Chapter 1
1. Nowak, R. M. 1995. Another look at wolf taxonomy, pp. 375–397 in L. N. Carbyn, S. H. Fritts, and D. R. Seip, editors, Ecology and conservation of wolves in a changing world. Canadian Circumpolar Institute, Edmonton, Alberta.
2. Leonard, J. A., C. Vila, and R. K. Wayne. 2005. Legacy lost: Genetic variability and population size in extirpated US gray wolves. Molecular Ecology.
3. Young, S. P. and E. A. Goldman, 1994. The wolves of North America. American Wildlife Institute, Washington, DC
4. Mech, L. D. 1970. The wolf: The ecology and behavior of an endangered species. Natural History Press, Garden City, New York.
5. Jim Hammill quote used with permission, October 2004.
6. Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County almanac: With essays on conservation from Round River. Sierra Club/Ballantine Books, New York.
7. L. D. Mech personal communication, US Geological Survey.
8. Quoted from “The Long Rangers,” Nature Conservancy Magazine, Fall 2003, quote by Jack Turnell.
Chapter 2
1. Weaver, J. L. 1978. The wolves of Yellowstone. Natural Resources Report no. 14. US National Park Service, Washington, D.C. 38pp.
2. J. Leonard, R. Wayne personal communication, UCLA.
3. See Nowak, chapter 1.
4. McNay, M. E. 2002. Wolf-human interactions in Alaska & Canada: A review of the case history. Wildlife Society Bulletin 30: 831-843.
Portrait of a Wolf: Number 9
1. R. McIntyre personal communication, Yellowstone National Park.
Chapter 3
1. Fritts, S. H., W. J. Paul, and L. D. Mech. 1979. Evaluation of methods for all alleviating wolf depredations on livestock. Unpublished report, USFWS, St. Paul, Minnesota.
2. Taper, M. L. and P. Gogan. 2002. The northern Yellowstone elk: Density dependence and climatic conditions. Journal of Wildlife Management 66: 106—122.
3. Coppinger, R. and L. Coppinger. 2001. Dogs: A startling new understanding of canine origin, behavior, and evolution. Scribner, New York.
Chapter 4
1. Bergman, E. 2003. Assessment of prey vulnerability through analysis of wolf movements and kill sites. Masters Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana.
2. Messier, F. 1995. On the functional and numerical responses of wolves to changing prey density. In: L. Carbyn, S. Fritts, and D. Seip, editors, pp. 187—197. Ecology and conservation of wolves in a changing world. Canadian Circumpolar Institute, Edmonton, Alberta; Eberhardt, L. L. 1997. Is wolf predation ratio-dependant? Canadian Journal of Zoology 75: 1940—1944.
3. Observation by R. McIntyre.
4. Peterson, R. 1995. The wolves of Isle Royale: A broken balance. Willow Creek Press, Minocque, Wisconsin. 190pp; Mech, L. D. and L. Boitani. 2003. Wolf social ecology. In: L. D. Mech and L. Boitani, editors, pp. 1—34, Wolves: Behavior, ecology and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.
5. Murie, A. 1944. The wolves of Mount McKinley. US National Park Service Fauna Series, no. 5. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 238pp; Pimlott, D. H. 1970. Predation and productivity of game populations in North America. Transactions of International Congress of Game Biologists 9: 63-73.
6. Fuller, T., L. D. Mech, and L. F. Cochrane. 2003. Wolf population dynamics. In: Mech, L. D. and L. Boitani, editors, pp. 161–191, Wolves: Behavior, ecology and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.
Portrait of a Wolf: Number 42
1. Observation by R. McIntyre.
2. McIntyre, R. and D. Smith. 2000. The death of a queen: Yellowstone mutiny ends tyrannical rule over Druid Pack. International Wolf 10(4):8-11.
Chapter 5
1. Although there is no actual analysis of the type of packs in North America, a discussion relating to this issue is available in D. Mech and L. Boitani edited book Wolves. See page 164—165 under “Pack Composition.”
2. Multiple litters have been recorded in other locations and probably are more common than once thought since intensive monitoring of denning wolves is a recent phenomenon.
3. R. McIntyre personal communication.
4. R. McIntyre personal communication.
5. Mech, L. D., L. F. Adams, T. J. Meier, J. W. Burch, and B. W. Dale. 1998. The wolves of Denali. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis; Dean Cluff, personal communication, carnivore biologist, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories.
6. Highest ever prey biomass, see discussions in Mech and Boitani, Table 6.2 pp. 167—170; also Fuller, T. K. 1989. Population dynamics of wolves in north-central Minnesota. Wildlife Monographs, no. 105. The Wildlife Society.
Chapter 6
1. Wolves for Yellowstone. 1992. A report to the United States Congress. J. Varley and W. Brewster, editors.
2. John Duffield personal communication, University of Montana.
Portrait of a Wolf: Number 14
1. Julie Mao personal communication, University of Alberta.
Chapter 7
1. Berger, J., P. Stacey, L. Bellis, and M. Johnson. 2001. A mammalian predator-prey imbalance: Grizzly bear and wolf extinctions affect avian neotropical migrants. Ecological Applications 11: 947—960; Nietvelt, C. 2001. Herbivory interactions between beaver (Castor canadensis) and elk (Cervus elaphus) on willow (Salix spp.) in Banff National Park. Masters Thesis, University of Alberta.
2. Dan Tyers personal communication, Gallatin National Forest.
3. Beschta, R. L. 2003. Cottonwood, elk and wolves in the Lamar Valley of Yellowstone National Park. Ecological Applications 13: 1295—1309; Ripple, W. J., E. Larsen, R. Renkin, D. Smith. 2001. Trophic cascades among wolves, elk, and aspen on Yellowstone National Parks northern range. Biological Conservation 102: 227—234.
4. Wilmers, C., R. Crabtree, D. Smith, K. Murphy, and W Getz. 2003. Trophic facilitation by introduced top predators: Grey wolf subsidies to scavengers in Yellowstone National Park. Journal of Animal Ecology 72: 909—916.
5. Stahler, D. R. 2000. Interspecific interactions between the common raven (Corvus corax) and the gray wolf (Canis lupus) in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: Investigations of a predator and scavenger relationship. Masters Thesis, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT. 105pp.
6. Wilmers, C., D. Stahler, R. Crabtree, D. Smith, and W Getz. 2003. Resource dispersion and consumer dominance: Scavenging at wolf-and hunter-killed carcasses in greater Yellowstone, USA. Ecology Letters 6: 996–1003.
7. Murphy, K. M. 1998. The ecology of the cougar (Puma concolor) in the northern Yellowstone ecosystem: Interaction with prey, bears, and humans. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Idaho, Moscow. 147pp.
8. Vucetich, J., R. Peterson, and T. Waite. 2004. Raven scavenging favours group foraging in wolves. Animal Behaviour, in press.
9. C. Wilmers personal communication.
10. D. Stahler personal communication.
11. Towne, E. G. 2000. Prairie vegetation and soil nutrient responses to ungulate carcasses. Oecologia 122: 232—239.
12. P. J. White personal communication, Yellowstone National Park.
13. See Taper and Gogan, chapter 3.
14. Cook, J. G., B. K. Johnson, R. C. Cook, R. A. Riggs, T. Del Curto, L. D. Bryont, and L. L. Irwin. 2004. Effects of summer-autumn nutrition and parturitiun date on reproduction and survival of elk. Wildlife Monographs 155.
15. P. J. White, R. Garrott, L. Eberhardt. 2003. Evaluating the consequences of wolf recovery on Northern Yellowstone elk. National Park Service Report, YCR-NR-2004-02.
Chapter 8
1. See Mech and Boitani, chapter 5 and 12 for more details.
2. Dale, B. W., L. G. Adams, and R. T. Bowyer. 1994. Functional response of wolves preying on barren-ground caribou in a multi-prey ecosystem. Journal of Animal Ecology 63: 644—652.
3. R. Peterson personal communication.
4. Peterson, R. O. and P. Ciucci. 2003, The wolf as a carnivore, see chapter 4 of Mech and Boitani.
5. MacNulty, D. 2002. The predatory sequence and the influence of injury risk on hunting behavior in the wolf. Master’s Thesis. University of Minnesota, St. Paul, 71pp.
6. Mech, L. D. 1970. The wolf: The ecology and behavior of an endangered species. Natural History Press, Garden City, New York.
7. D. Cluff personal communication, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories.
8. Hall, A. 2003. Discovering Eden: A lifetime of paddling arctic rivers. Key Porter Books, Toronto, Canada.
9. P. Frame personal communication.
10. Craighead, J. J., J. S. Sumner, and J. A. Mitchell. 1995. The grizzly bears of Yellowstone: Their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959—1992. Island Press, Washington, D.C. 535pp.
11. Mech, L. D., V. B. Kuechte, D. W. Warner, and J. R. Tester. 1965. A collar for attaching radio transmitters to rabbits, hares, and raccoons. Journal of Wildlife Management 29: 898—902.
12. R. Peterson personal communication.
Chapter 9
1. C. Gates personal communication.
2. Oakleaf, J., C. Mack, and D. Murray. 2003. Effects of wolves on livestock calf survival and movements in central Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management 67: 299—306.
3. P. J. White personal communication.
4. Ibid.