Section II

Part A

(Suggested writing time—45 minutes)

Directions: The following question is based on the accompanying Documents 1—10. (The documents have been edited for the purpose of this exercise.) Write your answer on the lined pages provided with the Answer Sheet.

This question is designed to test your ability to work with and understand historical documents. Write an essay that:

• has a relevant thesis and supports that thesis with evidence from the documents

• uses the majority of the documents

• addresses all parts of the question

• analyzes the documents by organizing them in as many appropriate ways as possible and does not simply summarize the documents individually

• takes into account both the sources of the documents and the authors’ points of view You may refer to relevant historical information not mentioned in the documents.

1. Discuss the changing attitudes and arguments regarding the basis for knowledge of the natural world in the following documents.

Historical background: Beginning in the sixteenth and culminating in the seventeenth century, an intellectual and cultural revolution took shape that has come to be known as the Scientific Revolution. At the heart of that revolution were changing attitudes and new arguments regarding the basis for knowledge of the natural world.

Document 1

Source: Nicolas Copernicus, The Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, 1543.

In the center of all rests the sun. For who would place this lamp of a very beautiful temple in another or better place than this, where from it can illuminate everything at the same time? As a matter of fact, not unhappily so some call it the lantern; others, the mind, and still others, the pilot of the world. Trismegistus call it a “visible god”; Sophocles Electra, “that which gazes upon all things.” And so the sun, as if resting on a kingly throne, governs the family of stars which wheel around.

Document 2

Source: Giambattista della Porta, Natural Magick, 1584.

There are two sorts of Magick, the one is infamous, and unhappy, because it has to do with foul spirits and consists of incantations and wicked curiosity; and this is called sorcery ... The other Magick is natural; which all excellent, wise men do admit and embrace, and worship with great applause; neither is there anything more highly esteemed, or better thought of, by men of learning ... Others have named it the practical part of natural philosophy, which produces her effects by the mutual and fit application of one natural thing to another. Magick is nothing else but the survey of whole course of nature.

Document 3

Source: Galileo Galilei, “Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of Tuscany,” 1615.

[Copernicus]stands always upon physical conclusions pertaining to the celestial motions, and deals with them by astronomical and geometrical demonstrations, founded primarily on sense experiences and very exact observations ... I think that in discussions of physical problems we ought to begin not from the authority of scriptural passages, but from sense-experiences and necessary demonstrations ... Nature ... is inexorable and immutable; she never transgresses the laws imposed upon her, or cares a whit whether her abstruse reasons and methods of operation are understandable to men.

Document 4

Source: Robert Bellarmine, “Letter on Galileo’s Theories,” 1615-

For to say that, assuming the earth moves and the sun stands still, all the appearances are saved better than with eccentrics and epicycles, is to speak well; there is no danger in this, and it is sufficient for mathematicians- But to want to affirm that the sun really is fixed in the center of the heavens ... is a very dangerous thing, not only by irritating all the philosophers and scholastic theologians, but also by injuring our holy faith and rendering the Holy Scripture false.

Document 5

Source: Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, 1620-

There are two ways, and can only be two, of seeking and finding truth. The one, from sense and reason, takes a flight to the most general axioms, and from these principles and their truth, settled once for all, invents and judges of all intermediate axioms. The other method collects axioms from sense and particulars, ascending continuously and by degrees so that in the end it arrives at the most general axioms. This latter is the only true one, but never hitherto tried.

Document 6

Source: William Harvey, On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 1628.

The heart, it is vulgarly said, is the fountain and workshop of the vital spirits, the centre from which life is dispensed to the several parts of the body. Yet it is denied that the right ventricle makes spirits, which is rather held to supply the nourishment to the lungs ... Why, I ask, when we see that the structure of both ventricles is almost identical, there being the same apparatus of fibres, and braces, and valves, and vessels, and auricles, and both in the same way in our dissections are to found to be filled up with blood similarly black in colour, and coagulated—why, I say, should their uses be imagined to be different, when the action, motion, and pulse of both are the same?

Document 7

Source: Rene Descartes, Discourse Method, 1637.

I was especially delighted with the mathematics, on account of the certitude and evidence of their reasonings; but ... I was astonished that foundations, so strong and solid, should have had no loftier superstructure reared on them. On the other hand, I compared the disquisitions of the ancient moralists to very towering and magnificent palaces with no better foundation than sand and mud ... I revered our theology, but ... I thought that in order competently to undertake their examination, there was need of some special help from heaven, and of being more than a man.

Document 8

Source: Rene Descartes, Discourse Method, 1637.

The ground of our opinions is far more custom and example than certain knowledge ... I was induced to seek some other method; ... I believed that the four following [laws]would prove perfectly sufficient for me: ... [1]carefully avoid precipitancy and prejudice, and to comprise nothing more in my judgment than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly as to exclude all ground of doubt; ... [2]divide each of the difficulties under examination into as many parts as possible; ... [3]commencing with objects the simplest and easiest to know, ... ascend by little and little, and, as it were, step by step, to the knowledge of the more complex; ... [4]in every case to make enumerations so complete, and reviews so general, that I might be assured that nothing was omitted.

Document 9

Source: Johannes Agricola, Treatise on Gold, 1638.

All true chymists and philosophers write that common corporeal gold is of not much use in man’s body if it is only ingested as such, for no metallic body can be of use if it is not previously dissolved and reduced to the prima materia. We have an example in corals. The virtue of corals is not in the stone or the body but in their red color. If the corals are to release their power, a separation must first occur through a dissolution, and the redness must be separated from the body ... Consequently, whoever wants to do something useful in medicine must see to it that he first dissolve and open his metallic body, then extract its soul and essence, and the work will then not result in no fruit.

Document 10

Source: Isaac Newton, Principia Mathematica, 1687.

Rule I. We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.

Rule II. Therefore to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes.

Rule III. The qualities of bodies, which admit neither intension nor remission of degrees, and which are found to belong to all bodies within reach of our experiments, are to be esteemed as universal qualities of all bodies whatsoever.

Section II

Part B

(Suggested planning and writing time—35 minutes)

Directions: You are to answer ONE question from the three questions below. Make your selections carefully, choosing the questions that you are best prepared to answer thoroughly in the limited time permitted. You should spend five minutes organizing or outlining your answer. Write your answer to the question on the lined pages provided with the Answer Sheet, making sure to indicate which question you are answering by writing the appropriate question number at the top of each page.

Write an essay that:

• has a relevant thesis

• addresses all parts of the question

• supports the thesis with specific evidence

• is well organized

2. Discuss the relative successes and failures of seventeenth century monarchs’ attempts to consolidate political power within their kingdoms.

3. Explain why the traditional cycles of population and productivity in Western Europe were broken in the eighteenth century.

4. Discuss the reasons for the changing aims and methods of the French Revolution.

Section II

Part C

(Suggested planning and writing time—35 minutes)

Directions: You are to answer ONE question from the three questions below. Make your selections carefully, choosing the question that you are best prepared to answer thoroughly in the limited time permitted. You should spend five minutes organizing or outlining your answer. Write your answer to the question on the lined pages provided with the Answer Sheet, making sure to indicate which question you are answering by writing the appropriate question number at the top of each page.

Write an essay that:

• has a relevant thesis

• addresses all parts of the question

• supports the thesis with specific evidence

• is well organized.

5. Discuss the major social effects of the Second Industrial Revolution.

6. Discuss the ways in which the development of mass politics contributed to the New Imperialism of the late-nineteenth century.

7. Compare and contrast the different methods of successful opposition to Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe in the 1980s and early 1990s.

STOP. End of Section II

• Answers and Explanations

1. A. From the chart it can be concluded that the United Kingdom consumed the largest amount of cotton in both 1830 and 1850. Choice B is incorrect because the chart offers no information about population. C is incorrect because the chart does not yield information about cotton imports. D is incorrect because the chart does not yield information about textile production. E is incorrect because the rate of increase between 1830—1850 is actually greatest in Belgium.

2. C. At the end of the Seven Years War, Britain’s victories in North America and India showed that they had clearly surpassed France as the country with the strongest grip on the largest amount of imperial territory. Choice A is incorrect because it is too much of a stretch to say that the French Revolution was a result of France’s losses in the Seven Years War. However, the financial strains put on the French government could be considered a contributing cause of the French Revolution. Choice B is incorrect because the Austrian succession was not affected by the Seven Years War. Choice D is incorrect because the Ottoman Turks were not directly affected by the Seven Years War. Choice E is incorrect because Prussia, Britain’s ally in the Seven Years War, was, if anything, strengthened by French losses.

3. D. The execution of Louis XVI was a result of the radicalization of the revolution, not something that contributed to it. Choice A is incorrect because the war with Austria and Prussia contributed to the radicalization of the revolution by creating an air of crisis which seemed to demand bolder action. Choice B is incorrect because Louis’s ill-fated attempt to flee Paris for Varennes contributed to the radicalization of the revolution by destroying the faith which the people of Paris had in him. Choice C is incorrect because the development of factions in the Assembly meant that the factions had to compete with each other for popular support and were, therefore, moved to propose increasingly radical measures. Choice E is incorrect because the sans-culottes, with their hopes of a more egalitarian and economically fair society, were more radical than the bourgeois members of the Assembly.

4. A. The failure, in the second half of 1848, of the liberal revolutionaries to hold on to their gains and their resulting reputation for indecisiveness and weakness led to the large-scale abandonment of liberalism by the masses. Choice B is incorrect because Hungarian independence was not achieved in the revolutions of 1848. Choice C is incorrect because nothing that could be called communism was in evidence in the revolutions of 1848; indeed, Marx referred to them as “bourgeois revolutions” in the Communist Manifesto penned the same year. Choice D is incorrect because the unification of Italy was not achieved until 1866. Choice E is incorrect because the conservative reaction of the second half of 1848 crushed the democratic reforms gained earlier in the year.

5. C. The pace of the Second Industrial Revolution increased steadily throughout the nineteenth century. Choice A is incorrect because the Second Industrial Revolution did begin in Britain. Choice B is incorrect because it is true that industrialization spread eastward from Britain and, therefore, the further east one looks, the later industrialization occurred. Choice D is incorrect because it is true that the further east one looks, the more quickly industrialization occurred, owing to the fact that the later start allowed more copying and borrowing of technology that had been developed in the west. Choice E is incorrect because there was greater government involvement the further east one looks, because the late start had governments fearful of falling behind the west.

6. B. The Utilitarians began with a liberal emphasis on individual freedom and argued that judicious use of government regulation could produce the “greatest good for the greatest number” of individuals. Choice A is incorrect because socialism tended to understand calls for individual freedom as part of a bourgeois ideology.

Choice C is incorrect because the classic liberal stance held that government interference was ineffective at best and probably counter-productive. Choice D is incorrect because the conservatives opposed government regulation as nontraditional and, therefore, unwise. Choice E is incorrect because the anarchists saw the government as an institution that enslaved mankind.

7. E. Cavour’s successful strategy for uniting northern Italy under Piedmont worked through a combination of secret diplomatic arrangements with France and successful war with Austria; Bismarck’s successful strategy to unite Germany under the Prussian monarchy similarly relied upon a combination of secret diplomatic arrangements with France and Austria and later provoking war with each. Choice A is incorrect because no royal marriages were directly involved in bringing about the unification of either Italy or Germany. Choice B is incorrect because peasant revolts were important in the unification of southern Italy by Garibaldi, and because no peasant revolts were involved in the unification of Germany. Choice C is incorrect because the smaller Kingdom of Piedmont was in no position to bribe the wealthier French Bourbons and Austrian Hapsburgs. Choice E is incorrect because neither Cavour nor Bismarck had secret dealings with the pope.

8. D. In Spain, Isabella and Ferdinand used their control of the Church and the combined wealth of Castile and Aragon to curb the power of the nobility and enforce uniform loyalty to the crown. Choice A is incorrect because, although France would eventually become the most absolutist monarchy in Europe, this would not occur until the seventeenth century. Choice B is incorrect because, in England, the process of centralization was delayed by an internal power struggle between two rival branches of the royal family that degenerated into a war known as the War of the Roses. Choice C is incorrect because the Italian peninsula still consisted of independent city-states that were ruled by powerful merchant- princes. Choice E is incorrect because German nobles were able to retain considerable autonomy from the Holy Roman Emperor, who was an elected ruler.

9. E. All of the choices are correct. Choices A and B are correct because the northern European humanists worked within a tradition of religious piety that extended to lay people and were, therefore, less secular than their Italian counterparts. Choices C and D are correct because, as the humanistic confidence in the God-given ability of all human beings was applied in a context of religious piety, the notion that all men might be capable of reading the Bible naturally arose and became a foundation for the Reformation.

10. D. The doctrine of predestination, which asserted that only a group known as the elect would enjoy God’s salvation, was particular to Calvinist theology. Choices A and B are incorrect because both are theological principles laid down by Luther and followed by most Protestant faiths. Choice C is incorrect because opposition to the Church’s hierarchy was shared by most Protestant faiths. Choice E is incorrect because the desire to print the Bible in the vernacular was shared by most Protestant faiths.

11. B. Under Peter the Great, the Russian Empire expanded into Asia. Choice A is incorrect because the institution of serfdom was strengthened, not abolished, by Peter the Great. Choice C is incorrect because Russia did not industrialize to any significant degree until the twentieth- century. Choices D and E are incorrect because the power of the nobility was increased at the expense of the peasantry, who were squeezed even harder for taxes.

12. D. Descartes argued that knowledge should be deduced from a clear and distinct idea; that is, from an idea which could not be doubted. Choice A is incorrect because Descartes asserted that the universe was filled with a single kind of matter. Choices B, C, and E are all incorrect because Descartes argued that the senses could be deceived and therefore claims to knowledge gained through observation could be doubted.

13. C. The doctrine of laissez-faire argues that human self-interest produces natural laws that govern economic behavior and, therefore, that governments should refrain from attempts to regulate the economy. Choice A is incorrect because protectionist tariffs, taxes levied on foreign good to protect the sales of domestic goods, are an example of the kind of law that laissez-faire claims would be either futile or harmful. Choice B is incorrect because the doctrine of laissez-faire applies only to economic behavior; it does not argue that all man-made laws are illegitimate. Choice D is incorrect because the “invisible hand” referred to by proponents of laissez-faire refers to the natural laws, not government action. Choice E is incorrect because it was the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings that argued that monarchs rule by the command of God.

14. A. The development of rural manufacturing, in which peasants were paid for manufacturing textiles, helped to spread the new capital generated by the triangle of trade and commerce throughout the population. Choice B is incorrect because the development of rural manufacturing did not lead to a decrease in agricultural output. Choice C is incorrect because it was the shift to cash-crop agriculture that caused the enclosure movement. Choices D and E are incorrect because it was heavy, factory-based industrialization that led to urbanization and the formation of a working class.

15. B. The Second Republic of France was brought to an end by a combination of Napoleon Bonaparte’s coup d’etat on 2 December 1851 and two plebiscites that declared France to be an Empire and Napoleon III to be its hereditary emperor. Choice A is incorrect because it was the Second Empire that was brought to an end by France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. Choice C is incorrect because the French Revolution created the First Republic. Choice D is incorrect because the fall of the Second Republic preceded the Crimean War (1854—1857). Choice E is incorrect because the unification of Italy occurred after the fall of the Second Republic in France.

16. A. Great Britain avoided the revolution and reaction of 1848 which doomed liberalism on the Continent of Europe. In Britain liberal reforms were passed at a gradual pace in the Reform Bills of 1832, 1867, and 1884. Choice B is incorrect because liberalism never gained a significant foothold in Russia, under Alexander II and Alexander III. Choices C, D, and E are incorrect because Austria-Hungary, France, and Germany all underwent the cycle of revolution and reaction in 1848 which doomed liberalism on the Continent.

17. E. All choices are correct. Choice A is correct because British control of the Canal, which connected the Mediterranean Sea through Egypt to the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, was necessitated by the crucial role that India played in its economy. Choice B is correct because Britain’s decision to occupy Egypt in the summer of1882 illustrates the new willingness of Western governments to rule imperial holdings directly. Choice C is correct because the need to protect occupied Egypt necessitated an expansion of British holdings to the immediate south of Egypt. Choice D is correct because the expansion of the British Empire in Egypt led the France to counter by expanding their holdings in northwest Africa.

18. C. After the revolution of November 1917, the Russian government was controlled by the Bolsheviks, a Marxist, Communist party who saw the war as a battle between two segments of the bourgeoisie. Accordingly, they removed Russia from the war. Choice A is incorrect because, although the United States supported anti-Bolshevik forces in Russia after the revolution, it is going too far to say that it gave the allies a new enemy. Choice B is incorrect because Russia had joined the Triple Entente prior to the war. Choice D is incorrect because the Germans no longer needed an offensive in the east, having signed a peace treaty with the Russians. Choice E is incorrect because C is correct.

19. B. Fascism did not promote egalitarianism, was not a worker’s party (despite the original name of the party in Germany), and promoted traditional, subordinate roles for women. Choice A is incorrect because fascists parties did display fanatical obedience to a charismatic leader; e.g., Hitler in Germany, Mussolini in Italy, and Franco in Spain. Choice C is incorrect because fascist parties did profess a belief in the virtues of struggle and youth, as illustrated in the constant reference to struggle and in the organization of youth groups in all fascist countries. Choice D is incorrect because all fascist parties incorporated an intense form of nationalism, as evidenced by the uniforms and constant dialogue about the enemies of “the nation.” Choice E is incorrect because all fascist parties expressed a hatred of socialism and liberalism, as evidenced by their opposition to the existing liberal democratic governments and their constant rhetoric and violence against socialists.

20. D. Successful opposition to communist rule was led by the labor union known as Solidarity in Poland. Choices A and B are incorrect because opposition in those countries was based on a Civic Forum model. Choice C is incorrect because resistance in Yugoslavia was led by nationalist and ethnic groups. Choice E is incorrect because resistance was led there by liberal reformers within the Parliament.

21. A. The existence of craters on the moon demonstrated that the moon was not made of perfect matter; this damaged the traditional view of the cosmos because the moon was supposed to delineate between God’s realm of perfection and the corrupt realm of the world. Choice B is incorrect because the power of the telescope did not, in itself, damage the traditional view of the cosmos. Choice C is incorrect because the existence of craters on the moon did not necessarily contradict the notion that the Earth was at the center of the cosmos. Choice D is incorrect because the existence of an imperfect moon did not mean that God could not have created a perfect moon if he had wanted to. Choice E is incorrect because choices B—D are incorrect.

22. D. In the Second Treatise, Locke argues that the only legitimate aim of a government is to protect the individual liberty of the people, a liberty that he argues can be summed up in their right to their own property. Choice A is incorrect because Locke argues for limited government. Choice B is incorrect because the notion of the primacy of the “general will” of the people was Rousseau’s. Choice C is false because Locke argues that any form of government can be legitimate if it protects the rights of the people. Choice E is incorrect because Locke argues that a monarchy, or any form of government, must be opposed only when it degenerates into tyranny.

23. D. A deist holds that the fact that the universe operates according to immutable natural laws demonstrates both the existence of a God and the fact that such a God is no longer active in the world. Choice A is incorrect because atheists deny the existence of God. Choices B and C are incorrect because they are political ideologies and make no direct assertions about God. Choice E is incorrect because Calvinism believes in a God that is active in the world.

24. B. The reciprocal nature of technical innovation meant that, for example, the invention in 1733 of the flying shuttle, which doubled the speed at which cloth could be woven on a loom, created a need to produce greater amounts of thread faster. The need for more efficient thread production led to the invention of the spinning jenny, which greatly increased the amount of thread a single spinner could produce from cotton, creating a need to speed up the harvesting of cotton; that need was met by the invention of the cotton gin. Choice A is incorrect because there was no shortage of labor. Choice C is incorrect because there were no superstitions standing in the way of technical innovation in the textile industry. Choice D is incorrect because there was no “cotton boom.” Choice E is incorrect because the steam engine was not significantly involved in the wave of technical innovation in the textile industry.

25. A. In 1740, Frederick II of Prussia attempted to expand Prussian lands by challenging the right of Maria Theresa to ascend to the throne of Austria and marching troops into Silesia. Choice B is incorrect because there was no revolt of Austrian nobles. C is incorrect because the right of Maria Theresa to ascend to the throne of Austria was a right guaranteed by a document known as the Pragmatic Sanction, but it was the refusal of Prussia to recognize the document that caused the conflict. Choice D is incorrect because it was Prussian aggression, not French, that led to the conflict. Choice E is incorrect because choices B, C, and D are incorrect.

26. C. The Civil Constitution forced the Clergy to take an oath of loyalty to the French state, something their religious beliefs forbid them to do (priests owe their allegiance to God and the Church); forcing them to do this and punishing them if they did not alienated many Catholics from the revolution. Choice A is incorrect because it did not create an alliance between the clergy and the National Assembly. Choice B is incorrect because, although it made the clergy government employees and, therefore, subordinate to the Assembly, the alienation of so many Catholics from the revolution was much more significant. Choice D is incorrect because it did not reaffirm the central place of the Church in the French government; rather it made the Church subservient to the government. Choice E is incorrect because it did not make Catholicism illegal in France.

27. E. On 21 October 1805, a British naval fleet under the command of Lord Nelson defeated the combined fleets of France and Spain, thereby securing supremacy of the seas and ending the threat of a French invasion of Britain. Choice A is incorrect because, although it is accurate, it is not the larger significance. Choice B is incorrect because Napoleon’s Grand Army was destroyed while retreating from Moscow in the winter of 1812. Choice C is incorrect because the Continental System, forbidding European nations under Napoleonic control from trading with Britain, was not ended by the British victory at Trafalgar. Choice D is incorrect because it was in November of 1813 that British and Spanish forces moved into Paris, captured Napoleon and exiled him to Elba.

28. E. Bismarck’s manufacturing of the Schleswig-Holstein Affair and the subsequent war with Austria is an example of the principle of Realpolitik (or reality-politics), which sanctions any and all means for reaching national political objectives. Choice A is incorrect because the Risorgimento refers to the mid-nineteenth- century Italian nationalist movement. Choice B is incorrect because Russia was only tangentially involved in the Schleswig-Holstein Affair. Choice C is incorrect because Bismarck’s disregard for the rights of individuals and groups of people is the antithesis of liberalism. Choice D is incorrect because France had only a minor role in the Schleswig-Holstein Affair and did not stand to increase the size of its empire as a result.

29. C. The British government took direct control and restructured the Indian economy to produce and consume products that aided the British economy. A sense of Indian nationalism began to develop as a response to the more intrusive British influence, resulting in the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Choice A is incorrect because the formation of the INC represented resistance to British colonization. Choice B is incorrect because the formation of the INC was not connected to the scramble for Africa. Choice D is incorrect because the formation of the INC represents resistance to, not the beginning of, the New Imperialism. Choice E is incorrect because choices A, B, and D are incorrect.

30. A. The Great Reform Bill of 1832, by both lowering and redefining property qualifications, extended voting rights to the adult, male middle class in Britain. Choice B is incorrect because the Reform Bill of 1867 went further, extending the vote to the lower-middle class but still excluded the working class. Choice C is incorrect because the Reform Bill of 1884 enfranchised two-thirds of the adult male population. Choice E is incorrect because the Midlothian Campaign was the first modern political campaign and did not alter voting rights.

31. C. The National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies, headed by Millicent Garrett Fawcett, campaigned for voting rights for women in Britain. Choice A is incorrect because the Fabian Society was a socialist organization in Britain. Choice B is incorrect because feminism is a term to describe the ideology that believes in equal rights for women; it is not the name of an organization. Choice D is incorrect because there was no National Women’s League. Choice E is incorrect because the Women’s Social and Political Union, led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia, campaigned, often violently, for a broader notion of women’s rights in Britain.

32. D. The French delegation was led by Georges Clemenceau, whose desire was to make sure that Germany could never threaten France again. Choice A is incorrect because Britain was led by David Lloyd George, who tried to mediate between the vindictive Clemenceau and the idealistic Wilson. Choice B is incorrect because the U.S. delegation was led by President Woodrow Wilson, who approached the peace talks with bold plans for helping to build a new Europe that could embrace the notions of individual rights and liberty that he believed characterized the United States. Choice C is incorrect because Charles de Gaulle was not at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. Choice E is incorrect because choices A, B, and C are incorrect.

33. B. Pablo Picasso’s 25-foot long mural Guernica (1937) depicts the bombing of the town of Guernica by German planes during the Spanish Civil War; Hitler sent planes in aid of the Fascist cause in Spain. Choice A is incorrect because Picasso was not an Impressionist. Choice C is incorrect because Guernica was bombed, and so it did not host fighting between the fascist and socialists. Choice D is incorrect because the painting does not depict valiant resistance, only hopeless suffering. Choice E is incorrect because Hitler did not invade Spain.

34. E. It was the Munich Agreement of September 1938 that allowed Hitler to take the Sudetenland over Czech objections in exchange for his promise that there would be no further aggression. Choice A is incorrect because the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1939 guaranteed Soviet neutrality in return for part of Poland. Choice B is incorrect because the Concert of Europe was the system of diplomacy put in place following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Choice C is incorrect because the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was the treaty that took Russia out of World War I in 1917. Choice D is incorrect because the Treaty of Versailles is the name given to the peace settlement following World War I.

35. A. The Warsaw Pact was the military alliance of the communist countries of Eastern Europe created in response to the establishment of NATO. Choice B is incorrect because the Truman Doctrine offered military and economic aid to countries directly threatened by communist takeover. Choice C is incorrect because the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was set up by the Soviet Union to counter the Marshall Plan by offering economic aid to Eastern European countries. Choice D is incorrect because the Marshall Plan, named after U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall, was the plan which called for pouring billions of dollars of aid into Western Europe to rebuild its infrastructure and economy. Choice E is incorrect because NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, united the Western powers in a military alliance against the Soviet Union, thereby prompting the formation of the Warsaw Pact.

36. D. Perestroika was the name of Gorbachev’s attempt, in the early 1980s, to restructure Soviet society and its economy. Choice A is incorrect because socialism in one country was a policy of Stalin. Choice B is incorrect because socialism with a human face was the slogan of a Czech attempt at revitalizing their socialist society in 1968. Choice C is incorrect because glasnost was the policy of “openness” that Gorbachev proposed as a companion effort to perestroika. Choice E is incorrect because the New Economic Plan was the introduction of small-scale capitalism by Lenin in the 1920s.

37. C. The Holy Roman Emperor was elected by a seven-member council consisting of the archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, the Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, the Count Palatine, and the King of Bohemia. Choice A is incorrect because the pope did not have the power to appoint a Holy Roman Emperor of his choosing. Choice B is incorrect because the Hundred Years War did not lead to the dethroning of the Holy Roman Emperor. Choices D and E are incorrect because neither the pope nor Henry VIII was Holy Roman Emperor.

38. D. The hierarchical social structure of Europe was not a result of the creation of a Spanish Empire in the New World; Europe’s hierarchical social structure dates back to the early medieval period. Choice A is incorrect because the flood of new wealth from the Spanish Empire in the New World did cause inflation in Europe’s economy. Choice B is incorrect because the founding of a Spanish Empire in the New World did establish Roman Catholicism in the New World. Choice C is incorrect because the establishment of a Spanish Empire in the New World did help to produce a wealthy merchant class in Europe. Choice E is incorrect because the establishment of a Spanish Empire in the New World did create economic dependence between Europe and the New World.

39. C. The Inquisition is an institution with a long history within the Catholic Church. During the 16th century, it was adapted to serve as a way to combat the spread of Protestant theology, which the Catholic Church considered heresy. A is incorrect because the term “Reformation” refers to the period where the Protestant movement came into being and gained force. B is incorrect because the phrase Counter-Reformation describes the broad efforts of the Catholic Church to both reform itself and to stamp out Protestantism. D is incorrect because the Conciliar Movement was a 15th-century attempt by councils of cardinals to reform, reunite, and reinvigorate the Church. E is incorrect because the Court of the Star Chamber was an instrument used by the early Tudor kings of England to curb the power of the nobility.

40. E. All of the choices are correct. Choice A is correct because teachers trained at Renaissance academies and universities traveled out of Italy, and students traveled into these institutions and then returned home; as they traveled, they spread the knowledge and values they had imbibed while in Renaissance Italy. Choice B is correct because the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg in the German city of Mainz about 1445 made the publication of books and pamphlets easier and cheaper, leading to increased cultural exchange throughout Europe. Choice C is correct because the constant movement of people and goods that characterized European trade also carried ideas and values. Choice D is correct because, as the Renaissance values of scholarship and study of ancient Greek and Roman cultures began to spread, it was incorporated into the message of lay-piety by organized groups and spread by those groups.

41. D. The Counter-Reformation, the Catholic response to the Protestant movement had two dimensions: one whose aim was to reform the Catholic Church and another aimed at exterminating the Protestant movement. Both approaches can be seen in the work of the Jesuits who, on the one hand preached a new piety and pushed the Church to curb its worldly practices and to serve as a model for a selfless, holy life that could lead to salvation and, on the other, saw themselves as soldiers in a war against Satan. Choices A and B are incorrect because they capture only half of the character of the Counter-Reformation. Choice C is incorrect because the Catholic Church formed no “third theological way.” Choice E is incorrect because, although the censuring of Galileo by the Inquisition can be understood in the context of the Counter-Reformation, it is not a good characterization of the movement as a whole.

42. C. Nowhere in Europe during this period was there a large-scale rejection of religious practice; rather, the religious fervor that pitted Catholics against Protestants complicated the tensions created by processes described in the other four answers. Choice A is incorrect because continuous warfare put pressure on the traditional social hierarchy by disrupting the economy and increasing the demand for taxes. Choice B is incorrect because the “little ice ages” of the period produced bad harvests which meant that there was less wealth in the economy at a time when monarchs were demanding more. Choice D is incorrect because increased trade and a more diversified economy gave birth to a class of economically powerful merchants who did not fit into the traditional social hierarchy. Choice E is incorrect because the desire of monarchs to increase their power and authority led them to wage wars of conquest which put enormous stress on the economy.

43. B. Descartes proposed a method in which knowledge was built up from a clear and distinct idea that could not be doubted; other true propositions followed logically from the first idea. “I think, therefore I am” was Descartes’s most famous example of the method. Choice A is incorrect because the world of forms is a basic assumption of neoplatonism, not Descartes. Choice C is incorrect because it begins with an empirical observation which relies on sense impressions; Descartes believed one could always doubt the senses because they were easily fooled. Choice D is incorrect because it also relies on sense impressions, as the calculus is applied to observations. Choice E is incorrect because it is Newton’s formulation of the law of universal gravitation and not a statement of Descartes’s method.

44. B. Flawed policies like the decision to constantly expand the Empire and the enforcement of the Continental System (which hampered the economies of Napoleon’s allies more than that of Britain) exacerbated resistance to French rule throughout the far-flung Empire, eventually leading to an opposition coalition so large that it presented tactical and strategic difficulties that were insurmountable. Choice A is incorrect because the French army was well organized and unparalleled in its logistical efficiency. Choice C is incorrect because both royalist and republican opposition to his rule had been largely subdued by 1805. Choice D is incorrect because, although the loss of the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar ended Napoleon’s dreams of controlling the seas and conquering the British, it did not mean defeat for Napoleon’s land armies; they went on to conquer most of Europe in the subsequent decade. Choice E is incorrect because, while Napoleon was not the military genius he has sometimes been made out to be, it was insurmountable logistical problems in the face of mounting resistance that led to his defeat.

45. E. Prussia devoted most of its wealth to building its military and its leaders were thoroughly militarized. The resulting military power was the basis of its power in the eighteenth century. Choice A is incorrect because Bismarck and his peculiar genius was a source of Prussian power in the nineteenth century. Choice B is incorrect because Prussia was not significantly industrial in the eighteenth century. Choice C is incorrect because Prussia’ s alliances were useful, but not the source of the power. Choice D is incorrect because Prussia’s geographical position lacked the natural defenses of Britain, for example.

46. A. The actual motives and goals of the revolutions of 1848 varied widely, but they can be best understood as a combination of the desire for liberal reforms that were either briefly enjoyed or envied by others during the period of the French Revolution and Napoleonic rule and the spirit of nationalism that was awakened across Europe by both the success of the united French people and resentment towards French domination. Choice B is incorrect because only some of the revolutions were independence movements; others simply sought liberal reform within existing kingdoms and states. Choice C is incorrect because only the most radical factions of the French rebellion in 1848 advocated redistribution of wealth and they were never in a position to make any “attempts” to do so. Choice D is incorrect because it contains a major chronological error: The French Revolution occurred from 1789 to 1799, and even if one includes the Napoleonic era there is no way the revolutions of 1848 could be precursors to the French Revolution. Choice E is incorrect because only some of the revolutions even came close to aiming at changes that would truly be democratic, and many of the nationalistic revolutions, like those in Italy, often pinned their hopes on the establishment of a national monarchy.

47. D. The main fuel for steam engines was coal; the introduction of steam engines, therefore, dramatically increased the demand for coal. Choice A is incorrect because the factory system is a way of organizing labor; it is not dependent upon a particular source of power. Choice B is incorrect because the invention of the automobile was facilitated by the invention of the internal combustion engine. Choice C is incorrect because steam engines relied upon coal for fuel, therefore increasing demand for it. Choice E is incorrect because, while the invention of the steam locomotive led to a railway boom, the application of it to ships allowed the shipping industry to prosper as well.

48. B. Conservatives derided “constitutionalism” for its belief that men could just imagine and dictate successful systems of government and, ignoring the reality that the only successful systems of government were those that had developed naturally over time. Choice A is incorrect because, although most conservatives were monarchists, their opposition to constitutionalism was rooted in the reason that they were monarchists, that is, they believed that monarchy was an institution that had developed slowly in response to the realities of human life. Choice C is incorrect because, again, conservatives opposed constitutionalism for the same reason that they respected tradition and supported monarchy. Choice D is incorrect because it was not necessarily the case that they would lose power in a constitutional system. Choice E is incorrect because the sanctity of private property tended to be a liberal position, and the liberals supported constitutionalism.

49. C. Churchill was a lone voice in his criticism of the Chamberlain government’s policy of appeasing Hitler’s aggression. Choice A is incorrect because Churchill never advocated socialism. Choice B is incorrect because he was no great supporter of the Soviet Union. Choice D is incorrect because the coalition government was created when war broke out and it was done with nearly unanimous support. Choice E is incorrect because it was in the 1940s, as Prime Minister, that Churchill mounted his effort to draw the United States into the war.

50. E. All of the choices are examples of the revival of nationalist and ethnic tensions. The Chechnyan conflict arose because of Russia’s refusal to accede to Chechnyan nationalist demands for independence. The multisided conflicts in Yugoslavia and in Bosnia—Herzegovina involved both ethnic tensions between and nationalist aspirations of the Serbs, Slovenes, Croats, Bosnians and several other groups. The splitting up of Czechoslovakia was the result of the nationalist aspirations of the Slovaks.

51. D. In 1519, a Spanish expedition led by the Portuguese sailor Ferdinand Magellan sailed west in search of a new route to the Spice Islands of the East. Rounding the tip of South America in 1520, the expedition sailed into the Pacific Ocean and arrived at the Spice Islands in 1521. In 1522, the expedition completed the first circumnavigation of the globe, returning to Spain without Magellan, who had been killed in the Philippines. Choice A is incorrect because Vasco da Gama, known for extending Portuguese trade by reaching the coast of India in 1498 and returning with a cargo that earned his investors a 60 percent profit, did not lead an expedition that circumnavigated the globe. Choice B is incorrect because Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian sailing for Spain in 1499 and for Portugal in 1501, helped to show that the lands discovered by Columbus were not in the Far East, but rather a previously unknown (to Europeans) continent, and did not lead an expedition that circumnavigated the globe. Choice C is incorrect because Martin Waldseemuller was a German cartographer who named “America” after Vespucci. Choice E is incorrect because Columbus’s voyages did not include a circumnavigation of the globe.

52. C. There was nothing unique about the religion of the Italian peninsula prior to the Reformation. Choice A is incorrect because the Italian peninsula’s geographical location was a reason the Renaissance began there; it was the gateway to Europe for eastern trade coming into Europe through the Mediterranean Sea. Italy was therefore the first region to benefit from economic recovery and the influx of ancient texts. Choices B and D are incorrect because the political and social organization of the Italian peninsula was unique. The Italian peninsula was organized politically into independent city-states whose social hierarchy was based on occupation. This unique structure created an atmosphere in which elites competed with one another for civic accomplishments. Choice E is incorrect because the thriving commercial economy of the Italian peninsula meant that those competing elites had vast sums of money to spend on their courts, employing philosophers and artists.

53. E. The Christian Church in Europe was not faced with the split in the population caused by the Protestant movement in the first decade of the sixteenth century because the Protestant movement did not begin until Luther’s revolt of the second decade of the sixteenth century. Choice A is incorrect because the pope’s status as ruler of the Papal States meant that the Church was constantly embroiled in the politics of the peninsula, thereby alienating Italians who lived in other city-states. Choice B is incorrect because the Church’s use of Latin, a language that only the elite could read, angered and alienated the common people. Choice C is incorrect because the fact that people were increasingly able to read the vernacular, but unable to read Latin, increased frustration with and anger at the Church. Choice D is incorrect because the Church, an increasingly worldly institution, was unable to tend to the emotional and spiritual needs of the population.

54. C. The invasion of a Protestant army from the Netherlands led by the Prince of Orange and his English wife Mary occurred in 1688, well after the English Civil War. Choice A is incorrect because the decision by Charles to marry a sister of the Catholic king of France heightened the fears of the Protestant-dominated Parliament that the ruling Stuart dynasty had plans to return England to the Church of Rome. Choice B is incorrect because Charles I’s insistence on waging costly wars with Spain and France brought relations with Parliament to the breaking point. Choice D is incorrect because the invasion of a Scottish army, whom Charles provoked by threatening their religious independence, forced Charles to call on the English Parliament for yet more funds, setting the stage for a showdown. Choice E is incorrect because the decision of Parliament to respond by making funds contingent on the curbing of monarchical power, convinced Charles to listen to his more bellicose advisors and try to crush the Parliament.

55. A. In the Copernican model, the planets orbit the Sun in uniform circular orbits; Copernicus’s innovation was to put the Sun at the center of the cosmos, instead of the Earth, but he did not deviate from the Aristotelian notion of uniform circular orbits for the planets. Choice B is incorrect because, in the Copernican model, the orbits of the planets are circular not elliptical; elliptical orbits were an innovation suggested by Kepler and calculated by Newton. Choice C is incorrect because the Copernican model, like its Aristotelian predecessor, presents the cosmos as bound by the sphere of fixed stars. Choice D is incorrect because the Copernican model is Sun-centered, not Earth-centered and, in the Copernican model, the planets have circular, not elliptical, orbits. Choice E is incorrect because, in the Copernican model, the moon orbits both the Earth and the Sun.

56. B. System of Nature, by the German-born French philosophe the Baron d’Holbach, was openly atheist and materialist. In it, he offered the eighteenth-century reader a view of the world as a complex system of purely material substances, acting and developing according to laws of cause and effect that were purely mechanical rather than imposed by a rational God. Choice A is incorrect because the text did no advocate revolution. Choice C is incorrect because it was a book about nature, not political ideologies. Choice D is incorrect because the book preceded the French revolution by 19 years. Choice E is incorrect because an advocacy of science was not, in itself, radical in the eighteenth century; it was the thorough going materialism of the text that made it so radical.

57. B. In the eighteenth century, the expansionist aims of Frederick II of Prussia led to a shift in diplomatic alliances which turned old enemies into allies, hence the notion of a “Diplomatic Revolution.” Prussia, having antagonized both the French and Austrians, grew fearful of being isolated and forged an alliance in 1756 with its former enemy Great Britain. In response, Austria and France, previously antagonistic towards one another, forged an alliance of their own. Choice A is incorrect because the notion of an alliance was not invented in the eighteenth century. Choices C and D are incorrect because the term Diplomatic Revolution does not refer to either the French Revolution or the Revolutions of 1848. Choice E is incorrect because the Concert of Europe was the name for the system of diplomacy that evolved in the early nineteenth century.

58. B. The verse is from William Wordsworth and is an example of the emphasis on sentiment and emotion, particularly as evoked by nature, indicative of the Romantic movement. Choice A is incorrect because neoplatonism was prevalent in the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries and emphasized a mathematical understanding of the world of forms. Choice C is incorrect because impressionism was a movement in the visual arts. Choice D is incorrect because conservatism refers to a political ideology, not an artistic movement. Choice E is incorrect because the Enlightenment was an eighteenth-century cultural movement that emphasized reason.

59. C. In The Origin of Species, Darwin argued and offered evidence for the fact that all biological diversity was and is the product a purely natural process which he termed natural selection.

Choice A is incorrect because it was the so-called “social Darwinist” Herbert Spencer who put forward the idea that competition was natural and necessary for social progress. Choice B is incorrect because it was the French socialist Charles Fourier who argued that human nature was essentially cooperative. Choice D is incorrect because it was the communist Karl Marx who argued that competition was the root of class conflict. Choice E is incorrect because Darwin argued that both humans and modern apes were descended from some ancient ancestor that was neither human nor ape.

60. C. Bismarck appealed to the nationalist feelings of the south Germans by manufacturing a war with France in 1871. Choice A is incorrect because Prussia was a Protestant state. Choice B is incorrect because, although Bismarck was not above advocating the occasional liberal reform in order to strengthen his political position, it is too much to say that he adopted a liberal reform agenda, and because the south Germans were not won over by Bismarck’s liberal overtures; they only joined Prussia when war broke out with France. Choice D is incorrect because the liberal south Germans had no desire for the strong, authoritarian central government favored by Prussians. Choice E is incorrect because the Junkers were the dominant aristocratic class in Prussia, and an alliance with them had no appeal for the south Germans.

61. E. The Rise of a Spanish Empire in the New World was the result of sixteenth-century voyages of exploration and the work of the soldier- adventurers who led them, a process unrelated to the Hundred Years War, which raged through the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The other four choices are incorrect because they were all effects of the Hundred Years War.

62. C. Proficiency in the military arts was valued highly by the traditional feudal lords of Europe. Because social status in the independent city- states of the Italian peninsula was determined by occupation, proficiency in the military arts was not highly valued there. The other four choices were all highly valued in the humanistic culture of Renaissance Italy.

63. D. Luther disagreed with the Church’s traditional belief that good works were essential to salvation, arguing instead that salvation could only be a gift from God, given to those who have true faith. The other four choices are basic theological beliefs of Martin Luther.

64. A. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 represents the triumph of constitutionalism in Britain because it successful ousted James II, the last of the Stuarts who claimed the right to rule as an absolute monarch, and replaced him with a monarchy that swore to rule as a “King in Parliament,” that is, as a constitutional monarch. Choice B is incorrect because democracy, the notion of one person, one vote, came gradually to Britain, culminating in the enfranchisement of women in 1918. Choice C is incorrect because the Glorious Revolution ended the Restoration Period (1660—1688). Choices D and E are incorrect because the Commonwealth Period (1649—1660), where Britain was ruled without a monarch, preceded both the Restoration and the Glorious Revolution.

65. D. Newton is best described as working in the Platonic—Pythagorean tradition because he pursued and achieved its goal of identifying the fundamental mathematical laws of nature. Choice A is incorrect because Newton rejected the tradition of Aristotelian physics which relied upon an Earth-centered cosmos and the existence different kinds of matter. Choice B is incorrect because Newton rejected the scholastic notion that all valuable knowledge was found in ancient texts. Choice C is incorrect because, although there are elements of the hermetic tradition in Newton’s work, the search for fundamental mathematical laws which characterizes the Platonic—Pythagorean tradition is the most pronounced aspect of Newton’s work. Choice E is incorrect because, although Newton was a Copernican, in the sense that he advocated a Sun-centered model, he broke with almost every other aspect of Copernicus’s approach.

66. D. The notion that the proper role of government is to protect individual property is a fundamental tenet of John Locke’s philosophy, not of Rousseau’s. The other four choices are all examples of Rousseau’s philosophy.

67. B. Tea imported from China, in exchange for opium from British India, was sold in Europe, but this transaction was not part of the “triangle of trade,” which involved Europe, Africa, and the Americas/West Indies. The other four choices describe transactions that did make up the triangle of trade.

68. E. In Thermidor (1794-1799), the bourgeois moderates who had begun the revolution by constituting a National Assembly came out of hiding and reasserted their control over a revolution that had briefly taken a more radical turn. Choice A is incorrect because France was not defeated by Austria, and would not be defeated until 1815. Choice C is incorrect because the French monarchy was not restored until after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Choice D is incorrect because the rule of the Committee of Public Safety occurred during the radical phase of the revolution (1791-1794).

69. C. The great powers at the Congress of Vienna were represented by members of the traditional, aristocratic ruling houses of Europe. Accordingly, their aims were to restore the traditional order of a Europe that the French Revolution had challenged and to create a new balance of power that would make another Napoleon impossible. Choice A is incorrect because the aims of restoring the traditional order and establishing a balance of power meant both the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy and of a reasonable economic and military power in France; France was not, therefore, to be “punished.” Choice B is incorrect because Germany was not united in 1814 and a “weakening” of Germany would have made no sense in 1814. Choice D is incorrect because the aristocratic representatives at the Congress of Vienna were directly threatened by and, therefore, opposed to liberal reforms. Choice E is incorrect because the nationalist hopes of the Italians, Hungarians, and Czechs ran counter to the aim of restoring the traditional order.

70. B. The factory system that was characteristic of the Second Industrial Revolution required and produced a class of managers and clerks whose pay and status located them precariously at the lower end of the middle class. Choice A is incorrect because the Second Industrial Revolution did nothing to distribute wealth more evenly throughout the population; instead, it made a relatively small number of industrialists and entrepreneurs fabulously wealthy and made some workers better off than before. Choice C is incorrect because the poor had existed before the Second Industrial Revolution. Choice D is incorrect because, although the railway boom produced social effects, it is not itself a social effect. Choice E is incorrect because, although many women initially found work in the factories of the Second Industrial Revolution, they were not paid equally and were the first to be let go when increasing mechanization decreased the demand for labor.

71. E. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) is an example of the German Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) movement of the late eighteenth century. Its glorification of the “inner experience” of the sensitive individual was a forerunner of nineteenth- century Romanticism. Choice A is incorrect because Michelangelo’s David is an example of the late Renaissance period. Choice B is incorrect because Bismarck’s Kulturkampf is an example of the political philosophy known as Realpolitik. Choice C is incorrect because the assassination of Franz Ferdinand is an example of ethnic nationalism. Choice D is incorrect because Picasso’s Guernica is early cubist in style and dates from the twentieth century.

72. A. The fact that the French voters used their newly granted privilege of universal manhood suffrage to vote for the creation of a Second Empire (replacing the Second Republic) and to make Louis-Napoleon hereditary emperor demonstrates the degree to which nationalism (the desire to have a strong and powerful nation) had triumphed over all other ideologies in mid-eighteenth-century France. Choice B is incorrect because Louis-Napoleon’s coup d’etat simply illustrates his willingness to use force in order to rule; it was the overwhelming approval of this action by the public in the two plebiscites that demonstrates the power of nationalism. Choice C is incorrect because the revolt of the working classes in Paris and their brief attempt to set up a Commune illustrates a development of class consciousness, not nationalism. Choice D is incorrect because Louis-Napoleon’s granting of universal manhood suffrage illustrates his belief that he had the people’s support; their use of that suffrage to bring into being an empire and an emperor demonstrates their nationalism. Choice E is incorrect because the Directory was a bureaucratic entity of eighteenth-century France.

73. B. The rise of Chartism (1837—1842), characterized by massive demonstrations in favor of the People’s Charter, a petition that called for universal manhood suffrage and a democratic Parliament, demonstrated the degree to which the classes who had not been enfranchised by the Reform Bill of 1832, the lower-middle and working classes, desired further reform. Choice A is incorrect because the Charter was ignored by Parliament; the monarchy played almost no role in the drama of Chartism. Choice C is incorrect because the Chartist movement was a reform movement; it was neither intrinsically nationalist nor antinationalist. Choice D is incorrect because the Charter called for a more democratic Parliament; it was not opposed to the monarchy. Choice E is incorrect because the Chartist movement did not involve opposition to the mechanization of industry; it was Luddism that offered organized opposition to the mechanization of industry.

74. A. In a European society increasingly devoted to the mundane proceedings of the business world and an accompanying sense of social alienation, war seemed to offer the possibility of a “brotherhood of arms” and the opportunity to do something glorious and worthwhile. While there was a “racial” component to the intense nationalism of 1914, a notion of “racial hatred” was not a strong component to the celebratory mood of 1914. Choice C is incorrect because Germany’s strong desire to repudiate the humiliating conditions of the Versailles Treaty was a factor in German enthusiasm for war in 1939; the Versailles treaty did not come into existence until the conclusion of World War I in 1918. Choice D is incorrect because the Continental System was instituted by Napoleon in the early 1800s and was long gone by 1914. Choice E is incorrect because B, C, and D are incorrect.

75. B. In the context of World War I, the phrase “total war” refers to the marshalling of every sector of the economy to support the war effort and the abandoning the production of normal consumer goods that was required to win the war of attrition. Choice A is incorrect because the bombing of civilians in major cities was a development of World War II. Choice C is incorrect because both sides did take prisoners in World War I. Choice D is incorrect because World War I was fought in a long line of trenches in Flanders and France; war on multiple continents was a development of World War II. Choice E is incorrect because choices A, C, and D are incorrect.

76. B. The war effort exhausted the resources of the traditional European powers, Britain, France, and Germany, and left the United States, with its vast economy, and the Soviet Union, with the largest army in the world, as the two superpowers. Choice A is incorrect because the Treaty of Versailles was the treaty that concluded World War I. Choice C is incorrect because it was the division of Germany that was a consequence of World War II; German reunification did not come until 1990. Choice D is incorrect because World War II marked the beginning of the break-up of the British Empire, not a strengthening of it. Choice E is incorrect because the German invasion of Poland was one of the causes of World War II, not a consequence.

77. D. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, nationalism which had been driven underground came to the surface in Eastern Europe, resulting in the split of Czechoslovakia and the advent of several ethnic-nationalist wars in the former Yugoslavia and in the former republics of the Soviet Union. The absorption of Eastern Europe into the European Union has brought the effects of globalization to Eastern Europe. Choice A is incorrect because, although there was an undeniable increase in individual liberty following the fall of the Soviet Union, the degree to which either individual liberty and democracy has flourished in Eastern Europe in the subsequent decades is highly debatable. Choice C is incorrect because America has not become isolationist. Choice E is incorrect because the economic effects of the fall of the Soviet Union regarding the distribution of wealth and the effect on poverty varied greatly throughout Eastern Europe.

78. C. Following the breach of the Berlin Wall in November of 1989, West German Chancellor, the Conservative Helmut Kohl, moved quickly towards reunification. In March 1990, elections were held in East Germany to create a new government ready to negotiate with West Germany; by 3 August the official treaty of reunification was drafted; on 3 October 1990, the Germans celebrated Reunification Day. It was a reunification that amounted to East Germany being annexed by the West. Choice A is incorrect because the process happened very quickly. Choice B is incorrect because there was nothing that could be called separate economic policies that were set up to ease the transition. Choice D is incorrect because the Civic Forum leaders, who were not at all sure that they wished to be reunified with West Germany and its capitalist economy, were swept aside in the reunification process. Choice E is incorrect because choices A, B, and D are incorrect.

79. D. Luther’s “The Freedom of the Christian Man” (1520) was his message to the common people; no social revolutionary, Luther walked a thin line between encouraging the common people to “obey their Christian conscience” and assert their individual independence from the Church in Rome, but also to respect those in authority who seemed to possess true Christian principles. Choice A is incorrect because Luther was an opponent of social upheaval and the essay was specifically designed to discourage such uprisings.

Choice B is incorrect because “The Freedom of the Christian Man” was Luther’s message to the common people; to the nobility, he wrote an “Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation” (1520), which appealed to the German princes’ desire for both greater unity and power and to their desire to be out from under the thumb of an Italian pope. Choice C is incorrect because it was not Luther, but rather the German princes who established the principle of “whoever rules; his religion” by signing the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which signaled Rome that the German princes would not go to war with each other over religion. Choice E is incorrect because choices A, B, and C are incorrect.

80. E. All of the choices are correct. Richelieu built a powerful royal army and used it to defeat and disband the private armies of the Great French aristocrats. He then turned the royal army on the Protestant towns, stripping them of their autonomy. In addition to the royal army, Richelieu also built a strong administrative bureaucracy and used it to strip provincial aristocrats and elites of their administrative power by dividing France into some 30 administrative districts and putting each under the control of an intendent, an administrative bureaucrat, usually chosen from the middle class, who owed his position and therefore his loyalty directly to Richelieu.

Suggestions and Outline for the DBQ

Suggestions

Remember the five steps to a short history essay of high quality adapted to the DBQ:

Step 1: As you read the documents, decide how you are going to group them.

Step 2: Compose a thesis that explains why the documents should be grouped in the way you have chosen.

Step 3: Compose your topic sentences and make sure that they add up logically to your thesis.

Step 4: Support and illustrate your thesis with specific examples that contextualize the documents.

Step 5. If you have time, compose a one-paragraph conclusion that restates your thesis.

For this question, the documents display a wide array of positions; so a good strategy would be to try to identify a central dividing issue. In these documents, you can notice that all except Copernicus seem to take some sort of position on the senses and observation: some believe that all knowledge of nature must start with direct sense experience, while others argue that starting with sense experience is a mistake. Begin the essay by discussing that central divide and then see if you can form a few groups based on the similarities and differences between their approaches.

Finally, since Copernicus does not address the central issue, ignore the document. It is okay to ignore one document if it does not fit into your thesis, but never ignore more than one or two.

Outline

A possible outline to an answer to this DBQ looks like this:

Thesis: These documents show that arguments regarding the basis for knowledge of the natural world have often hinged on assumptions about the reliability of sense experience.

Topic sentence A: Documents 2 and 9 illustrate the faith in direct, trial-and-error experience that developed in the “alchemy” and “natural magic” traditions.

Specific examples: Della Porta’s emphasis on “practical application;” Agricola’s emphasis on handling the materials, making “dissolutions” and “combinations” and recording results carefully.

Topic sentence B: Documents 5 and 6 illustrate the emphasis on observation as the correct starting place for knowledge of the natural world.

Specific examples: Bacon outlines two approaches, and argues for the superiority of the one that begins with observed particulars; Harvey illustrates how the method should work.

Topic sentence C: Documents 3 and 10 refine the process to include the goal of finding general laws.

Specific examples: Galileo—sense experiences and very exact observations; begin not from the authority of scriptural passages, but from sense-experiences and necessary demonstrations; Nature never transgresses the laws imposed upon her. Newton codifies the approach into “rules.”

Topic sentence D: Documents 4, 7, and 8 dissent from the view that sense experience is a valid foundation for knowledge of the natural world.

Specific examples: Bellarmine: the dangers of contradicting scholastic and church authority; Descartes: the senses are easily fooled; an alternative method, proceed logically from a general distinct idea to particulars.

Conclusion: The variety of attitudes and positions regarding knowledge about the natural world depended upon the amount of faith one put in the reliability of sense experience.

Suggestions and Outlines for Answers to the Thematic Essay Questions

Suggestions

Choose one question from each group for which you can quickly write a clear thesis and three topic sentences that you can illustrate and support with several specific examples. Then follow the five-step formula to constructing a short history essay of high quality:

Step 1: Find the action words in the question and determine what it wants you to do. Step 2: Compose a thesis that responds to the question and gives you something specific to support and illustrate.

Step 3: Compose your topic sentences and make sure that they add up logically to your thesis.

Step 4: Support and illustrate your thesis with specific examples.

Step 5: If you have time, compose a one-paragraph conclusion that restates your thesis. And remember the writing guidelines:

• Avoid long sentences with multiple clauses. Your goal is to write the clearest sentence possible; most often the clearest sentence is a relatively short sentence.

• Do not get caught up in digressions. No matter how fascinating or insightful you find some idea or fact, if it does not directly support or illustrate your thesis, do not put it in.

• Skip the mystery. Do not ask a lot of rhetorical questions and do not go for a surprise ending. The readers are looking for your thesis, your argument, and your evidence; give it to them in a clear, straightforward manner.

Outlines

Part B

Question 2

Thesis: The success or failure of seventeenth-century monarchs to consolidate political power within their kingdoms rested on their ability to form an alliance with a rising commercial class.

Topic sentence A: The French monarchy built the most absolutist government by cementing an alliance with both the clergy and middle class, and by using the great administrative expertise of both to build a powerful centralized bureaucracy.

Specific examples: Richelieu division France into 30 administrative districts, each under the control of an intendent, an administrative bureaucrat, usually chosen from the middle class.

Topic sentence B: In England, the Parliament successfully resisted the absolutist designs of the Stuart monarchy because the English Parliament of the seventeenth century was a preexisting alliance of nobles and well-to-do members of a thriving merchant and professional class that saw itself as a voice of the “English people.”

Specific examples: Social composition of the two camps in the English civil war— traditional landed nobility and high Church sided with the king; newer, commercial-based nobles and merchant class fought for Parliament.

Topic sentence C: In those areas where the commercial class was less developed, a political standoff between monarch and landed nobility was the norm.

Specific examples: Brandenburg—Prussia, the independent German states, Austria, and

Poland all lacked a well-developed commercial class and all had political compromise between monarchy and traditional elites.

Conclusion: The degree to which seventeenth-century European monarchs were successful in consolidating political power was directly related to their ability to build an alliance with the commercial class.

Question 3

Thesis: In the eighteenth century, a combination of the development of market-based agriculture, rural manufacturing, and increased demand shattered the traditional population and productivity cycles of Western Europe.

Topic sentence A: Prior to the eighteenth century, changes in both population and productivity were cyclical and due to natural limits on agricultural productivity.

Specific examples: Population and productivity would rise together, as more hands meant more crops planted and harvested; eventually agricultural productivity would reach a maximum, causing food to become scarce and forcing population down.

Topic sentence B: In response to an increasingly commercialized economy due to trade with the colonies, eighteenth-century British land owners began to shift to cash-crop agriculture and the importation of food, removing the natural limit to agricultural productivity.

Specific examples: Shift to growing of grain and the enclosure movement.

Topic sentence C: The development of cottage textile industry spread capital throughout the economy and enabled the full-scale shift to commercial agriculture and food importation, removing the last check to population growth.

Specific examples: Development of the putting-out system; development of rural spinning, weaving, and carding industries.

Conclusion: The removal of the natural limit to agricultural production removed the limits to both productivity and population growth; increased demand led to an unprecedented era of technical innovation that continued to feed growth well into the nineteenth century.

Question 4

Thesis: The French aims and methods of the French Revolution evolved through three phases: the Moderate Phase (1789—1791), the Radical Phase (1791—1794), and Thermidor (1794—1799); the evolution can be explained by shifts in the social makeup of the Revolutionary leadership.

Topic sentence A: The revolution was launched by the bourgeois leaders of the Third Estate who wished to curb the power and privilege of the aristocracy and clergy through economic pressure and the threat of mass violence.

Specific examples: Formation of the National Assembly, Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

Topic sentence B: Beginning in 1791, the politicized urban working class of Paris seized control and attempted to create a democratic republic and a more materially and socially egalitarian society by whatever means necessary.

Specific examples: Rise of the sans-culottes, Reign of Terror.

Topic sentence C: By 1794 the bourgeois faction reasserted its leadership and focused on restoring order, a process that led eventually to military dictatorship.

Specific examples: Death of Robespierre, Counter Terror, Directory and Napoleon.

Conclusion: The aims and methods of the French Revolution went from moderate to radical and back again as the leadership of the revolution went from the bourgeoisie briefly to the working class and back again.

Question 5

Thesis: The Second Industrial Revolution produced a Western European society that was more urban, less family-oriented, and filled with uncertainty.

Topic sentence A: The rise of the centralized factory system that characterized the Second Industrial Revolution produced a Western European society that was much more urban.

Specific examples: In the eighteenth century, the majority of British population lived in the countryside; by the end of the nineteenth century, the majority of British population lived in cities. Rise of Manchester, Sheffield, and Birmingham from small villages to industrial cities.

Topic sentence B: The Second Industrial Revolution created a Western European society that was less family-oriented.

Specific examples: Eldest sons and daughters moved to cities to seek factory work; with the rise of Industrial cities came the rise of working-class slums. Fathers, wives, and children often worked in different factories.

Topic sentence C: The Second Industrial Revolution destroyed the certainties of the traditional society.

Specific examples: In the agricultural economy, there was no such thing as unemployment; as more and more machines were introduced, the demand for labor went down and unemployment became a cyclical phenomenon; the rise of the workhouses and poor houses in Britain.

Conclusion: The Second Industrial Revolution destroyed the traditional rural, family- oriented, society of certainty and created a new urban, individualized society of uncertainty.

Question 6

Thesis: The development of mass politics contributed to the development of the New Imperialism in the late nineteenth century by creating a large group of nationalistic voters whose support had to be won by political elites.

Topic sentence A: The second half of the nineteenth century saw the development of a large group of new voters.

Specific examples: In Britain, reform Bills of 1867 and 1884 created nearly universal manhood suffrage. In France, Louis-Napoleon granted universal manhood suffrage in 1848. In Germany, Bismarck promised universal manhood suffrage (though he never provided it) in return for popular support of his policies.

Topic sentence B: The newly politicized masses were enthusiastically nationalist.

Specific examples: Support for Crimean War and occupation of Egypt in Britain; plebiscites for Second Empire and making Louis-Napoleon emperor in France; support for Franco-Prussian War in Germany.

Topic sentence C: Politicians discovered that imperialism appealed to the newly politicized masses.

Specific examples: Disraeli makes conservatives the party of monarchy, church and empire in Britain; Louis-Napoleon’s decision to end the republic and proclaim the Second Empire in France; Bismarck’s “blood and iron” unification of Germany; the popularity of the Scramble for Africa.

Conclusion: The rise of a large, nationalistic constituency that politicians had to win over contributed to the New Imperialism of the late nineteenth century.

Question 7

Thesis: The methods of successful resistance to Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe in the 1980s and early 1990s can be divided into three categories: unionization, the Civic Forum model, and ethnic nationalism.

Topic sentence A: One successful method relied upon the building of a strong labor union.

Specific examples: Formation and politicization of Solidarity; legalization in 1989, and triumph with Walesa presidency in 1990.

Topic sentence B: Another successful method relied upon a rebuilding of civic life through Civic Forums.

Specific examples: Civic Forum in Czechoslovakia led by dissidents like Havel; eventual triumph and Havel presidency; Civic Forum model in East Germany; its success (but irrelevancy in Western-dominated reunification).

Topic sentence C: A third “successful” method involved the reinvigoration of ethnic- nationalist identities.

Specific examples: Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo; Slovenes and Croatians; complete fragmentation (so, successful in opposing Soviet domination, but disastrous in building stable post-Soviet society).

Conclusion: There were three models that were equally successful in opposing Soviet domination, but which produced differing long-term results.