodge’s intentions, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
62. For a consideration of the meaning of the League fight, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
63. CTG memoranda, Mar. 20 and 25, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; CTG, Woodrow Wilson: An Intimate Memoir (New York, 1960).
24 DOWNFALL
1. CTG memoranda, Mar. 25, 26, and 31, 1920, PWW, vol. 65.
2. CTG memoranda, Mar. 25 and 31, 1920, PWW, vol. 65.
3. CTG memorandum, Apr. 13, 1920, PWW, vol. 65.
4. JDD, entry for Apr. 14, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; RL desk diary, entry for April 14, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; David F. Houston, Eight Years with Wilson’s Cabinet, 1913–1920 (Garden City, N.Y., 1926), vol. 2. See also CTG memorandum, Apr. 14, 1920, PWW, vol. 65.
5. Sir Auckland Geddes to David Lloyd George, June 4, 1920, PWW, vol. 65.
6. See CTG to Cleveland H. Dodge, May 29, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; CTG to Frances X. Dercum, June 7, 1920, PWW, vol. 65.
7. CTGD, entries for Apr. [20], 1920; May 3, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; WW to William Royal Wilder, May 3, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; Charles E. Swem to JPT, June 3, 1930, quoted in PWW, vol. 65, n. 4.
8. Marc Peter to Giuseppe Motta, May 28, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; Sir Auckland Geddes to David Lloyd George, June 4, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; WW draft statement, [May 24, 1920], PWW, vol. 65.
9. WW message, May 24, 1920, PWW, vol. 65. On the Senate action, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations (New York, 2001).
10. WW veto message, May 27, 1920, PWW, vol. 65. On the override vote, seventeen Democrats voted in favor, and two Republicans voted against. On the Knox resolution, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
11. Homer Cummings diary, entry for May 31, [1920], PWW, vol. 65.
12. WW notes, [ca. June 10, 1920], PWW, vol. 65.
13. Carter Glass memorandum, June 16, 1920, PWW, vol. 65. See also Woolley, “Politics Is Hell,” Robert W. Woolley Papers, box 44, LC.
14. New York World, June 18, 1920. On Tumulty’s intentions, see PWW, vol. 65, n. 1.
15. New York World, June 18, 1920.
16. Carter Glass memorandum, June 19, 1920, PWW, vol. 65, p., 435. For Glass’s discouragement of a third term, see New York Times, June 21, 1920.
17. On this convention, see Wesley Marvin Bagby, The Road to Normalcy: The Presidential Campaign and Election of 1920 (Baltimore, 1962).
18. Albert S. Burleson to Daniel C. Roper, July 12, 1920, quoted in PWW, vol. 65, n. 3. See also New York Times, June 29, 1920.
19. See CTGD, entries for July 3 [and July 6] 1920, PWW, vol. 65; Charles E. Swem diary, entry for [ca. July 6, 1920], PWW, vol. 65; Bainbridge Colby to WW, July 2, 1920, PWW, vol. 65. Colby used Homer Cummings’s code in the telegraph to Wilson. Swem claimed that Wilson dictated to Edith a telegram in reply approving Colby’s plan (see Swem diary, entry for [ca. July 6, 1920], PWW, vol. 65), but no copy of such a telegram survives, and Colby did not mention it in his communications with Wilson.
20. JPT to EBGW, July 4, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; Irwin Hood Hoover, Forty-two Years in the White House (Boston, 1934), quoted in PWW, vol. 65, n. 2. On the meeting in San Francisco, see Colby to WW, July 4, 1920, PWW, vol. 65; Cummings memorandum, [July 3 and 4, 1920], PWW, vol. 65. Cummings recalled that two meetings took place on July 4, and not all the men named may have been present at both of them. On the move to fire Albert Burleson, see James Kerney, The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson(New York, 1926). Ike Hoover’s memoir also states that Tumulty kept Burleson “afloat.”
21. Franklin D. Roosevelt to Claude G. Bowers, quoted in James M. Cox, Journey through My Years (New York, 1946); Memoir. See also CTGD, entries for July 18 and 19, 1920, PWW, vol. 65, 529.
22. Charles E. Swem diary, entry for July 26, 1920, PWW, vol. 65. See also Edmund W. Starling with Thomas Sugrue, Starling of the White House: The Story of the Man Whose Secret Service Detail Guarded Five Presidents from Woodrow Wilson to Franklin D. Roosevelt (New York, 1946).
23. William W. Hawkins interview, [Sept. 27, 1920], PWW, vol. 66.
24. WW statement, [Oct. 3, 1920], PWW, vol. 66.
25. WW to Selden P. Spencer, Oct, 6, 1920, PWW, vol. 66; Homer Cummings memorandum, Oct. 5, 1920, PWW, vol. 66.
26. WW to Warren G. Harding, Oct. 18, 1920, PWW, vol. 66; WW speech, Oct. 27, 1920, PWW, vol. 66.
27. WW to James M. Cox, Oct. 29, 1920, PWW, vol. 66.
28. Voters had not so much turned against the Democrats as they had stayed home. Thanks to the Nineteenth Amendment, nationwide woman suffrage boosted the total vote, but in percentages, participation fell. For the first time in American history, less than half of all eligible voters cast ballots in a presidential election. For a good assessment of the election results, see Bagby, Road to Normalcy.
29. Henry J. Allen to White, Mar. 23, 1920, William Allen White Papers, series E, box 51, LC.
30. Bagby, Road to Normalcy. On the role of foreign policy in the election, see Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World.
31. Charles E. Swem diary, entry for Nov. 3, 1920, PWW, vol. 66; SA to Jessie Wilson Sayre, Nov. 4, 1920, PWW, vol. 66; Homer Cummings memorandum, [Nov. 6, 1920], PWW, vol. 66; WW to Bainbridge Colby, Nov. 6, 1920, PWW, vol. 66.
32. A. Mitchell Palmer to WW, Jan. 30, 1921, PWW, vol. 67; WW notation, PWW, vol. 67, n. 8; Ida M. Tarbell memorandum, May 22, 1922, PWW, vol. 68.
33. WW to Lawrence C. Woods, Dec. 1, 1920, PWW, vol. 66. On Tumulty’s role and the functioning of the government, see editors’ comments, PWW, vol. 63, n. 6, and vol. 66.
34. RSBD, entry for Nov. 28, 1920, PWW, vol. 66; EBGW to RSB, Nov. 30, 1920, PWW, vol. 66.
35. RSBD, entry for Dec. 1, 1920, PWW, vol. 66; CTG memorandum, Dec. 6, 1920, PWW, vol. 66.
36. WW message, Dec. 7, 1920, PWW, vol. 66.
37. See WW veto message, Mar. 3, 1921, PWW, vol. 67.
38. Memoir.
39. For the figure on Wilson’s savings, see New York Tribune, Sept. 27, 1921.
40. Memoir. On the Wilsons’ finances, see Phyllis Lee Levin, Edith and Woodrow: The Wilson White House (New York: 2001).
41. Memoir, 308. On the house hunting.
42. JDD entry on Jan. 17, 1921, PWW, vol. 67.
43. New York Times, Mar. 5, 1921.
44. Ibid.
45. New York World, Mar. 4, 1921. For Wilson’s expression of appreciation, see WW to Frank Cobb, Mar. 7, 1921, PWW, vol. 67.
25 TWILIGHT
1. In her memoir, Edith insisted that the painting in the bedroom was a portrait of herself. See Memoir. For descriptions of the house and RSB, “Memorandum of a Talk with Mrs. Woodrow Wilson, January 27, 1925,” RSBP, box 124.
2. Memoir.
3. On the routine, see Memoir.
4. RSBD, entry for Mar. 22, [1921], PWW, vol. 67.
5. WW to Robert S. Henderson, May 7, 1921, PWW, vol. 67; RSBD, entry for May 25, [1921], PWW, vol. 67. See also SA to John Hibben, June 11, 1921, PWW, vol. 67.
6. On the law partnership, see Memoir; RSB, “Memorandum of a Talk with Mrs. Woodrow Wilson at 2340 S St., N.W., Washington, D.C., on December 7, 1925,” RSBP, box 124; and Bainbridge Colby, interview by RSB, June 19, 1930, RSBP, box 103.
7. WW to Colby, Feb. 17, 1918, PWW, vol. 67; WW to Colby, June 10, 1918, vol. 68.
8. Colby to WW, Aug. 22, 1922, PWW, vol. 68; WW draft letter and telegram to Colby, Aug. 23, 1922, PWW, vol. 68; RSB, “Memorandum of a Talk with Mrs. Woodrow Wilson at 2340 S St., N.W., Washington, D.C., on December 7, 1925,” RSBP, box 124. Edith erroneously recalled that Wilson telephoned Colby; she also recalled that Colby had already entertained second thoughts of his own.
9. WW to Colby, Nov. 29, 1922; Dec. 14, 1922, PWW, vol. 68. Almost eight years later, when Baker interviewed Colby, he found him almost worshipful in his attitude toward Wilson. See Colby, interview by RSB, June 19, 1930, RSBP, box 103.
10. WW to William Gibbs McAdoo, Sept. 17, 1922, PWW, vol. 68.
11. New York Times, Nov. 12, 1921.
12. WW to Bainbridge Colby, Feb. 24, 1922, PWW, vol. 67; RSBD, entry for Apr. 4, [1922], PWW, vol. 67.
13. WW notes, Apr. 26, 1922; [ca. May 1], 1922, PWW, vol. 68; WW to J. Franklin Jameson, May 11, 1922, PWW, vol. 68.
14. WW, “The Road Away from Revolution,” [ca. Apr. 8, 1923], PWW, vol. 68.
15. George Creel to EBGW, Apr. 19, 1923, PWW, vol. 68; SA, interview by RSB, Sept. 2, 1931, PWW, vol. 68, n. 1.
16. SA, interview by RSB, Sept. 2, 1931, PWW, vol. 68, n. 1.
17. On the formation of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation, see New York Times, Dec. 29, 1922, and PWW, vol. 68, n. 2.
18. New York Times, Nov. 12, 1922; Dec. 29, 1922; CTG memorandum, [ca. Dec. 28, 1922], PWW, vol. 68.
19. WW statement, [ca. Oct. 20, 1921], PWW, vol. 68; WW statement, Nov. 6, 1921, PWW, vol. 67.
20. WW to John Hessin Clarke, Oct. 27, 1922, PWW, vol. 68; WW to Hamilton Holt, Nov. 5, 1922, PWW, vol. 68.
21. For Baker’s account of writing Woodrow Wilson and the World Settlement, see RSB, American Chronicle: The Autobiography of Ray Stannard Baker (New York, 1945).
22. WW to JPT, Apr. 6, 1922, PWW, vol. 67; “Dictated by Mrs. Woodrow Wilson, to Give Her Memory of the Tumulty Incident,” Nov. 21, 1924, RSBP, box 124.
23. JPT to WW, Apr. 10, 1922, PWW, vol. 68; New York Times, Apr. 9, 1922; WW to editor, New York Times, Apr. 12, 1922, PWW, vol. 68; WW to Arthur Krock, Apr. 12, 1912, PWW, vol. 68; Memoir. On the recommendaton of Tumulty for the Senate, see WW to James Kerney, Oct. 30, 1923, PWW, vol. 68, and Kerney, “Last Talks with Woodrow Wilson,” Saturday Evening Post, Mar. 29, 1924, PWW, vol. 68.
24. Wilson to James F. McCaleb, July 8, 1922, PWW, vol. 68; WW to John Hessin Clarke, Nov. 13, 1922, PWW, vol. 68. After William Cabell Bruce’s victory in the primary, Wilson wrote a bitter letter about him to the chairman of the Democratic National Committee. See WW to Cordell Hull, Sept. 12, 1922, PWW, vol. 68.
25. WW to Frederick I. Thompson, Nov. 4, 1922, PWW, vol. 68.
26. New York Times, June 10, 1923.
27. On the McAdoo visit, see RSB, “Memorandum of an Interview with Mrs. Woodrow Wilson—January 4, 1926,” RSBP, box 124.
28. Ida Tarbell memorandum, May 5, 1922, PWW, vol. 68.
29. WW to EBGW, [Aug.] 31, 1923, PWW, vol. 68.
30. Lord Riddell diary, entry for [Sept. 10, 1923], PWW, vol. 68; Margaret Wilson, quoted in Edith Gittings Reid, Woodrow Wilson: The Character, the Myth and the Man (New York, 1934).
31. WW to Raymond Fosdick, Oct. 22, 1923, PWW, vol. 68; Fosdick to RSB, June 23, 1926, RSBP, box 108.
32. Fosdick to WW, Nov. 27, 1923, PWW, vol. 68; WW to Fosdick, Nov. 28, 1923, PWW, vol. 68; Raymond B. Fosdick, Chronicle of a Generation: An Autobiography (New York, 1958).
33. WW speech, Nov. 10, 1923, PWW, vol. 68.
34. New York Times, Nov. 12, 1923. See also Arthur Link’s description of the scene in PWW, vol. 68.
35. New York Times, Dec. 29, 1923.
36. WW to RSB, Dec. 13, 1923, PWW, vol. 68; WW to NDB, Jan. 20, 1924, PWW, vol. 68; New York Times, Jan. 17, 1924. On the delivery of “The Document,” see Randolph Bolling to NDB, Jan. 21, 1924, PWW, vol. 68, n. 1; 544.
37. Raymond Fosdick to RSB, June 23, 1926, RSBP, box 103.
38. WW notes, [ca. Jan. 21, 1924], PWW, vol. 68.
39. Margaret H. Cobb to WW, Dec. 27, 1923, PWW, vol. 68; WW foreword, [Jan. 6, 1924], to Frank Irving Cobb, Cobb of “The World,” ed. John L. Heaton (New York, 1924), in PWW, vol. 68; Raymond Fosdick to RSB, Jan. 23, 1924, RSBP, box 103.
40. RSB to WW, Jan. 7, 1924, PWW, vol. 68; WW to RSB, Jan. 8 and 25, 1924, PWW, vol. 68.
41. RSB, American Chronicle. Two other letters Wilson dictated that day were condolences to an old friend and supporter among the Princeton trustees, Thomas Jones, on the death of his brother David, another friend and supporter, and a brief reply to an inmate in a federal prison who had requested help in having his sentence commuted.
42. On these days, see Randolph Bolling, “A Brief History of the Last Illness of Honorable Woodrow Wilson,” [Feb. 7 or 8, 1924], PWW, vol. 68.
43. Bolling memorandum, PWW, vol. 68; White House staff memorandum to Calvin Coolidge, Feb. 2, 1924, PWW, vol. 68; New York Times, Feb. 3 and 4, 1924.
44. New York Times, Feb. 4, 1924; CTG statement, [Feb. 3, 1924], CTG Papers, Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library, Staunton, Va.; death certificate, CTG Papers. See also, “Memorandum of Interview with Dr. Cary T. Grayson on February 18, 19, 1926 at Washington,” RSBP, box 109.
45. Helen Manning Hunter, quoting WHT in Lewis L. Gould to John Milton Cooper, Jr., June 13, 2008.
46. EBGW to HCL, Feb. 4, 1924, PWW, vol. 68; New York Times, Feb. 7, 1924.
47. New York Times, Feb. 7, 1924.
48. Raymond Fosdick to RSB, June 23, 1926, RSBP, box 103.