I. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter picks up where the last one left off—kind of. Historical movements and trends often have ramifications for decades and even centuries beyond the initial impact, so history can’t always be divided up into neat eras. To that end, you may read some material in this chapter that harkens back to topics covered in Chapter 6.
Remember: Read through this chapter once, then go back and focus on the things that you’re not entirely clear about. Here’s the chapter outline.
I. Chapter Overview
You’re reading it.
II. Stay Focused on the Big Picture
Organize the many events that occurred during the 1200 years covered in this chapter into some big-picture concepts.
III. Review of History Organization and Reorganization of Human Societies c. 600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E.
This is the largest section of the chapter. In it, we’ll delve into developments in each region or major civilization. If you’re totally clueless on any part of this section, consider also reviewing the corresponding topic in your textbook. After all, we’re talking about a large chunk of history, and this section is intended as a review, not as a primary source.
Here’s how we’ve organized the information.
A. The Classical Civilizations: India and China
B. The Classical Civilizations: Mediterranean
C. The Classical Civilizations: MesoAmerica
D. The Late Classical Period: Empires Collapse, People Move
IV. Technology and Innovations from 600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E.
From primitive farming tools to metallurgy to large-scale farming, man kept moving toward increasingly advanced technology in this era.
V. Changes and Continuities in the Role of Women
Women lose power as humans start to settle down. A comparative look at trends in the status of women across different regions of the world.
VI. Major Belief Systems through 600 C.E.
Although we’ll make reference to the major belief systems within the history review, we’ve provided this separate section so that they’re all grouped together in one place and you can refer to them easily. Major belief systems had a huge impact on the development of civilizations, so they’re important to review in detail. Also keep in mind that you’ll need to know the background of the major belief systems as you review the material in later chapters. Note that this section reviews the major belief systems covered in Chapters 6 and 7 (Periods 1 and 2 from the AP World History guidelines).
VII. Pulling It All Together
A quick review that focuses on themes and trends
VIII. Timeline of Major Developments 600 b.c.e to 600 C.E.
Major developments organized by time and place.
II. STAY FOCUSED ON THE BIG PICTURE
As you review the details of the civilizations in this chapter, stay focused on the big- picture concepts and ask yourself some questions, including the following:
1. Do cultural areas, as opposed to states or empires, better represent history? Cultural areas are those that share a common culture, and don’t necessarily respect geographical limitations. States, like city-states and nation-states (countries), and empires, have political boundaries, even if those boundaries aren’t entirely agreed upon.
2. How does change occur within societies? As you review all the information in this chapter, you’ll notice a lot of talk about trading, migrations, and invasions. Pay attention to why people move around so much in the first place, and the impact of these moves. And, don’t forget, sometimes change occurs within a society because of internal developments, not because of external influences. Pay attention to that too.
3. How similar were the economic and trading practices that developed across cultures? Pay attention to monetary systems, trade routes, and trade practices. How did they link up?
4. How does the environment impact human decision making? Pay attention to the way states respond to environmental changes. Do they move or send out raiding parties? Are they able to respond quickly and successfully to environmental changes?
III. HISTORY REVIEW
A. The Classical Civilizations: India and China
Your AP World History Exam will likely focus on four empires in India and China that existed from around 300 B.C.E. to around 550 C.E. These four empires are the Maurya and Gupta in India, and the Qin and Han in China. Keep in mind that to fully understand these four empires, you will also need to review some of the major belief systems discussed in Section VI of this chapter.
1. The Mauryan Empire in India (321 to approximately 180 B.C.E.)
Around 330 B.C.E., Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire and continued into India (more on this in a few pages). During this time, the Aryan culture and belief systems continued to spread throughout India. Then, around 321 B.C.E., a new empire arose in India, one that would come to be the largest in that country to date. Spanning from the Indus River Valley eastward through the Ganges River Valley and southward through the Deccan Plateau, the Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who unified the smaller Aryan kingdoms into a civilization. But it would be his grandson, Ashoka Maurya, who would take the empire to its greatest heights.
A major reason that the Mauryan Empire became so powerful and wealthy was trade. Indian merchants traded silk, cotton, and elephants (among hundreds of other items) to Mesopotamia and the eastern Roman Empire. Another reason was its powerful military. Interestingly, it was its military strength that eventually caused a dramatic change in the empire. Stricken with disgust and filled with remorse for a very violent and bloody victory his forces claimed over the Kalinga in southeast India, Ashoka converted to Buddhism. For the rest of his reign, Ashoka preached nonviolence and moderation. (As you’ll learn in Section IV of this chapter, during the previous century, Buddhism had recently taken root in this otherwise Hindu region.)
Ashoka is also known for his Rock and Pillar Edicts, which were carved on—you guessed it—rocks and pillars throughout the empire. These edicts reminded Mauryans to live generous and righteous lives. Following Ashoka’s conversion and commitment to Buddhism, the religion spread beyond India into many parts of Southeast Asia.
2. The Gupta Dynasty in India (320-550 C.E.)
After Ashoka’s death in 232 B.C.E., the Mauryan Empire began to decline rapidly, primarily due to economic problems and pressure from attacks in the northeast. But between 375 and 415 C.E., it experienced a revival under Chandra Gupta II, known as Chandra Gupta the Great. The Gupta Empire was more decentralized and smaller than its predecessor, but it is often referred to as a golden age because it enjoyed relative peace and saw significant advances in the arts and sciences. For example, Gupta mathematicians developed the concepts of pi and of zero. They also devised a decimal system that used the numerals 1 through 9 (which were diffused to the Arabs and became known as Arabic numerals).
The Gupta Empire (Fourth-Fifth Century C.E.)
By the time of the Gupta Dynasty, Hinduism had again become the dominant religion in India. Hinduism reinforced the caste system, meaning that Indian social structures were very rigid. Though the empire as a whole was enjoying an era of peace, prosperity, and artistic endeavors, women were increasingly losing their rights. Totally under the control of men, Indian women lost the right to own or inherit property, and could not participate in sacred rituals or study religion. And stemming from an increasingly urban society that placed a growing importance on the inheritance of property, child marriage (involving girls as young as six or seven) also became the norm during this era. The Gupta Dynasty collapsed under pressure from the White Huns in 550 C.E.
3. The Qin Dynasty in China (221 to around 209 B.C.E.)
Unlike the Zhou Dynasty that preceded it, the Qin Dynasty was extremely short. Though it lasted little longer than a decade, it was significant enough to earn a spot in this AP review book 2,200 years later.
The story of the Qin Dynasty is similar to all the other civilizations we’ve reviewed, in that it developed a strong economy based on agriculture; it organized a powerful army equipped with iron weapons; and it conquered the surrounding territories and unified the region under a single emperor. Same story, new time and place. So how did it earn its spot here?
The Qin Dynasty is the empire that connected separate fortification walls that eventually became the Great Wall of China. That fact is more than just an interesting piece of trivia; it tells us that the empire was incredibly well organized, centralized, and territorial. Qin Shihuangdi, also known as Qin Shi Huang, was the dynasty’s first emperor, and he recentralized various feudal kingdoms that had split apart at the end of the Zhou Dynasty; standardized all the laws, currencies, weights, measures, and systems of writing; and refused to tolerate any dissent whatsoever. If dissent occurred in a book, he had it burned; if dissent occurred in the mind of a scholar, he had the scholar killed.
Given that introduction, it should come as no surprise to you that Qin China was patriarchal. What might surprise you, however, is that the dominant belief system of the Qin rulers was Legalism.
Although the emperor believed the Qin Dynasty would last forever, it fell only one year after his death, at the hands of the peasants, who resented the Qin Dynasty’s heavy- handedness. The new dynasty that took its place lasted for more than 400 years.
4. The Han Dynasty in China (around 200 B.C.E. to 460s C.E.)
During the Han Dynasty, the Xiongnu, a large nomadic group from northern Asia who may have been Huns, invaded territories extending from China to Eastern Europe.
But the Huns were much more successful in Europe than they were in China, largely due to the skills of Wu Ti, often called the Warrior Emperor, who greatly enlarged the Han Empire to central Asia. Trade thrived along the Silk Road to the Mediterranean; more significantly, along this same route, Buddhism spread. As usual, the trade routes carried far more than luxury items; they carried culture.
One of the most significant developments that took place during the Han Dynasty was the civil service system based on the teachings of Confucius. The Han believed that those involved in government should be highly educated and excellent communicators. To ensure strong candidates, the Han developed a civil service examination, a very difficult test lasting for several days. Though, ostensibly, the exam was open to everyone, generally only the wealthy could afford to prepare for it. The consequence was a government bureaucracy that was highly skilled and that contributed to stability in the system of government for centuries.
Also during this time, the Chinese invented paper, highly accurate sundials, and calendars, as well as making important strides in navigation, such as the invention of the rudder and of the compass. And, like all the other major civilizations, they continued to broaden their use of metals.
B. The Classical Civilizations: Mediterranean
From approximately 2000 B.C.E. to around 500 C.E., two Mediterranean civilizations, Greece and Rome, dominated the region. Countless books have been written on these two empires. There is no doubt that your AP textbook dedicated a considerable chunk to the details of these two powerhouse civilizations. Why all the fuss? Simply put, Western civilization as we know it today essentially began with these two empires. The Sumerians, the Babylonians, the Egyptians, the Hebrews, and the Phoenicians laid the groundwork, but the Greeks and the Romans left the most pervasive and obvious influence behind. Perhaps their most important contribution is the concept of representative government, but the Greeks and Romans, and the Persians also made lasting contributions to art, architecture, literature, science, and philosophy.
1. Persian Immersion
The Height of the Persian Empire (c. 500 B.C.E.)
The Persians established a big empire—a really big empire—that, by 500 B.C.E., stretched from beyond the Nile River Valley in Egypt around the eastern Mediterranean through present-day Turkey and parts of Greece, and then eastward through present-day Afghanistan. Huge! They did this by conquering all those earlier ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia you just read about, the Babylonians, the Lydians, the Phoenicians, and the Egyptians. On account of the vast expanse of their empire, they delegated local administration of their provinces, or Satrapies, to important people in the provinces. As long as the governor, or satrap, paid his taxes and contributed soldiers to the Great King whenever they were requested, the satrapy was allowed a wide range of self government, which was vital to keeping such a far flung empire of so many different cultures together.
To improve transportation and communication across the vast empire, the Persians built a series of long roads. The longest was the Great Royal Road, which stretched some 1,600 miles from the Persian Gulf to the Aegean Sea.
We’ll talk more about the Persian Empire later, because they butted heads with the other major world empires.
Lydians, Phoenicians, and Hebrews, Oh My!
Within and near the Persian Empire, many smaller societies existed and kept their own identities. Among these were the Lydians, Phoenicians, and Hebrews.
The Lydians are important because they came up with the concept of using coined money to conduct trade rather than using the barter system, in which goods are exchanged for other goods. This, of course, led to a monetary system of consistent prices and allowed people to save money for future use. The idea of coined money, like everything else, spread over the trade routes and soon just about everybody was doing it.
The Phoenicians are important, first, because they established powerful naval city- states all along the Mediterranean (you’ll read more about this later), and, second, because they developed a simple alphabet that used only 22 letters as opposed to the much more complex cuneiform system. The Greeks later adopted the Phoenician alphabet, and from there it spread and changed, and eventually led to the system of letters you are reading on this page.
The Hebrews are significant because of their religious beliefs called Judaism. The Hebrews were the first Jews. In contrast to previous civilizations in the Fertile Crescent and beyond, the Hebrews were monotheistic, meaning they believed in one god. By around 1000 B.C.E., the Hebrews had established Israel in Palestine on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Although they were frequently invaded by neighboring empires (e.g., Nebuchadnezzar enslaved them), they managed to maintain their identity, in large part because they believed they were God’s chosen people. Under the Persians, the Hebrews were freed from captivity and continued to develop a distinct culture that would later lead to the development of major world religions. Much more about Judaism can be found later in this chapter.
2. Greece
Ancient Greece was located on a peninsula between the waters of the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. Because the land in Greece is mostly mountainous, there wasn’t much possibility for agricultural development on the scale of the ancient river valley civilizations. But Greece did have natural harbors and mild weather, and its coastal position aided trade and cultural diffusion by boat, which is precisely how the Greeks conducted most of their commercial activity. The Greeks could easily sail to Palestine, Egypt, and Carthage, exchanging wine and olive products for grain. Eventually, they replaced the barter system with a money system (remember where this developed? Hint: Lydia, oh Lydia), and soon Athens became a wealthy city at the center of all this commercial activity.
Greece’s limited geographical area also contributed to its dominance. Land was tight, so Greece was always looking to establish colonies abroad to ease overcrowding and gain raw materials. This meant that the Greeks had to have a powerful military. It also meant that they had to develop sophisticated methods of communication, transportation, and governance.
Social Structure and Citizenship: It Takes a Polis...
Like the other early civilizations, Greece wasn’t a country then in the way that it is now. Instead, it was a collection of city-states, very much like those of early Mesopotamian civilizations in Sumer or Babylon. Each city-state, known as a polis, shared a common culture and identity. Although each polis was part of a broader civilization and shared a common language and many similar traditions, each was independent from, and often in conflict with, the others.
The two main city-states were Athens and Sparta. Athens was the political, commercial, and cultural center of Greek civilization. Sparta was an agricultural and highly militaristic region. Most citizens in Sparta lived a very austere, highly disciplined existence (which explains where modern-day terms such as “Spartan existence” come from). All the boys, and even some of the girls, received military training, which stressed equality but not individuality.
Each polis was composed of three groups.
• Citizens, composed of adult males, often engaged in business or commerce
• Free people with no political rights
• Noncitizens (slaves, who accounted for nearly one-third of the people in Athens, and who had no rights)
Among the citizens, civic decisions were made openly, after engaging in debates. All citizens were expected to participate. This practice led to Athens being regarded as the first democracy. But it’s important to point out that only adult males could participate, so it was not a democracy in the modern sense of the word. (Interestingly, it was in Sparta, not Athens, where women held a higher status and were granted greater equality than women of other city-states.)
It’s also important to point out that democracy in Athens did not develop immediately. As Athens grew more and more powerful, the government changed from a monarchy to an aristocracy, and finally to a democracy. (Note: You may be asked about Draco and Solon. Just know that they were aristocrats who worked to create the democracy in Athens and to ensure fair, equal, and open participation.)
Ironically, it was slavery that enabled the Greeks to develop their democracy. It was by slave labor that Greek citizens found themselves with free time to meet and vote and to create great works of art and philosophy. Slaves, obtained by various means, were the
private property of their owners. They worked as laborers, domestic servants, and cultivators. Educated or skilled slaves became craftsmen and business managers. Some owners helped slaves set up small businesses and then kept part of the profits; and in a few cases, slaves who earned and saved enough money could eventually buy their freedom.
Greek Mythology: Many Gods
The Greeks were polytheistic. The myths surrounding their gods, like those of Zeus and Aphrodite, are richly detailed and still hold our interest to this day. As you know by now, most early civilizations were polytheistic (the Hebrews being a notable exception), but Greek polytheism was unique in one major respect: The Greek gods were believed to possess human failings—they got angry, got drunk, took sides, and had petty arguments. Greek mythology remains part of Western heritage and language. Every time we refer to a task as “Herculean” or read our horoscopes, we’re tipping our hats to the ancient Greeks.
War with Persia: Greece Holds On
Prior to the development of the democracy in Athens, Greece was involved in a series of wars that threatened its existence. The Persian Wars (499-449 B.C.E.) united all the Greek city-states against their mutual enemy, Persia. (Recall that the Persian Empire was the largest empire in the eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamia to date.) Much of Athens was destroyed in these wars, but Greece held on and the wars ended in a stalemate. Two huge victories by the Greeks, one at Marathon and the other at Salamis, allowed the Greeks to maintain control of the Aegean Sea. With Persia held back, Greece was free to enter into an era of peace and prosperity, which is often called the Golden Age of Pericles.
The Golden Age of Pericles: Athens Wows the World
The Golden Age of Pericles (480-404 B.C.E.) saw Athens become a cultural powerhouse under the leadership of Pericles. Pericles established democracy for all adult males. It was also under Pericles that Athens was rebuilt after its destruction by the Persians (the Parthenon was built during this reconstruction). And it was under Pericles that Athens established the Delian League with the other city-states, an alliance against aggression from its common enemies. Philosophy and the arts flourished, and continued to do so for the next two centuries.
In philosophy, we find the names many would regard as the most famous of all the ancient Greeks: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. They believed that truth could be discerned through rational thought and deliberate and careful observation, and that virtue and the quest for goodness would lead to internal peace and happiness. Some of their observations proved false in time, especially with regard to the functioning of the universe on a cosmic scale, or microcosmic scale, but it was the process they established, rather than the actual conclusions they drew, that were so revolutionary. Although our modern understanding of the world differs in many ways from theirs, these three men are still revered today as the fathers of rational thinking.
During the Golden Age, Greek drama was dominated by the comedies and tragedies of Aeschylus and Euripides; the sculptures of Phidias adorned the streets; and Greek architecture earned its place in history with its distinctive Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns. Math and science thrived under the capable instruction of Archimedes, Hippocrates, Euclid, and Pythagoras (you probably remember the Pythagorean theorem from geometry—guess which famous Greek that came from).
Of course, cultural achievement existed in Greece prior to the Golden Age. Homer, for example, wrote the epic poems the Illiad and the Odyssey a few centuries earlier; they are widely regarded as Western civilization’s first two masterworks of literature. But make no mistake about it, during the Golden Age, the arts and sciences became firmly cemented into the Western consciousness. The accomplishments of this period served as the inspiration for the European Renaissance and the Enlightenment nearly two millennia later—which is why we’re making such a big deal out of them here.
Trouble Ahead for Athens
Although Athens dominated the Delian League with its powerful navy, other Greek city- states in the Aegean allied themselves with Sparta’s great army to form the Peloponnesian League. Athens and Sparta, as leaders of their respective alliances, became increasingly fearful and envious of each other’s power. After years of increasing tensions, a trade dispute involving the city of Corinth pushed Athens and Sparta into the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.). Athens attempted a defensive strategy, hiding behind its great walls while allowing the Spartan army to ravage its farmlands. This worked well for the Athenians for a time until two tragedies occurred. First, a great plague afflicted the city, killing vast numbers of the population including Pericles. Then, Athen’s navy suffered a devastating defeat at Syracuse on the island of Sicily. Athens was never the same again.
Although they could have, Sparta didn’t destroy Athens out of respect for the defeated city’s former role in the Persian War. Sparta failed to dominate the region for long; despite its victory, it was so weakened by the war that it became vulnerable to outside aggression. The Macedonians, under the rule of Philip III of Macedon, who reigned from 359 to 336 B.C.E., invaded Athens from the north and conquered the entire region. Fortunately, Philip respected Greek culture and, rather than destroy it, encouraged it to flourish.
Alexander Adds Greatness
The Height of Alexander the Great’s Empire, Fourth Century B.C.E.
The Macedonians didn’t stop with Greece. Philip’s son, Alexander the Great, who was taught by Aristotle, widely expanded Macedonian dominance. Under Alexander, they conquered the mighty Persian Empire and moved eastward to the shores of the Indus River in what today is India, eventually creating the largest empire of the time. However, the strain of such conquests took its toll on the usually vigorous Alexander and he died at the age of 33 in Babylon as he and his army were returning to Macedonia. Before his corpse got cold, however, his generals quickly fought over the spoils of his empire, dividing it amongst themselves.
Along with its size, the Macedonian Empire is notable for the fact that it adopted Greek customs and then spread them to much of the known world. Consequently, much of the world became connected under a uniform law and common trade practices. Therefore, Hellenism—the culture, ideals, and pattern of life of Classical Greece—didn’t perish as a result of the victories over Athens and Sparta; instead, it came to be influential far beyond its original borders.
In the immediate aftermath of the expansion of Hellenism, the economies of Athens and Corinth revived through trade. Of the three Hellenistic empires, the Ptolemaic Empire became the wealthiest. Alexandria, its capital, was built at the mouth of the Nile. Wisely, Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt rulers did not interfere in Egyptian society, and, eventually, Ptolemaic Egypt also became a cultural center, home of the Alexandria Museum and Alexandria Library, the latter of which contained the most scrolls of any location in the empire, perhaps the whole world.
When Alexander the Great died at age 33, his empire started to crumble. Because the Macedonians were focused on the East and on Egypt, the door was open in the West for a new power to rise to the world stage. That power was the Romans.
3. Rome (509 B.C.E.-476 C.E.)
Geographically, Rome was relatively well-situated. The Alps to the north provided protection from an invasion by land (although, ultimately, not enough). The sea surrounding the Italian peninsula limited the possibility of a naval attack unless a large armada floated across the sea. Yet, although somewhat isolated, Rome was also at a crossroad. It had easy access to northern Africa, Palestine, Greece, and the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal), which meant easy access to the rest of the world.
Roman Mythology: More Gods
Like the Greeks, the Romans were polytheistic. (Every time you see a cupid on a Valentine’s Day card, you see the impact of Roman mythology on our world today.) Many of their gods were of Greek origin, though appropriately renamed to suit their culture and language.
Social Structure in Rome: Organized and Patriarchal
The social and political structure in the Roman Republic consisted of patricians (landowning noblemen), plebeians (all other free men), and slaves. Does this sound familiar? It should. It’s very similar to the social structure of ancient Greece. Roman government was organized as a representative republic. The main governing body was made up of two distinct groups: the Senate, which comprised patrician families, and the Assembly, which was initially made up of patricians, but later was opened to plebeians. Two consuls were annually elected by the Assembly. The consuls had veto power over decisions made by the Assembly.
This structure was much more stable than the direct democracies of the Greek polis, in which every male citizen was expected to participate on a regular basis. In a republic, the people have representatives, so they don’t have to vote on every issue. This is similar to the constitutional democracy we have in the United States. Everyone in this country votes for representatives, so it’s correct to call our system a democracy; however, our representatives in Congress vote on all the major issues, so our system of government is also very much a republic. Indeed, the structure of our government was modeled on the system used in the Roman Republic. Instead of two consuls, though, we have one, known as the president.
Early on, Rome developed civil laws to protect individual rights (in some ways similar to our Bill of Rights). The laws of Rome were codified (remember that the idea of a code was Hammurabi’s, in Babylon) and became known as the Twelve Tables of Rome (the concept of “innocent until proven guilty” originated here). Later, these laws were extended to an international code that Rome applied to its conquered territories.
The social structure of the Roman family centered on the pater familias—eldest male in the family—though women did have considerable influence within their families, with some supervising a family business or family estate. Roman women could own property, as well, but they were, nevertheless, considered inferior to men, just as in Greek society. And, as in Greece, slavery was an important element of the social structure of Rome—at one point, slaves comprised one-third of the population, most of whom came from conquered territories. Although life was difficult for all slaves, generally, those living and working in the cities had better conditions than their country counterparts, and some had the possibility of freedom.
Roman Military Domination: All Directions, All the Time
As Rome expanded, Carthage, a city-state in North Africa with powerful ambitions of its own, became its first enemy. It didn’t take long for this conflict to escalate into full- fledged wars, which came to be called the Punic Wars. These lasted on and off from 264 through 146 B.C.E.
The First Punic War (264-241 B.C.E.) was fought to gain control of the island of Sicily; Rome won this one. The Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.E.) began with an attack by Hannibal, a Carthaginian general considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all time. In an amazing feat, Hannibal led his army all the way to northern Italy, crossed the Alps (on elephants no less!), and surprised the Romans, who were expecting an attack from the south. Hannibal’s army destroyed many towns and villages to the north of Rome and were on the verge of destroying Rome. But a Roman army had landed in North Africa, forcing Hannibal to return to Carthage to defend his city. Carthage eventually agreed to sue for peace, and this made Rome the undisputed power in the western Mediterranean. Fifty years later, the Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.E.) was instigated by Rome. Rome invaded Carthage and burned it to the ground. With Carthage out of the picture, Rome continued its expansion throughout the Mediterranean.
Part of that expansion was to obtain Greece by defeating the Macedonians. The Romans also fought the Gauls to the north and the Spaniards to the west. Warfare aided the spread of Roman culture (which, you’ll recall, was linked to Greek culture) throughout much of western Europe and the Mediterranean. To maintain their vast empire, the Romans built an extensive road network and aqueducts, and greatly enlarged their navy.
Collapse of the Republic and the Rise of Imperialism
Following the Punic Wars, and even as Roman influence grew, the situation in and around Rome was becoming unsettled. Several events caused this restlessness. First, large landowners had begun using more slaves from the conquered territories. This displaced many small farmers, who moved into the cities, causing overcrowding among the plebeians and not enough jobs to support them. Second, the Roman currency was devalued, causing a high rate of inflation. This meant that the plebeians did not have enough money to buy the things they previously could afford. Third, political leaders began fighting amongst themselves. The result was that the power of the Senate weakened, ultimately to be transferred to three men, who came to be known as the first triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar.
Caesar was given power over southern Gaul (France) and other parts of Europe. He chose not to conquer Germany, which would later prove significant. (Germany developed a different culture and would ultimately serve as a training ground for groups intent on conquering Rome.) Civil war between the Senate and Caesar’s followers resulted in pushing Pompey and Crassus out of the picture, after which Caesar became “emperor for life.” But his life didn’t last long. His angry senators assassinated him in 44 B.C.E.
After the death of Julius Caesar, a second triumvirate, composed of Octavius, Marc Antony, and Lepidus, came to power. Things didn’t improve the second time around. Power again shifted to one person, Octavius, who rose to power, assumed the name Augustus Caesar, and became emperor. The days of the Roman Republic were over once and for all. Rome was now an empire led by a single emperor.
Pax Romana: Peace and Prosperity
The Height of the Roman Empire
Under Augustus, Rome became the capital of the Western world. Augustus established the rule of law, a common coinage, civil service, and secure travel for merchants. With all these elements in place throughout the empire, stability returned to its people, and for 200 years, they enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana (Roman Peace). Interestingly, however, though many of the laws were uniform throughout the empire during this period, a number of traditional customs of the people in the conquered territories survived. This, of course, meant that the distinct groups within the empire, such as the Hebrews or the Egyptians, maintained their individual cultural identities.
Under imperial power, the Roman Empire expanded to its largest geographical proportions through additional military conquests. But more important in the history of the Roman empire was the growth of the arts and sciences during this time. For centuries, Greece had been the arts center of the Western world. With the Roman peace, however, the arts in Rome flourished, especially literature (notably, Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Virgil’s Aeneid) and architecture (marked by the building of the Pantheon, Colosseum, and Forum). Science also reached new heights. Ptolemy looked to the heavens and greatly influenced achievements in astronomy, while Roman engineers went to work on roads and aqueducts.
Compare Them: Pax Romana with the Golden Ages of Greece, Gupta, and Others
In case you haven’t noticed a pattern, we’ll point it out for you. When a major empire greatly expands its territory, it becomes the center of artistic and scientific energy. This is because it has a tremendous amount of wealth flowing into its capital from its conquered regions, and because the people have the freedom and confidence to pursue goals other than military protection. This happened in Rome, Athens, Gupta India, Han China, and the other civilizations we’ve discussed so far.
Religious Diversity: New Chiefs of Beliefs
Throughout the days of the Roman Republic and during the early days of the Roman Empire, paganism was the state religion. Roman citizens were required to make sacrifices to traditional Roman gods. But shortly after the reign of Augustus, a new religion developed in the Mediterranean and Aegean regions. That religion was Christianity.
Christianity grew out of Judaism, which had been practiced by Hebrews in Palestine for thousands of years. Judaism was the first major monotheistic religion. (These two religions are described in detail in Section IV of this chapter.) Initially, both Judaism and Christianity were tolerated by the Romans. The Romans allowed the conquered territories to practice their own faiths as long as doing so didn’t interfere with the functioning of the empire. Eventually, however, Jewish resistance to Roman control led to the suppression of Judaism. And as the apostles of Jesus and missionaries extended the influence of Christianity throughout the empire, the Romans began to see the new religion and its leaders as threats to both paganism and their power. To make it clear who was in charge, Emperor Nero began to persecute Christians, even killing them in open spectacles at the Colosseum. These acts of violence failed to stop the spread of Christianity. Only when Emperor Constantine himself issued the Edict of Milan in 313 c.e. did the persecution end. And by 391 C.E., Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. Since then, it continues to be one of the world’s most influential religions.
C. The Classical Civilizations: Mesoamerica
Although the Maya are often grouped with later Mesoamerican empires, the Aztec and the Inca, they were actually contemporary with Rome, Han, and Gupta and develop some of the same characteristics of these early empires.
Mayan Civilization: In Search of More Slaves
From about 300 B.C.E. to about 800 C.E., Mayan civilization dominated present- day southern Mexico and parts of Central America. The Mayan civilization was similar to many other civilizations at that time in that it was a collection of city-states; however, all the city-states were ruled by the same king. Interestingly, like the Egyptians, the Maya were pyramid-builders, and also wrote using hieroglyphics. The golden age of the
Mayan Civilization was from about 500 to about 850 C.E. During that time, the Maya produced many great works of scholarship and developed a complex calendar system, but we know the most about its architecture and city planning because many remains have been discovered. No question, the Maya built tremendous cities—Tikal, the most important Mayan political center, may have been populated by as many as 100,000 people.
The Maya divided their cosmos into three parts: the heavens above, the humans in the middle, and the underworld below. The Maya believed that the gods created humans out of maize (one of the main Mayan dietary staples) and water. They also believed that the gods maintained agricultural cycles in exchange for honors, sacrifices, and bloodletting rituals.
Mayan warfare was somewhat unique in that it was imbued with a tremendous amount of religious significance. Days of religious ritual would precede a battle, and the King and nobility would actively participate in combat. One unique characteristic of Mayan warfare was that it was generally conducted not to gain territory, but to acquire slaves, who were used in large-scale building projects and in agricultural production. The Maya had no large animals, as horses and oxen would not arrive until much later with the Europeans, so humans were their primary source of labor.
Similar to most agricultural societies, the majority of the people were peasants or slaves. Kings, priests, and hereditary nobility were at the top of the social pyramid. Merchants also enjoyed a high status.
The Maya used advanced agricultural techniques, such as the ridged field system, to make the most of the rainfall and swamp conditions of the region. Cotton and maize were widely cultivated; the Maya are known for their elaborate cotton textiles. Many well-preserved ruins of this civilization remain today, including the tiered temple at Chichen Itza, which is similar in design to the Egyptian pyramids and Mesopotamian ziggurats, and several ball courts, which were used for a ritual sport throughout ancient Mesoamerica. Significantly, the Mayan calendar, based on a number system that included zero, was among the most accurate for its time. Since you’re reading this book now, it’s safe to say that the Mayan calendar stopped at 2012 only because the Mayans got tired of counting days.
D. Late Classical Period: Empires Collapse, People Move
During the late Classical Period (200-600 C.E.), all the greatest civilizations that the world had known collapsed. This included the fall of Han China, the Gupta Empire in India, the western part of the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean, and the mysterious decline of the Maya.
1. Collapse of the Maya
Nobody’s sure exactly what happened to the Maya. Some say it was disease or drought or the declining health of the large peasant population. Others say it was internal unrest and warfare. Chances are, like other collapses, an expanding population gradually exhausted their environment and could not respond to the needs of their population. But whatever the reasons, the Maya started to desert their cities in the ninth century C.E. and the great civilization fizzled out.
2. Collapse of Han China
The Han dynasty was interrupted by the reign of Wang Mang (9-23 C.E.), who established the Xin dynasty after seizing the throne from the ruling Liu family, successfully using the belief in the Mandate of Heaven to undermine them. Wang Mang had been a respected government official before he took power, but soon made some disastrous missteps that weakened the empire and his control over it. Attempted reforms of land ownership and the currency were unsuccessful and caused chaos in the local economy among both the rich and poor. Waging war on the edges of the empire led to conscription of a resentful population and heavy taxation of landowners, which forced them to pay farmers less money for more work. Persistent famines, devastating floods along the Yellow River, and increasing commodity prices added to the resentment and fueled peasant uprisings which Wang Mang’s enemies used to their advantage. The Xin Dynasty came to an end in 23 C.E. with the death of Wang Mang in battle.
The Han Dynasty was restored a couple of years later, but full recovery proved impossible and, in 220 C.E., the government collapsed. For the next 400 years, China was divided into several regional kingdoms.
3. Collapse of the Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire fell for one simple reason: It was invaded by the Huns—not Attila’s forces, which invaded Europe, but another group, the White Huns. The Gupta were able to hold off the Huns for the first half of the fifth century, but they did so at a tremendous cost, which weakened the state. By the end of the fifth century, there were Hun kingdoms in western and northern India. Though the underlying culture of India (including Hinduism and the caste system) survived the invasion, the empire did not.
4. Collapse of the Western Portion of the Roman Empire
The Division of the Roman Empire
One historical event that has been endlessly debated over time is the fall of the Roman Empire. Some of these theories are reasonable, others much less so. Many try to assign a single cause to this momentous occurrence, but the situation was much more complicated.
In short, however, it can be said that it was internal decay, in combination with external pressure (Attila’s Huns, among others groups), that brought about the fall of the Roman Empire. The sheer size of the empire and the huge expense of maintaining it, coupled by a succession of weak—or just plain bad—leaders, and a series of epidemics, are all factors that caused the empire to collapse.
In 284 C.E., Diocletian had become emperor. He attempted to deal with the increasing problems by dividing the empire into two regions run by co-emperors. He also brought the armies back under imperial control, and attempted to deal with the economic problems by strengthening the imperial currency, forcing a budget on the government, and capping prices to deal with inflation. Despite Diocletian’s innovations and administrative talents, civil war erupted upon his retirement in 305 C.E.
After rising to power in 306 C.E. as a co-emperor, Constantine defeated his rivals and assumed sole control over the empire in 322 C.E. He ordered the building of Constantinople at the site of the Greek city of Byzantium, and in 340 C.E., this city became the capital of a united empire. Constantine, too, was an able emperor, but the problems of shrinking income and increased external pressures proved insurmountable. After his death, the empire was again divided into two pieces, east and west. The eastern half thrived from its center at Constantinople; the western half, centered in Rome, continued its spiral downward.
Rome faced external pressure from invaders on all of its frontiers especially from the middle of the third century on. One such invader was the powerful and well-organized Sassanid Persian empire who took over in Iran in 224 C.E. The Sassanids practiced the Iranian faith of Zoroastrianism and used that to consolidate their power. They enjoyed a powerful military which was able to defeat the Romans in many engagements, though the two empires managed to fight each other to a standstill by the year 627. In addition to the Persians, Germanic barbarians happened to attack the Roman empire at the same time, especially when the Romans were embroiled in costly civil wars or wars against the Persians. In defense, Roman authorities put Germanic peoples such as the Visigoths (who had adopted Roman law and Christianity) on the borders. But in the early fifth century, Attila and his Huns began to press on the Germanic tribes; in response, they began to press on the Roman Empire. Because the Germanic tribes had no other place to retreat from the Huns, they crossed the border into Roman territory. The Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 C.E., and by 476 C.E., the Roman emperor had been deposed. The fall of the western half of the Roman Empire was complete. The eastern half would survive, but not as the Roman Empire. It was later renamed the Byzantine Empire.
Contrast Them: The Fall of Han China, the Gupta Empire, and Rome
Two major causes of decline threaten any empire: internal (such as economic depression, natural catastrophes, and social unrest) and external (for example, invading armies). Unlike China, for example, which would later see a return to greatness, Rome would never again be at the center of such a great empire. The momentum had clearly changed to favor the invading German tribes and the powerful Byzantium Empire in the East.
Western Rome 476 C.E. |
Gupta 550 C.E. |
Han China 220 C.E. |
Tax revolts by upper class and church exempt from taxes |
Not enough taxes for military defense |
Officials exempt from taxes; difficult to collect from peasant population |
Decrease in trade upon which economy depended |
|
Population increases lead to less land per family |
25 of 26 emperors died violently in one 50 year span |
|
Corruption of court officials |
Division of empire weakened the west half |
Land divisions increased power of provincial officials |
Unable to control large estate owners |
Unable to defend against |
Unable to defend |
Constant conflict with the |
migratory invasions of Goths |
against invasions by the |
nomadic Xiong-nu who invaded |
and Huns |
White Huns |
after collapse |
5. Cultural Diffusion 200-600 C.E.
The Silk Road
Around the same time that major empires were collapsing, the known world was becoming an increasingly smaller place. Trade routes were flourishing, bringing cultures, religions, and invading tribes into constant contact with each other. Major trade routes over land, like the Silk Road from China to the Roman Empire, took months to traverse. Pastoral communities along the way provided protection, shelter, and supplies for the merchants, in exchange for payment. This meant that merchants not only interacted with people at their destination but also on the journey.
Unfortunately, disease traveled the same trade routes (and with invading armies). To give just a couple of examples, the Mongols carried the Black Death to China; Rome and China suffered from measles and smallpox epidemics, which quickly spread through the empires.
And, as we mentioned earlier, religion also followed the roads of the merchants. Buddhism spread through East and Southeast Asia by way of trade routes. Christianity spread rapidly in the Mediterranean via both land and sea. Even the invading Germanic tribes were converted. By 600 C.E., Christianity had taken root as far away as Britain.
By now, you’re also well aware that it was not just merchants and missionaries that were on the move. As entire groups expanded their territories, they also put down roots in the new lands. The Anglos and the Saxons moved into Britain. The Huns moved into India. Only China and parts of East Asia seemed spared massive influxes of outsiders.
The world was clearly changing. The stage was set for entirely new developments, which is what the next chapter is all about.
IV: TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATIONS FROM 600 b.c.e TO 600 C.E.
The earliest human societies grew by developing primitive farming tools and metallurgy, which led to more complex technologies. These, in turn, enabled early civilizations to begin large-scale farming, which led to a stable food supply. Although a lot of the trade in early societies tended to be smaller luxury items—silk, cotton, wool, semi-precious gems, jewelry—heavier goods including olive oil and spices were also traded.
Of course, once a society had such goods, it needed a way to defend itself, and the knowledge that had helped make farming technology was used to create weapons and defense systems. It is not surprising that the first empires developed at the same time as iron technology and wheeled chariots, around 1500 B.C.E.! A major development in warfare, the stirrup, developed among the nomadic societies of the Eurasian steppe and spread to Chinese as early as the third century B.C.E. The stirrup arrived late in Europe because the mountainous geography of the Mediterranean world limited the use of chariots and horses there. Additionally, the horses were initially too small to carry heavily armored soldiers. Because of this, the armies of Rome and Greece were mostly made up of foot soldiers armed with spears and bows and arrows.
To keep track of both increased trade and increased military, early societies developed means of communication and record keeping. Relatively accurate calendars were developed in all civilizations, but only the Maya had a 365-day solar calendar. Both the Maya and the Gupta separately invented the concept of zero. This was an especially inventive time for the Chinese; in addition to the building of Great Wall and the massive terra cotta army of the Qin, the Daoist scholars of the Han Dynasty developed windmills and wheelbarrows, worked on some early forms of gunpowder, figured out how to distill alcohol, and produced paper from a variety of accessible materials including tree bark.
V. CHANGES AND CONTINUITIES IN THE ROLE OF WOMEN
An unfortunate fact of sedentary societies is that women lose power as people settle down, and women’s roles in high-status food production became more limited. But women maintained power within the private sphere—by managing their households and taking responsibility for children’s education, wives and mothers were often the unrecognized power behind the throne.
Although all of the early civilizations were decidedly patriarchal, women’s freedoms differed depending on social status and class. Upper-class or elite women were more restricted in their public appearances, while lower-class women, peasants, and female slaves continued to work outside the home. Public veiling of upper class women appears as early as the Babylonian Empire and is widespread by Greek and Roman times.
Cultural and religious values also impacted the status of women. In both Buddhism and Christianity, women were considered equals in their ability to achieve salvation or nirvana. In both religions, women could choose to remove themselves from traditional roles to become nuns and live separate from society in convents. Hinduism and Confucianism were much more structured and restricted. A Hindu woman could not read the sacred Vedas or participate in the prayers, and could not reach moksha in her lifetime. Daoism in China promoted a balance of male and female, but as Confucianism came to dominate, men were clearly considered superior to women. Under Confucian rule, some education was open to a large percentage of the female population, as it was believed they needed to be taught “proper” behavior and virtues.
Women’s Status in Ancient Societies
Rome/Greece |
India |
China |
strict and patriarchal social divisions |
strict patriarchal caste system |
strict Confucian social order and guidelines for virtuous behavior |
little land ownership |
women were not allowed to inherit property |
only sons inherit property |
high literacy among upper class |
forbidden to read sacred texts |
upper classes educated in arts and literature and all educated in virtues |
Spartan women were citizens |
nope |
nope |
women could own businesses (especially widows) |
needed large dowry and no remarriage for widows |
arranged marriages though widows were permitted to remarry |
women could be priestesses or later nuns |
women could not achieve moksha |
Buddhist convents and Daoism balances male and female |
VI. MAJOR BELIEF SYSTEMS THROUGH 600 C.E.
As you review the major belief systems that were active during the era of the past two chapters (from the dawn of time up to 600 C.E.), keep a few things in mind.
1. Most of these belief systems have impacted world history from their inception through the present era. That said, the discussion here focuses on the impact of these systems during the ancient era. We’ll talk more about the impact of these religions on later world events in subsequent chapters.
2. Most of the major religions have had schisms (divisions), resulting in a variety of subgroups and sects. The test writers will focus more on the overall religion than on particular sects (though there are a few exceptions that we’ll get to in future chapters, such as the Protestant Reformation within Christianity and the rise of fundamentalism in Islam).
3. Don’t focus only on the theological or philosophical basis of each belief system, but also on the impact they had on social, political, cultural, and even military
developments.
4. Pay attention to where each belief system started and where it spread. As merchants and warriors moved, so did their religious beliefs. By looking at where religions branched out or came into conflict with one another, you’ll get a good understanding of which cultures frequently interacted with each other.
For your convenience, here’s a quick listing of the belief systems covered in this section.
A. Polytheism
B. Confucianism
C. Daoism
D. Legalism
E. Hinduism
F. Buddhism
G. Zoroastrianism
H. Judaism
I. Christianity
Note that Islam is not included here. Why? Because Islam didn’t come onto the scene until after 600 C.E. We’ll talk a lot about Islam in the next chapter.
A. Polytheism
Cultures that Practiced It
The vast majority of ancient civilizations were polytheistic. Through 600 C.E., the religions of all of the Mesopotamian and Mediterranean empires were polytheistic, except for the Hebrews and the Christians. In the east, Aryan religions, Hinduism, and traditional Chinese systems were polytheistic. Some Buddhist sects were polytheistic, as were some Daoist sects.
Nuts and Bolts
Polytheists believe in multiple gods who impact daily life on earth to varying degrees, sometimes for good, and sometimes not. For example, prior to the rise of Christianity, the ancient Greeks and Romans worshipped numerous gods who had very human qualities and who sometimes battled each other. In ancient Egypt, the gods were often considered benevolent and kind, while in ancient Sumer, the gods were to be feared, and hence had to be appeased on a regular basis.
Broader Impact
Polytheism had a major impact on the development of civilization: It was absolutely at the center of art and architecture in most of the civilizations we have discussed so far. Many of the grand works of these civilizations were dedicated to the gods, or made to appease them. More significantly, because the practice of polytheism in most early civilizations was very complicated and filled with rituals, it led to the rise of a priestly class, whose members controlled most of the communication between the people and their gods. Thus, these civilizations became dependent on an elevated group of people who controlled their collective destinies, and rigid social structures with priests near the top quickly developed. Finally, because some polytheistic civilizations had separate gods for each city-state, as well as collective gods for the civilization as a whole, such as the systems practiced in Sumer and ancient Greece, the rise and fall of various city-states was seen as a drama played out not only on earth, but also in the heavens. This added validity to a city-state’s claim for predominance when it celebrated military success.
B. Confucianism
Cultures that Practiced It
Confucianism was developed specifically for the Chinese culture, and was widely practiced throughout China from around 400 B.C.E. onward.
Nuts and Bolts
The son of an aristocratic family from northern China, Confucius spent most of his life trying to gain a high position in government. But he was very strongwilled, and often his thinking was at odds with state policy. As a result, he never achieved his goal. Instead, he served as an educator and political advisor, and in this role he had a tremendous influence on China. He attracted many followers, some of whom helped share his teachings, and others who collected his thoughts and sayings in the Analects, which would come to have a profound influence on Chinese thinking, both politically and culturally.
The most important distinction to make about Confucianism is that it is a political and social philosophy—not a religion. Though fundamentally moral and ethical in character, it is also thoroughly practical, dealing almost solely with the question of how to restore political and social order. Confucianism does not deal with large philosophical issues or with religious issues, such as salvation or an afterlife.
Confucianism focuses on five fundamental relationships: ruler and subject, parent and child, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. When each person in these relationships lives up to his or her obligations of those relationships, society is orderly and predictable.
Confucianism concentrates on the formation of junzi, individuals considered superior because they are educated, conscientious, and able to put aside personal ambition for the good of the state.
There are also several values that Confucianism stresses:
Ren—a sense of humanity, kindness, and benevolence
Li—a sense of propriety, courtesy, respect, and deference to elders
Xiao—filial piety, which means a respect for family obligation, including to the extended family
Confucius believed that individuals who possessed these traits would be not only good administrators but also influential in the larger society because they would lead by example. He also was convinced that to restore political and social order, morally strong individuals were required to exercise enlightened leadership. This is why Confucius did not support a particular political system, but rather favored good people running whatever system was in place. Under Confucianism, women in China were considered of secondary status, although children were taught to honor their mothers as well as their fathers.
Broader Impact
Because Confucianism was an ethical, social, and political belief system, as opposed to a religion, it was compatible with other religions. In other words, a person could, for example, practice both Buddhism and Confucianism simultaneously.
This flexibility enabled Confucianism to flourish. Government leaders, too, embraced it, because it was intended to create an orderly society. Its widespread acceptance eventually led to a distinctive Chinese culture in which communities became extremely tight-knit; members had duties and responsibilities to many others in the community from birth to death.
Confucianism did not, however, have a similar impact on the rest of the world, because it evolved only within the context of the Chinese culture.
C. Daoism
Cultures that Practiced It
Some Chinese practiced Daoism, from around 500 B.C.E. onward.
Nuts and Bolts
The Dao (also spelled Tao) is defined as the way of nature, the way of the cosmos. Founded by Lao-tzu, a legendary Chinese philosopher, this belief system is based on an elusive concept regarding an eternal principle governing all the workings of the world. The Dao is passive and yielding; it accomplishes everything yet does nothing. One image used to demonstrate this is of a pot on the potter’s wheel: The opening in the pot is nothing, yet the pot would not be a pot without it. Daoists sometimes also use the image of water, soft and yielding, yet capable of wearing away stone. From this comes the idea that humans should tailor their behavior to the passive and yielding nature of the Dao. Thus, ambition and activism only bring chaos to the world. Within Daoism is the doctrine of wuwei, disengagement from worldly affairs, a simple life in harmony with nature. Daoism isn’t completely passive, however. Daoist priests often used magic that was intended to influence the spirits.
Broader Impact
Daoists advocated the formation of small, self-sufficient communities and served as a counter-balance to Confucian activism. And as an advocate of harmony with nature, Daoism promoted scientific discoveries. Daoists became great astronomers, chemists, and botanists.
Contrast Them: Daoism and Confucianism
Though Daoism and Confucianism shared a core belief in the Dao, or “the Way,” they diverged in how each understood how the Dao manifested itself in the world. While Confucianism is concerned with creating an orderly society, Daoism is concerned with helping people live in harmony with nature and find internal peace. Confucianism encourages active relationships and a very active government as a fundamentally good force in the world; Daoism encourages a simple, passive existence, and little government interference with this pursuit. Despite these differences, many Chinese found them compatible, hence practiced both simultaneously. They used Confucianism to guide them in their relationships and Daoism to guide them in their private meditations.
Daoism’s impact, though, is greater than its philosophy. It’s notable because it coexisted with Confucianism, Buddhism, and Legalism in China. One of the things to remember about Daoism, therefore, is that it added to the complexity of China, which in turn added to the uniqueness of China and other Eastern civilizations as separate and distinct from the Western world.
D. Legalism
Cultures that Practiced It
The Chinese, specifically during the Qin Dynasty, are the most notable practitioners of Legalism.
Nuts and Bolts
Legalism developed at around the same time as Confucianism and Daoism. It maintained that peace and order were achievable only through a centralized, tightly governed state. Simply put, Legalists didn’t trust human nature and, therefore, advocated the need for tough laws. They believed that people would be made to obey through harsh punishment, strong central government, and unquestioned authority. They focused only on things that were practical or that sustained the society. Not surprisingly, then, Legalists believed that two of the most worthy professions were farming and the military.
Broader Impact
By adopting Legalism, the Qin Dynasty was able to accomplish the unification of China swiftly, and the completion of massive projects like the building of the Great Wall. But because Legalism also caused widespread resentment among the common people, who suffered under it, Legalism inadvertently led to wider acceptance of Confucianism and Daoism.
Contrast Them: Legalism and Confucianism
Although both Legalism and Confucianism are social belief systems, not religions, and both are intended to lead to an orderly society, their approaches are directly opposed. Confucianism relies on the fundamental goodness of human beings, whereas Legalism presupposes that people are fundamentally evil. Therefore, Confucianism casts everything in terms of corresponding responsibilities, whereas Legalism casts everything in terms of strict laws and harsh punishment. The Han successfully blended the best of both philosophies to organize their dynasty.
E. Hinduism
Cultures that Practiced It
The various cultures of the Indian subcontinent practiced Hinduism.
Nuts and Bolts
Hinduism began in India with the Aryan invaders. Review the history of India in Section III of this chapter if you need to.
Hindus believe in one supreme force called Brahma, the creator, who is in all things. Hindu gods are manifestations of Brahma—notably Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer. The life goal of Hindus is to merge with Brahma. But because that task is considered impossible to accomplish in one lifetime, Hindus also believe that who you are in this life was determined by who you were in a past life; and how you conduct yourself in your assigned role in this life will determine the role (caste) you are born into in a future life. If you behave well and follow the dharma (the rules and obligations of the caste you’re born into), you’ll keep moving up the ladder toward unification with Brahma. If not, you’ll drop down the ladder. This cycle of life, death, and rebirth continues until you achieve moksha, the highest state of being, one of perfect internal peace and release of the soul.
There is no central sacred text in Hinduism, though the Vedas and the Upanishads, sources of prayers, verses, and descriptions of the origins of the universe, guide Hindus.
Broader Impact
Hinduism is a religion as well as a social system—the caste system. In the caste system, you are born into your caste, and if you are dissatisfied with it, it’s an indication you are not following the dharma; therefore, you will have an even worse lot in the next life. This explains why most faithful Hindus quietly accepted their station in life. Though they knew social mobility within one lifetime was out of the question, they were confident that they would accomplish it at death if they lived according to the tenets of Hinduism.
Hinduism’s close identification with the caste system and the Indian social structure and customs have prevented its acceptance in other parts of the world. In recent years, modern Hindus are beginning to rebel against the strictures of the caste system. But Hinduism as a whole remains a powerful force—even regarding its adherents’ relationship to the animal kingdom, because Hindus believe they can be reincarnated as animals.
Hinduism later spawned another religion—Buddhism.
F. Buddhism
Cultures that Practiced It
Eastern civilizations, most notably in India, China, and Southeast Asia, as well as Japan, practiced Buddhism.
Nuts and Bolts
Buddhism was founded by a young Hindu prince named Siddhartha Gautama, who was born and lived in Nepal from 563 through 483 B.C.E. He rejected his wealth to search for the meaning of human suffering. After meditating under a sacred bodhi tree, he became the Buddha, or Enlightened One.
There is no supreme being in Buddhism. Rather, Buddhists follow the Four Noble Truths.
• All life is suffering.
• Suffering is caused by desire.
• One can be freed of this desire.
• One is freed of desire by following what’s called the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path is made up of right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right endeavor, right mindfulness, and right meditation. Following this path enables you to move toward nirvana, the state of perfect peace and harmony. The goal in one’s life is to reach nirvana, which may or may not take several lifetimes, meaning that Buddhists also believe in reincarnation. Buddhism holds that anyone can achieve nirvana; it is not dependent on an underlying social structure, such as the caste system.
After the death of Buddha in 483 B.C.E., Buddhism split into two large movements, Theravada, also known as Hinayana, Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism.
Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism emphasizes meditation, simplicity, and an interpretation of nirvana as the renunciation of human consciousness and of the self. In Theravada Buddhism, Buddha himself is not considered a god, and other gods and goddesses have very little significance. (Theravada means “the Way of the Elders”; Hinayana means “the Lesser Vehicle.”)
Mahayana Buddhism (“The Greater Vehicle”) is a more complicated form of Buddhism, involving greater ritual than Buddha specified. Mahayana Buddhism appealed to people who believed that the original teachings of Buddha did not offer enough spiritual comfort; therefore, they began to hypothesize that other forms of salvation were possible. In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha himself became a godlike deity. Moreover, other deities appear, including bodhisattvas, those who have achieved nirvana but choose to remain on Earth. Mahayana Buddhists also relied more on priests and scriptures. Detractors of this form of Buddhism view these additions as being too similar to the Hinduism that Buddha disapproved of.
You probably won’t have to know the details of the two Buddhist movements, but you should know that they exist.
Broader Impact
Because it did rejected social hierarchies of castes, Buddhism appealed strongly to members of lower rank. And because Buddhism isn’t attached to an underlying social structure, it can apply to almost anyone, anywhere. As a consequence, it spread rapidly to other cultures throughout Asia.
When Ashoka, the Mauryan Emperor who became appalled by one too many bloody battles, was moved to convert to Buddhism, the religion really took off as a major force in Asia. Eventually, however, in India, Buddhism was reabsorbed into Hinduism, which remained the dominant belief system there. In China, Japan, and Southeast Asia, Buddhism continued to thrive. And as it spread via the trade routes, the cultures of Asia intertwined.
G. Zoroastrianism
Cultures that Practiced It
Iranians, especially under the Sassanid Empire, Central Asians, and some Indians practiced Zoroastrianism.
Nuts and Bolts
Zoroastrianism was created sometime in the second millenium B.C.E. in Central Asia and is typically attributed to the prophet Zoroaster. Zoroastrianism is a dualistic faith, which means that they believe in two gods representing good and evil. Ahura Mazda, the main god of good and truth, tries to lead his followers into overcoming the forces of evil and chaos, and humanity must play a role in ensuring that order survives. Thus, the individual actions of a person through his or her life determines the spiritual salvation of that soul, for Ahura Mazda will triumph over chaos at some point in the future. When chaos has been removed from the Universe, humans will transcend depending on their behaviors in their lifetimes. Its most important text is the Avesta, of which mostly fragmentary bits survive. We rely on quotations from later sources to make up for those that are lost to us.
Broader Impact
Zoroastrianism was an important religion to Iranian peoples, though its importance grew immensely when the Sassanid Persian dynasty was founded. As the state religion of the Sassanid Empire, it engendered the Sassanid state wherever the Persians weren’t ruling and led to crackdowns on Zoroastrians within the Roman Empire, since the Romans feared that practicioners could attempt to betray the empire to the Persians. However, its dualistic tendencies clearly influenced Christian thinking considerably, prior to Christianity becoming the state religion of the Roman Empire, and led to another point of contact between cultures, this time in the realm of religion. Crazy how that works, huh!
H. Judaism
Cultures that Practiced It
The Hebrews practiced Judaism.
Nuts and Bolts
Judaism holds that God selected a group of people, the Hebrews, and made himself known to them. If they followed his laws, worshipped him, and were faithful, he would preserve them for all time. This group became the Jews, and Judaism became the first of the great monotheistic faiths.
Judaism is not centered on many of the concepts typically associated with a religion, although a belief in an afterlife, a set of traditions and doctrines, philosophy, and personal salvation are part of its makeup. At the center of Judaism is the awareness of a unique relationship with God.
Jews believe that they were created by God and live in a world created by a personal, sovereign God who created the world for humans to live in and enjoy and exercise free will. The destiny of the world is paradise, reached by human beings with divine help. The task of human beings is to honor and serve God by following the Laws of Moses, as contained in the Torah (the Jewish Bible, made up of the first five books of the Old Testament), to promote the ethics of the prophets, and maintain the identity of the people. Judaism, therefore, is both a religious practice and a societal custom.
Broader Impact
Judaism was the first of the major monotheistic faiths; as such, it spawned the other two major monotheistic religions, Christianity and Islam.
Compare Them: Confucianism, Hinduism, and Judaism
At first glance, these three belief systems seem very different from one another. After all, Confucianism isn’t a religion; Hinduism is polytheistic; and Judaism is monotheistic. But they are similar in that they are all closely tied to the culture in which they are practiced, and therefore are not part of the sweeping, evangelical movements that seek to convert the rest of the world. Each not only arose out of a specific culture, but was used to sustain that culture by providing guidelines and moral authority.
I. Christianity
Cultures that Practiced It
Originally a splinter group of Jews practiced the religion, but it quickly expanded into the non-Jewish community and throughout the Roman Empire.
Nuts and Bolts
Christianity came into existence with Jesus of Nazareth, a charismatic Jewish teacher who claimed to be the Son of God, the Messiah, for whom Jews had long awaited. Many people were attracted to his teachings of devotion to God and love for human beings. The Roman and Jewish leaders were not among them, so in approximately 30 C.E., Jesus was crucified. His followers believed that he rose from the dead and ascended into heaven, and Christianity was born.
Christianity is based on both the Old and New Testaments of the Bible. Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God and that forgiveness of sins, and ultimately everlasting life, is achievable only through belief in the divinity, death, and resurrection of Christ. The Christian view is that the world was made by a personal and sovereign God (like Judaism), but that the world has fallen from harmony with God’s will. As the Son of God, Christ was the link between God and human beings. Human beings are expected to seek to know God, to worship him, and to practice love and service to him and to other human beings. Many early Christians also believed that it was their duty to share this message with the unconverted (as do many Christian sects today).
Broader Impact
In the early days, Christianity was spread by the disciples of Jesus and by Paul of Tarsus. Paul originally was an extreme anti-Christian who was converted by a vision of Christ and became a principal figure in propagating the new religion. With its emphasis on compassion, grace through faith, and the promise of eternal life regardless of personal circumstances, Christianity appealed widely to the lower classes and women. By the third century C.E., Christianity had become the most influential religion in the Mediterranean basin. Following a period of persecution, it became legal within, and then the official religion of, the Roman Empire; it continued to branch northward and westward into regions beyond the boundaries of the Roman Empire. In coming centuries, this marriage of Christianity and empire would profoundly affect developments in a large segment of the world. More on that in future chapters.
Map of World Religions circa 600 C.E.
By 600 C.E., interaction through trade, warfare, and migration had spread Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism far beyond their areas of origin. Christianity became the dominant force in what was left of the Roman Empire, while the Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade routes brought Buddhism and Hinduism into east and Southeast Asia.
VII: PULLING IT ALL TOGETHER
Important Terms
Mauryan Empire
Buddhism
Arabic numerals
Qin Dynasty
Han Dynasty
Persian Empire
Great Royal Road
Polis
Golden Age of Pericles
Delian League
Hellenism
Patricians
Plebeians
Twelve Tables of Rome
First Triumvirate
Second Triumvirate
Pax Romana
Paganism
Christianity
The Edict of Milan
Classical Period
Zoroastrianism
The Silk Road
Polytheism
Confucianism
Daoism
Legalism
Hinduism
Buddhism
Judaism
Christianity
Theravada (Hinayana)
Mahayana Buddhism
Four Noble Truths
People, Places, and Events
Rock and Pillar Edicts
Chandragupta Maurya
Ashoka Maurya
Chandra Gupta the Great
Qin Shi Huang
Xiongnu
Wu Ti
Lydians
Phoenicians
Hebrews
Athens
Sparta
Pericles
Homer
Macedonians
Alexander the Great
Hannibal
Pompey
Crassus
Julius Caesar
Octavius (Augustus Caesar)
Constantine
Wang Mang
Diocletian
The Huns
The Gupta Empire
The Great Wall of China
Peloponnesian War
The Persian Wars
Punic Wars
Constantinople
VIII. TIMELINE OF MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS 600 b.c.e to 600 C.E.
REFLECT
Respond to the following questions:
• For which content topics discussed in this Chapter do you feel you have achieved sufficient mastery to answer multiple-choice questions correctly?
• For which content topics discussed in this Chapter do you feel you have achieved sufficient mastery to discuss effectively in an essay?
• For which content topics discussed in this Chapter do you feel you need more work before you can answer multiple-choice questions correctly?
• For which content topics discussed in this Chapter do you feel you need more work before you can discuss effectively in an essay?
• What parts of this Chapter are you going to re-review?
• Will you seek further help outside of this book (such as a teacher, tutor, or AP Central), on any of the content in this Chapter—and, if so, on what content?