Introduction: Capital Movers
1 Mary A. Y. Gallagher, “Reinterpreting the ‘Very Trifling Mutiny’ at Philadelphia in June 1783,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 119:1/2 (1995): 8–11, 12–13.
2 Kenneth R. Bowling, “New Light on the Philadelphia Mutiny of 1783: Federal-State Confrontation at the Close of the War for Independence,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 101:4 (Oct. 1977): 425.
3 Bowling, “New Light,” 426.
4 Ibid., 428.
5 Ibid., 431.
6 Ibid., 430.
7 Gallagher, “Reinterpreting,” 24.
8 Bowling, “New Light,” 433–34.
9 Ibid., 433.
10 Gallagher, “Reinterpreting,” 25.
11 Bowling, “New Light,” 437–38, 448.
12 William C. di Giacomantonio, “‘To Sell Their Birthright for a Mess of Potage’: The Origins of D.C. Governance and the Organic Act of 1801,” Washington History 12:1 (Spring/Summer 2000): 32.
13 Bowling, Creation of Washington, 34.
14 Bowling, “New Light,” 445.
15 Ibid., 449.
16 Rubil Morales Vasquez, “Imagining Washington: Monuments and Nation Building in the Early Capital,” Washington History 12:1 (Spring/Summer 2000): 17; Donald R. Kennon, review of Congress and the Governance of the Nation’s Capital, in Washington History 7:2 (1995/1996): 80.
17 Bowling, Creation of Washington, 198; Bowling, “New Light,” 420.
18 Bowling, “New Light,” 419.
19 Trollope, North America, 449, 450.
Chapter 1: The Capital Archipelago
1 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 18, 20.
2 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 21.
3 Highsmith and Landphair, Pennsylvania Avenue, 53.
4 Hurd, Washington Cavalcade, 58.
5 C. M. Harris, “Washington’s ‘Federal City,’ Jefferson’s ‘Federal Town,’ ” Washington History 12:1 (2000): 49–53.
6 Ibid., 50.
7 Gutheim, Potomac, 12.
8 Priscilla W. McNeil, “Rock Creek Hundred: Land Conveyed for the Federal City,” Washington History 3:1 (1991): 42–51.
9 Gutheim, Potomac, 327.
10 Smith, Washington at Home, 33.
11 Gutheim, Potomac, 327.
12 Vlach, “ Mysterious Mr. Jenkins.”
13 Margaret Brent Downing, “Significant Achievements of the Daniel Carrolls of L’Enfant’s Era,” Catholic Historical Review 16:3 (1930): 227–28.
14 Bob Arnebeck, “Tracking the Speculators: Greenleaf and Nicholson in the Federal City,” Washington History 3:1 (1991): 113.
15 Ibid.
16 Gutheim, Potomac, 327.
17 Junior League of Washington, City of Washington, 48.
18 Arnebeck, “Speculators,” 116.
19 Ibid., 117–18.
20 Ibid., 121; Reps, Washington on View, 32.
21 Reps, Washington on View, 32.
22 Arnebeck, “Speculators,” 119.
23 Allen C. Clark, Thomas Law: A Biographical Sketch (Washington, DC; W. F. Roberts, 1900): 15
24 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 1:280.
25 Reps, Washington on View, 32.
26 Arnebeck, “Speculators,” 120–21.
27 Gutheim, Potomac, 327.
28 Goode, Capital Losses, 5, 171
29 Reps, Washington on View, 32; Janson, Stranger in America, 214.
30 Gibbs, Memoirs of the Administrations, 2:44.
31 Janson, Stranger in America, 212, 214.
32 Goode, Capital Losses, 7.
33 Highsmith and Landphair, Pennsylvania Avenue, 50.
34 Ethel M. B. Morganston, “Davy Burnes, His Ancestors and Their Descendants,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 40 (1948/1950): 110; Priscilla W. McNeil, “Rock Creek Hundred: Land Conveyed for the Federal City,” Washington History 3:1 (1991): 42–51.
35 Morganston, “Davy Burnes,” 111, 113.
36 Susan L. Klaus, “ ‘Some of the Smartest Folks Here’: The Van Nesses and Community Building in Early Washington,” Washington History 3:2 (1991/1992): 25; Morganston, “Davy Burnes,” 112–13.
37 Allen C. Clark, “General John Peter Van Ness, a Mayor of the City of Washington, His Wife, Marcia, and Her Father, David Burnes,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 22 (1919): 136.
38 Allen B. Slauson, “Curious Customs of the Past as Gleaned from Early Issues of the Newspapers in the District of Columbia,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 9 (1906): 114.
39 Gutheim, Potomac, 13.
40 Frances Carpenter Huntington, “The Heiress of Washington City: Marcia Burnes Van Ness, 1782–1832,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 47 (1969/1970): 80, 98.
41 Alison K. Hoagland, “Nineteenth-Century Building Regulations in Washington, D.C.,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 52 (1989): 58–59.
42 Goode, Capital Losses, 5.
43 Gutheim, Federal City, 78; Letter to George Washington from Pierre L’Enfant, Nov. 21, 1791. National Archives, Founders Online, accessed at http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-09-02-0124.
44 Goode, Capital Losses, 5.
45 Young, Washington Community, 22.
46 Reps, Washington on View, 32.
47 Pamela Scott, “ ‘This Vast Empire’: The Iconography of the Mall: 1791–1848,” in Longstreth, Mall in Washington, 54, n12.
48 Harris, “Washington’s ‘Federal City,’ ” 49, 51.
49 John W. Reps, “Thomas Jefferson’s Checkerboard Towns,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 20:3 (1961): 108.
50 Rubil Morales Vasquez, “Imagining Washington: Monuments and Nation Building in the Early Capital,” Washington History 12:1 (2000): 21.
51 Ibid., 24.
52 Harris, “Washington’s ‘Federal City,’ ” 52.
53 Hines, Early Recollections, 61–62; Washington Federalist, April 14, 1802, and November 23, 1802.
54 Hines, Early Recollections, 62–63.
55 Goode, Capital Losses, 23.
56 Hurd, Washington Cavalcade, 19.
57 Gutheim, Potomac, 326.
58 Weld, Travels through the States, 72–89.
59 Gutheim, Potomac, 327.
60 Reps, Washington on View, 60.
61 Young, Washington Community, 21.
62 Reps, Washington on View, 57.
63 Scott, “ ‘This Vast Empire,’ ” 40–41.
64 Smith, Washington at Home, 55–56.
65 Bergheim, Washington Historical Atlas, 128–29.
66 Smith, Washington at Home, 57.
67 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 36.
68 Janson, Stranger in America, 215.
69 Young, Washington Community, 23.
70 Smith, Washington at Home, 66.
71 Kay Fanning, “The Mall: National Mall & Memorial Parks,” in Cultural Landscape Inventory (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 2006), 25–26.
72 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 106.
73 Scott, “ ‘This Vast Empire,’ ” 46.
74 National Intelligencer, March 24, 1841. Address of Joel R. Poinsett before the National Institution.
75 Gibbs, Memoirs of the Administrations, 2:377.
76 Diane K. Skvarla, “Nineteenth Century Visitors,” Washington History 1:1 (1989): 10.
77 Reps, Washington on View, 70–74.
78 Dickens, American Notes, 279.
79 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 38.
80 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:14.
81 Smith, First Forty Years, 10.
82 Highsmith and Landphair, Pennsylvania Avenue, 53.
83 Ibid., 55.
84 Mackay, Western World, 2:110–11.
85 Goode, Capital Losses, 492.
86 Hurd, Washington Cavalcade, 57.
87 Passonneau, Washington through Two Centuries, 68.
88 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 41.
89 Gutheim, Federal City, 15.
90 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 41.
91 Hurd, Washington Cavalcade, 27; Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 41.
92 Hurd, Washington Cavalcade, 58.
93 Vasquez, “Imagining Washington,” 145–46.
94 Gutheim, Potomac, 332–33.
95 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:16.
96 Ibid., 18.
97 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 140.
98 Young, Washington Community, 23.
99 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 40.
100 Ibid., 39, 89–90.
101 Young, Washington Community, 24.
102 Gutheim, Potomac, 17.
103 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:20.
104 Arnebeck, Through a Fiery Trial, 626.
105 Ibid., 627.
106 Ibid.
107 Young, Washington Community, 24.
108 Hurd, Washington Cavalcade, 26–27.
109 Young, Washington Community, 25.
110 Thomas Moore, “To Thomas Hume, Esq., M.D., On the City of Washington,” in The Poetical Works of Thomas Moore (London: Oxford University Press, 1915): 117.
Chapter 2: A Plague of Waters
1 District of Columbia Dept. of the Environment, et al. Federal Triangle Stormwater Drainage Study (Washington, DC: Oct. 6, 2011): 7. Accessed at www.ncpc.gov/ DocumentDepot/Planning/flooding/federal_triangle_drainage_study_presentation.pdf
2 Gutheim, Federal City, 8.
3 Hines, Early Recollections, 45.
4 Ibid., 47–48.
5 Ibid., 44, 67, 95.
6 Julie D. Abell and Petar D. Glumac, “Beneath the MCI Center: Insights into Washington’s Historic Water Supply,” Washington History 9:1 (1997): 26.
7 Garnett P. Williams, “Washington D.C.’s Vanishing Springs and Waterways,” in Moore and Jackson, Geology, Hydrology and History, 77, 84–85
8 Ibid., 82.
9 Don Alexander Hawkins, “The Landscape of the Federal City: A 1792 Walking Tour,” Washington History 3:1 (1991): 23.
10 John C. Reed Jr. and Stephen F. Obermeier, “The Geology Beneath Washington, D.C.—The Foundation of a Nation’s Capital,” in Moore and Jackson, Geology, Hydrology and History, 28; Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 41; Robbins and Welter, Building Stones, 6–7.
11 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 19.
12 Robbins and Welter, Building Stones, 41.
13 Gutheim, Potomac, 8, 24.
14 Williams, “Vanishing Springs,” 90.
15 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 6.
16 Warden, Chorographical and Statistical Description, 11.
17 Hawkins, “Landscape,” 16.
18 Harrison, History of the Commercial Waterways, 10.
19 Reed and Obermeier, “Geology Beneath Washington, D.C.,” 28.
20 Cornelius W. Heine, “The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal: Testimony to an Age Yet to Come,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 66, 68 (1966/1968): 58.
21 Richard J. Dent, “On the Archaeology of Early Canals: Research on the Pawtomack Canal in Great Falls, Virginia,” Historical Archaeology 20:1 (1986): 52.
22 Heine, “ Chesapeake and Ohio Canal,” 58.
23 Dent, “Archaeology of Early Canals,” 52.
24 Ibid., 50, 52.
25 Heine, “ Chesapeake and Ohio Canal,” 58.
26 Dent, “Archaeology of Early Canals,” 53.
27 Gutheim, Potomac, 328.
28 Warden, Chorographical and Statistical Description, 7; Hibben, Navy-Yard, Washington, 26.
29 Warden, Chorographical and Statistical Description, 24.
30 Zach Spratt, “Ferries in the District of Columbia,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 53/56 (1953/1956): 190–92.
31 Gutheim, Federal City, 4.
32 Williams, “Vanishing Springs,” 87.
33 Ibid.
34 Cornelius W. Heine, “The Washington City Canal,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 53, 56 (1953/1956): 2.
35 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 1:289.
36 Ibid., 288.
37 Heine, “Washington City Canal,” 3.
38 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 28.
39 Clark, Greenleaf and Law, 257.
40 Law, “Observations on the Intended Canal,” 161–62.
41 Heine, “Washington City Canal,” 5–7.
42 Frederick May, Letter to William H. Crawford, Secretary of the Treasury, December 2, 1818.
43 Reps, Washington on View, 54.
44 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:104.
45 Heine, “Washington City Canal,” 9.
46 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:113.
47 Cowdrey, City for the Nation, 14; Williams, “Vanishing Springs,” 87.
48 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 40–41.
49 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 72.
50 Heine, “Washington City Canal,” 10.
51 Harrison, History of the Commercial Waterways, 14.
52 Harrison, United States Waterways and Ports, 10
53 Clark, Greenleaf and Law, 257.
54 Junior League of Washington, City of Washington, 146.
55 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 116.
56 Ibid., 114–15.
57 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:111.
58 Vasquez, “Monuments, Markets, and Manners,” 244.
59 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 114.
60 Arthur G. Peterson, “The Old Alexandria-Georgetown Canal and Potomac Aqueduct,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 40:4 (1932): 310.
61 Heine, “Washington City Canal,” 13.
62 Ibid., 12.
63 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 128.
64 Harzbecker, “Life and Death,” 73.
65 Tindall, Standard History of the City of Washington, 245.
66 Ibid.; Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:125.
67 Charles Augustus Murray, Travels in North America During the Years 1834, 1835 & 1836, Vol. 1 (London: Richard Bentley, 1839): 146.
68 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 129.
69 Ibid.; Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:126.
70 Heine, “Chesapeake and Ohio Canal,” 59–60.
71 Gutheim, Potomac, 260.
72 Goode, Capital Losses, 454; Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:115–17.
73 Gutheim, Potomac, 331.
74 Warden, Chorographical and Statistical Description, 63.
75 Ibid., 10.
76 Ibid., 24; Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 50.
77 George J. Moorhead, “Overflows from Combined Sewers in Washington, D.C.,” Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation 33:7 (1961): 713.
78 Abell and Glumac, “Beneath the MCI Center,” 29.
79 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:303.
Chapter 3: A Mechanic’s Guide to Washington City
1 Joint Force Headquarters–National Capital Region and The US Army Military District of Washington, “History of Fort Lesley J. McNair,” accessed at http://mdwhome.mdw.army.mil/docs/media-documents/history-of-fort-mcnair-fact-sheet.pdf?sfvrsn=2.
2 Pitch, Burning of Washington, 20, 82–85, 117.
3 Smith, Forty Years, 115.
4 Junior League of Washington, City of Washington, 146
5 Pitch, Burning of Washington, 150–51.
6 Warden, Chorographical and Statistical Description, 31.
7 Smith, Forty Years, 115.
8 M. I. Weller, “Unwelcome Visitors to Early Washington,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 1 (1897): 56.
9 Royall, Sketches of History, 156, 158.
10 Sarah Harvey Porter, “The Life and Times of Anne Royall, 1769–1854,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 10 (1907): 10.
11 Elizabeth J. Clapp, “ ‘A Virago-Errant in Enchanted Armor’?: Anne Royall’s 1829 Trial as a Common Scold,” Journal of the Early Republic 23:2 (summer 2003): 209–10.
12 Porter, “Life and Times,” 17.
13 Royall, Sketches of History, 156.
14 Ibid.
15 Warden, Chorographical and Statistical Description, 42.
16 Margo, Wages and Labor Markets, 12.
17 Delano, Washington Directory, 2–84.
18 Ibid., 21, 59, 104, 109.
19 Margaret H. McAleer, “ ‘The Green Streets of Washington’: The Experience of Irish Mechanics in Antebellum Washington,” in Cary, Washington Odyssey, 42–45.
20 Warden, Chorographical and Statistical Description, 27.
21 Charles H. Leedecker, et al., Phase I Archaeological Investigation for the National Museum of African American History and Culture (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 2007), 39; Harzbecker, “Life and Death,” 173.
22 Smith, Forty Years, 336.
23 McAleer, “ ‘Green Streets,’ ” 47.
24 Ibid., 48.
25 Royall, Sketches of History, 182.
26 Hamilton, Men and Manners, 2:70–72.
27 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 137.
28 Gibbs Myers, “Pioneers in the Federal Area,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 44/45 (1942/1943): 136.
29 Hamilton, Men and Manners, 2:71, 72.
30 Mona E. Dingle, “Gemeinschaft and Gemutlichkeit: German American Community and Culture, 1850–1920,” in Cary, Washington Odyssey, 115–18.
31 Harzbecker, “Life and Death,” 87.
32 Smith, Forty Years, 336–37.
33 Porter, “Life and Times,” 13; Cynthia Earman, “An Uncommon Scold: Treasure-Talk Describes Life of Anne Royall,” Library of Congress Information Bulletin 59:1 (2000), accessed at www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/0001/royall.html.
34 Porter, “Life and Times,” 14.
35 Royall, Sketches of History,” 156.
36 Cable, Avenue of the Presidents, 52.
37 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 70, 90.
38 Plummer, “History of Public Health,” 26.
39 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 91.
40 Royall, Sketches of History, 143, 144.
41 David R. Goldfield, “Antebellum Washington in Context: The Pursuit of Prosperity and Identity,” in Gillette, Southern City, National Ambition, 15–16.
42 Myers, “Pioneers,” 149.
43 Elliot, Historical Sketches, 211.
44 Byron Sunderland, “Washington as I First Knew It, 1852–1855,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 5 (1902): 204.
45 Royall, Black Book, 93.
46 Ibid., 20, 246.
47 Clapp, “ ‘Virago-Errant,’ ” 216.
48 Earman, “An Uncommon Scold.”
49 James, Anne Royall’s U.S.A., 253.
50 Earman, “An Uncommon Scold.”
51 Clapp, “ ‘Virago-Errant,’ ” 216–17, 229.
52 Ibid., 219, 221.
53 Porter, “Life and Times,” 25.
54 Clapp, “ ‘Virago-Errant,’ ” 224.
55 Ibid., 226–27.
56 James, Anne Royall’s U.S.A., 257.
57 Earman, “An Uncommon Scold.”
58 Porter, “Life and Times,” 158.
59 Bernard L. Herman, “Southern City, National Ambition: Washington’s Early Town Houses,” in Gillette, Southern City, National Ambition, 45.
60 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 4.
61 McAleer, “ ‘Green Streets,’ ” 48–50.
62 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 4.
63 Herman, “Southern City,” 31.
64 Busey, Pictures of the City, 218–22; Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 160.
65 Royall, Sketches of History, 130
66 E. D. Merrill, “Changing Fashions in Transportation,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 48/49 (1946/1947): 160.
67 William Tindall, “Beginnings of Street Railways in the National Capital,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 21 (1918): 25.
68 Warden, Chorographical and Statistical Description, 53–54.
69 Oliver W. Holmes, “Stagecoach Days in the District of Columbia,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 50 (1948/1950): 17.
70 Twining, Travels in America, 95–97.
71 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 34, 36.
72 Watterston, New Guide to Washington, 87.
73 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 6–7.
74 Faux, Memorable Days in America, 394.
75 Walter F. McArdle, “The Development of the Business Sector in Washington, D.C., 1800–1973,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 49 (1973/1974): 564.
76 Watterston, New Guide to Washington, 87.
77 Junior League of Washington, City of Washington, 101.
78 Goode, Capital Losses, 302.
79 Highsmith and Landphair, Pennsylvania Avenue, 77.
80 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:335.
81 Goode, Capital Losses, 302.
82 Thomas A. Bogar, “The Origins of Theatre in the District of Columbia,” Washington History 22 (2010): 8–9, 11.
83 Roger Meersman and Robert Boyer, “The National Theatre in Washington: Buildings and Audiences, 1835–1972,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 48 (1971/1972): 191, 194–95.
84 A. I. Mudd, “Early Theatres in Washington City,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 5 (1902): 64, 65.
85 Meersman and Boyer, “National Theatre,” 204.
86 Ibid., 217.
87 Trollope, Domestic Manners, 2:29–30.
88 Aloysius I. Mudd, “The Theatres of Washington from 1835 to 1850,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 6 (1903): 239.
89 Richard Moody, quoted in Meersman and Boyer, “National Theatre,” 218.
90 James Waldo Fawcett, “The Circus in Washington,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 50 (1948/1950): 269.
91 Meersman and Boyer, “National Theatre,” 195.
92 Joseph Earl Arrington, “Henry Lewis’ Moving Panorama of the Mississippi River,” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Society 6:3 (1965): 250, 266, 267.
93 Hines, Early Recollections, 42–43.
94 Quoted in Bryan, History of the National Capital, 1:610.
95 Larkin, Reshaping of Everyday Life, 283.
96 Poore, Reminiscences of Sixty Years, 1:61.
97 Royall, Sketches of History,” 158.
98 Porter, “Life and Times,” 29, 30, 32.
99 James, Anne Royall’s U.S.A., 273, 307.
100 Ibid., 379.
Chapter 4: Driving Souls
1 James, Anne Royall’s U.S.A., 63, 242.
2 James Oliver Horton, “The Genesis of Washington’s African American Community,” in Cary, Washington Odyssey, 20, 21.
3 Green, Secret City, 13, 33.
4 H. Con. Res., 111th Congress, 1st session, May 21, 2009: 1–3.
5 Edward E. Baptist, “ ‘Cuffy,’ ‘Fancy Maids,’ and ‘One-Eyed Men’: Rape, Commodification and the Domestic Slave Trade in the United States,” American Historical Review 106:5 (2001): 1636.
6 James Cox, “Corporations Challenged by Reparations Activists,” USA Today, February 21, 2002.
7 Virginia Groark, “Slave Policies,” New York Times, May 5, 2002.
8 Warden, Chorographical and Statistical Description, 44–46.
9 Green, Secret City, 20.
10 David R. Goldfield, “Antebellum Washingtonin Context: The Pursuit of Prosperity and Identity,” in Gillette, Southern City, National Ambition, 9–10.
11 Harrold, Subversives, 30.
12 Alexandria Ship Records, 1732–1861, transcribed 1973–1989 by Betty Harrington Macdonald. Alexandria Library, Local History/Special Collections, Boxes 218, 219. “Inward Manifests, Alexandria Port,” 1800–1809. Horne record from March 25, 1809.
13 John Michael Vlach, “From Slavery to Tenancy: African-American Housing in Washington, D.C., 1790–1890,” in Longstreth, Housing Washington, 3, 6.
14 John Michael Vlach, “Evidence of Slave Housing in Washington,” Washington History 5:2 (1993/1994): 66–67.
15 Wade, Slavery in the Cities, 59–60.
16 Vlach, “From Slavery to Tenancy,” 7–9.
17 Lionel Moses, “The Octagon, Washington, D.C. Headquarters of the American Institute of Architects,” Art World 2:3 (1917): 296.
18 Torrey, Portraiture of Domestic Slavery, 57; Andrews, Slavery and the Domestic Slave Trade, 113–14.
19 “Domestic Slave Trading Businesses,” Collection of Freedom House Museum (Franklin & Armfield site), Alexandria, VA, accessed at www.nvul.org/freedomhouse.
20 Baptist, “ ‘Cuffy,’ ‘Fancy Maids,’ ” 1619, 1629, 1634, 1638–39.
21 Collection of Freedom House Museum (Franklin & Armfield site), Alexandria, VA, accessed at www.nvul.org/freedomhouse.
22 Andrews, Slavery and the Domestic Slave Trade, 138–43.
23 Northup, Twelve Years a Slave, 42–43.
24 Walter C. Clephane, “The Local Aspect of Slavery in the District of Columbia,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 3 (1900): 237.
25 Baptist, “ ‘Cuffy,’ ‘Fancy Maids,’ ” 1634.
26 Abdy, Journal of a Residence, 100.
27 Clephane, “Local Aspect of Slavery,” 239–40.
28 Abdy, Journal of a Residence, 97.
29 Goode, Capital Losses, 198.
30 Vlach, “From Slavery to Tenancy,” 11.
31 Jeannie Tree Rives, “Old-Time Places and People in Washington,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 3 (1900): 75–76.
32 Torrey, Portraiture of Domestic Slavery, 42–44.
33 Wilhelmus Bogart Bryan, “A Fire in an Old Time F Street Tavern and What It Revealed,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 9 (1906): 208.
34 Abdy, Journal of a Residence, 91.
35 Green, Secret City, 29–30.
36 Cable, Avenue of the Presidents, 51.
37 Clephane, “Local Aspect of Slavery,” 243.
38 Torrey, Portraiture of Domestic Slavery, 57.
39 Green, Secret City, 29.
40 Cable, Avenue of the Presidents, 51.
41 Bryan, “Fire in an Old Time F Street Tavern,” 209; Green, Secret City, 23.
42 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 77.
43 Harrold, Subversives, 18, 28.
44 Ibid., 18, 23.
45 Lundy, Life, Travels, and Opinions of Benjamin Lundy, 30.
46 William Lloyd Garrison, editorial, The Liberator, January 1, 1831.
47 Harrold, Subversives, 56.
48 Ibid., 45–46.
49 Gilje, Rioting in America, 89.
50 Jefferson Morley, “The ‘Snow Riot,’ ” Washington Post, February 6, 2005.
51 Mary Beth Corrigan, “The Ties That Bind: The Pursuit of Community and Freedom Among Slaves and Free Blacks in the District of Columbia, 1800–1860,” in Gillette, Southern City, National Ambition, 79–80.
52 Morley, “ ‘Snow Riot.’ ”
53 Corrigan, “Ties That Bind,” 80.
54 John Davis, “Eastman Johnson’s Negro Life at the South and Urban Slavery in Washington, D.C.,” Art Bulletin 80:1 (1998): 72, 74.
55 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:143.
56 Harrold, Subversives, 31–32.
57 Martin Van Buren, First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1837.
58 H. Siebert, Underground Railroad, 125–26.
59 Goldfield, Cotton Fields and Skyscrapers, 45.
60 Harrold, Subversives, 46, 55.
61 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 29.
62 Harrold, Subversives, 91.
63 Hilary Russell, “Underground Railroad Activists in Washington, D.C.,” Washington History 13:2 (2001/2002): 30–31.
64 Smallwood, Narrative of Thomas Smallwood, 21.
65 Ibid., 32.
66 Harrold, Subversives, 82, 90.
67 Smallwood, Narrative of Thomas Smallwood, 32.
68 Russell, “Underground Railroad Activists,” 31.
69 Smallwood, Narrative of Thomas Smallwood, 46.
70 Torrey, Memoir of Rev. Charles T. Torrey, 81.
71 Harrold, Subversives, 86, 90.
72 Horton, “Genesis,”23.
73 Allen, History of Slave Laborers, 8–9.
74 Bob Arnebeck, “The Use of Slaves to Build the Capitol and White House, 1791–1801: Part One, Stumbling to a Policy of Hiring Slave Laborers,” accessed at http://bobarnebeck.com/slaves.html.
75 Letitia W. Brown, “Residence Patterns of Negroes in the District of Columbia,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 69/70 (1969/1970): 71.
76 Phillips, Freedom’s Port, 25.
77 Wade, Slavery in the Cities, 38.
78 Brown, “Residence Patterns,” 73.
79 Vlach, “From Slavery to Tenancy,” 11.
80 Horton, “Genesis,” 25; Green, Secret City, 16.
81 Wade, Slavery in the Cities, 48.
82 Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom, 318, 328.
83 Green, Secret City, 16.
84 Jonathan D. Martin, Divided Mastery: Slave Hiring in the American South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 46.
85 Green, Secret City, 33.
86 Corrigan, “Ties That Bind,” 73.
87 Ibid., 73–76.
88 Harrold, Subversives, 14.
89 Corrigan, “Ties That Bind,” 73.
90 Gibbs Myers, “Pioneers in the Federal Area,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 44/45 (1942/1943): 139.
91 Fields, Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground, 4.
92 Green, Secret City, 53–54.
93 Dorothy Provine, “The Economic Position of the Free Blacks in the District of Columbia,” The Journal of Negro History 58:1 (1973): 63.
94 Melvin R. Williams, “A Statistical Study of Blacks in Washington, D.C., in 1860,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 50 (1980): 175.
95 Brown, “Residence Patterns,” 75–76.
96 Provine, “Economic Position,” 64.
97 Harrold, Subversives, 40–42.
98 Horton, “Genesis,” 33.
99 Ibid.
100 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 43–44, 162.
101 Harrold, Subversives, 26–27.
102 Horton, “Genesis,” 36.
103 Druscilla J. Null, “Myrtilla’s Miner’s ‘School for Colored Girls’: A Mirror on Antebellum Washington,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 52 (1989): 258, 259, 262.
104 Harrold, Subversives, 192; Green, Secret City, 51.
105 Null, “Myrtilla’s Miner’s ‘School for Colored Girls,’ ” 259, 264, 266–68.
106 Horton, “Genesis,” 29.
107 The Black Code of the District of Columbia (New York: William Harned, 1848).
108 Brown, “Residence Patterns,” 70.
109 Vlach, “Evidence of Slave Housing,” 67.
110 Green, Secret City, 43.
111 J. Valerie Fifer, “Washington, D.C.: The Political Geography of a Federal Capital,” Journal of American Studies 15:1 (1981): 9–10.
112 Green, Secret City, 175.
113 Corrigan, “Ties That Bind,” 83.
114 Harrold, Subversives, 141.
115 Ibid., 166.
Chapter 5: The Company They Kept
1 George Alfred Townsend, “Thomas Law, Washington’s First Rich Man,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 4 (1901): 237, 239.
2 William Wirt, letter to Laura H. Wirt, May 23, 1820.
3 Townsend, “Washington’s First Rich Man,” 237.
4 Gibbs Myers, “Pioneers in the Federal Area,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 44/45 (1942/1943): 134.
5 Ibid., 134–35.
6 Logan, “Redemption of a Heretic,” 7.
7 Martineau, Retrospect of Western Travel, 238.
8 Ibid., 235.
9 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 88, 90.
10 Royall, Black Book, 122.
11 Elizabeth J. Clapp, “‘A Virago-Errant in Enchanted Armor’?: Anne Royall’s 1829 Trial as a Common Scold,” Journal of the Early Republic 23:2 (summer 2003): 230.
12 Susan L. Klaus, “ ‘Some of the Smartest Folks Here’: The Van Nesses and Community Building in Early Washington, Washington History 3:2 (1991/1992): 35.
13 Ibid., 38–40.
14 Royall, Black Book, 139.
15 Goode, Capital Losses, 23.
16 Myers, “Pioneers,” 156.
17 Gutheim, Potomac, 328–29.
18 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 108.
19 Mary Bailey Tinkcom, “Caviar Along the Potomac: Sir Augustus John Foster’s ‘Notes on the United States,’ 1804–1812,” William and Mary Quarterly, third series 8:1 (1951): 77.
20 David Hosford and Mary Bagot, “Exile in Yankeeland: The Journal of Mary Bagot, 1816–1819,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 51 (1984): 36.
21 Crowninshield, Letters of Mary Boardman Crowninshield, 20.
22 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 69–70.
23 Smith, Forty Years, 389–90.
24 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 82.
25 Watterston, New Guide to Washington, 140.
26 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 126–27.
27 Poore, Reminiscences of Sixty Years, 74, 75.
28 Ibid., 74
29 Aloysius I. Mudd, “The Theatres of Washington from 1835 to 1850,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 6 (1903): 227.
30 Steven C. Bullock, “A Pure and Sublime System: The Appeal of Post-Revolutionary Freemasonry,” Journal of the Early Republic 9:3 (1989): 361, 364.
31 Steven C. Bullock, “Remapping Masonry: A Comment,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 33:2 (2000): 277.
32 Steven C. Bullock, “The Revolutionary Transformation of American Freemasonry, 1752–1792,” William and Mary Quarterly 47:3 (1990): 367–68.
33 Ibid., 351; Bullock, “Remapping Masonry,” 278.
34 Kathleen Smith Kutolowski, “Freemasonry and Community in the Early Republic: The Case for Antimasonic Anxieties,” American Quarterly 34:5 (1982): 547.
35 H. Paul Caemmerer, “The Sesquicentennial of the Laying of the Cornerstone of the United States Capitol by George Washington,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 44/45 (1942/1943): 177.
36 Ronald P. Formisano and Kathleen Smith Kutolowski, “Antimasonry and Masonry: The Genesis of Protest, 1826–1827,” American Quarterly 29:2 (1977): 142; Bullock, “Pure and Sublime System,” 359–60.
37 Formisano and Kutolowski, “Antimasonry and Masonry,” 160.
38 William Wirt, letter to the Anti-Masonic Convention, September 28, 1831.
39 William Wirt, letter to Judge Dabney Carr, January 12, 1832.
40 Watterston, New Guide to Washington, 112–13; Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 101, 133–34.
41 Klaus, “ ‘Some of the Smartest Folks Here,’ ” 33.
42 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 135.
43 Ibid., 64–65.
44 Vasquez, “Monuments, Markets, and Manners,” 173; Goode, Capital Losses, 329.
45 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 65–67.
46 Townsend, “Washington’s First Rich Man,” 234.
47 Clark, Greenleaf and Law, 221.
48 Ibid., 228.
49 Ibid., 236.
50 Twining, Travels in America, 109–10.
51 Clark, Greenleaf and Law, 245.
52 Townsend, “Washington’s First Rich Man,” 230–31.
53 Clark, Greenleaf and Law, 245.
54 Ibid., 256; Townsend, “Washington’s First Rich Man,” 226–27.
55 Clark, Thomas Law, 20.
56 Thomas Law, letter to President James Madison, November 26, 1814.
57 Clark, Greenleaf and Law, 315.
58 Ibid., 260.
59 Clark, Thomas Law, 11.
60 Ibid., 27.
61 Clark, Greenleaf and Law, 305.
62 Smith, Forty Years, 4.
63 Townsend, “Washington’s First Rich Man,” 236.
64 Clark, Greenleaf and Law, 287; Clark, Thomas Law, 26.
65 Townsend, “Washington’s First Rich Man,” 235; Twining, Travels in America, 110.
66 Hosford and Bagot, “Exile in Yankeeland,” 37.
67 Townsend, “Washington’s First Rich Man,” 241.
68 Scott, “ ‘This Vast Empire,’ ” 47.
69 Junior League of Washington, City of Washington, 188–89.
70 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:324.
71 Martineau, Retrospect of Western Travel, 314–15.
72 Vasquez, “Monuments, Markets, and Manners,” 251, 253.
73 The Journal of the House of Delegates of the Commonwealth of Virginia, 1831–1832 (Richmond: Thomas Ritchie, 1831): 163; Willie P. Mangum to Charity A. Mangum, February, 18, 1832, The Papers of Willie Person Mangum 1807–1832 (Raleigh: North Carolina State Deptartment of Archives and History, 1950): 486–87.
74 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:328–29.
75 Ibid., 245–46, 325.
76 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 172.
77 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 138.
78 Young, Washington Community, 71.
79 Carson, Ambitious Appetites, 138–41.
80 Young, Washington Community, 24.
81 Delano, Washington Directory, vii–xiv.
82 Young, Washington Community, 100–102.
83 Cable, Avenue of the Presidents, 56–57.
84 Smith, Forty Years, 192.
85 Young, Washington Community, 47.
86 Cable, Avenue of the Presidents, 54; Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 107.
87 Royall, Black Book, 126–27.
88 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 107.
89 Young, Washington Community, 73–74, 224–25.
90 Hutchins and Moore, National Capital, Past and Present, 59–60.
91 Young, Washington Community, 73.
92 Plumer, Life of William Plumer, 354.
93 Faux, Memorable Days in America, 153.
94 Young, Washington Community, 76–77.
95 Myers, “Pioneers,” 151-52
96 Young, Washington Community, 50.
97 Ibid.
98 David R. Goldfield, “Antebellum Washington in Context: The Pursuit of Prosperity and Identity,” in Gillette, Southern City, National Ambition, 8.
99 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 66.
100 Gillette, Introduction, Southern City, National Ambition, iv.
101 Constance McLaughlin Green, “The Jacksonian ‘Revolution’ in the District of Columbia,” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 45:4 (1959): 604–5.
102 Clark, Thomas Law, 12–13.
103 Clark, Greenleaf and Law, 286.
104 Ibid., 304, 307, 312, 313.
105 Wharton, Social Life in the Early Republic, 68.
106 Clark, Greenleaf and Law, 334.
Chapter 6: Coming to the Scratch
1 Twining, Travels in America, 91, 108.
2 Myra L. Spaulding, “Dueling in the District of Columbia,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 29/30 (1928): 126.
3 Roger Lane, “Criminal Violence in America: The First Hundred Years,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Crime and Justice in America: 1776–1976 423 (1976): 6.
4 Spaulding, “Dueling in the District of Columbia,” 125.
5 Force, Picture of Washington and Its Vicinity, 102.
6 Spaulding, “Dueling in the District of Columbia,” 156.
7 Ibid., 132–35.
8 Ibid., 140–41, 157.
9 Faux, Memorable Days in America, 125.
10 Spaulding, “Dueling in the District of Columbia,” 150.
11 Ibid., 160–61.
12 Ibid., 172–76.
13 Ibid., 172–77.
14 Jeffrey L. Pasley, “Minnows, Spies, and Aristocrats: The Social Crisis of Congress in the Age of Martin Van Buren,” Journal of the Early Republic 27:4 (2007): 629–30.
15 Hone, Diary of Philip Hone, 179.
16 Lane, “Criminal Violence in America,” 6.
17 David Grimsted, “Rioting in Its Jacksonian Setting,” American Historical Review 77:2 (1972): 367.
18 Smith, Forty Years, 295–96.
19 Grimsted, American Mobbing, 3–4.
20 Gilje, Rioting in America, 63.
21 Pasley, “Minnows, Spies, and Aristocrats,” 627.
22 Carl E. Prince, “The Great ‘Riot Year’: Jacksonian Democracy and Patterns of Violence in 1834,” Journal of the Early Republic 5:1 (1985): 18–19.
23 Grimsted, American Mobbing, 4; Prince, “Great ‘Riot Year,’ ” 19.
24 Grimsted, American Mobbing, 181–82.
25 Abraham Lincoln, “The Perpetuation of Our Political Institutions,” Address before the Young Men’s Lyceum, Springfield, IL, January 27, 1838.
26 Hezekiah Niles, editorial, Niles Weekly Register, September 5, 1835, 1.
27 John G. Sharp, Preface, The Diary of Michael Shiner Relating to the History of the Washington Navy Yard, 1813–1869, Library of Congress MSS 20.957.
28 Shiner, Diary of Michael Shiner, 31–33.
29 Ibid., 35, 52, 52.1.
30 Ibid., 60, 61–73.
31 Grimsted, “Rioting in Its Jacksonian Setting,” 365, 368.
32 Shiner, Diary of Michael Shiner, 26–27, 41–44, 66–70.
33 Donald Yacovone, “The Transformation of the Black Temperance Movement, 1827–1854: An Interpretation,” Journal of the Early Republic 8:3 (1988): 288–91.
34 Ibid., 294; Brown, Strain of Violence, 206–7.
35 Shiner, Diary of Michael Shiner, 74.
36 Wilhelmus Bogart Bryan, “Hotels of Washington Prior to 1814,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 7 (1904): 71–72.
37 Oliver W. Holmes, “The City Tavern: A Century of Georgetown History,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 50 (1980): 8–9.
38 Grimsted, American Mobbing, 186.
39 Poore, Reminiscences of Sixty Years, 52.
40 Delano, Washington Directory, 146; Goode, Capital Losses, 193, 196–97.
41 Rorabaugh, Alcoholic Republic, 7–8.
42 Lane, “Criminal Violence in America,” 12; Grimsted, American Mobbing, 97.
43 Greenberg, Cause for Alarm, 68.
44 Ibid.
45 Scott A. G. M. Crawford, “Blood Sport,” from Guide to United States Popular Culture, ed. Ray B. Browne and Pat Browne (Madison, WI: Popular Press, 2001): 99.
46 Smyth, Tour in the United States of America, 67.
47 Poore, Reminiscences of Sixty Years, 191–92.
48 E. Lee Shepard, “ ‘This Being Court Day’: Courthouses and Community Life in Rural Virginia,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 103:4 (1995): 465.
49 William L. Ellis, “Home Rule in Action: Georgetown, 1789 to 1871,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 66/68 (1966/1968): 53.
50 Hines, Early Recollections, 70–72.
51 Timony, American Fistiana, 3–4.
52 Ibid., 22–25.
53 Ibid., 25–27.
54 Sharp, “Metropolitan Police Department.”
55 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 160; Alfers, Law and Order, 13.
56 Sharp, “Metropolitan Police Department.”
57 Alfers, Law and Order, 13.
58 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 29.
59 Alfers, Law and Order in the Capital City, 16.
60 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 29.
61 Michael A. Bellesiles, “The Origins of Gun Culture in the United States, 1760–1865,” Journal of American History 83:2 (1996): 441.
62 Alfers, Law and Order in the Capital City, 18.
63 James Croggan, “Christmas in 1849; Day Celebrated in Washington with Much Noise, Drinkables in Plenty,” Evening Star, December 25, 1909.
64 James Croggan, “Christmas Long Ago; How Washington Celebrated Before the Civil War; Riotous Day for Youth; Noise Continued from Dawn Until Late at Night,” Evening Star, December 25, 1908.
65 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:147.
66 Cable, Avenue of the Presidents, 71.
67 Shiner, Diary of Michael Shiner, 57.
68 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:148.
69 Grimsted, American Mobbing, 267.
70 Pasley, “Minnows, Spies, and Aristocrats,” 628–29, 647.
71 F. Regis Noel, “Some Notable Suits in Early District Courts,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 24 (1922): 69–70.
72 Spaulding, “Dueling in the District of Columbia,” 186–93.
73 Pasley, “Minnows, Spies, and Aristocrats,” 649.
74 Spaulding, “Dueling in the District of Columbia,” 193–98.
75 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 94.
76 District of Columbia Fire Department, “History of the D.C. Fire Department: The Volunteers,” accessed at www.dcfire.com/custom.html?id=173.
77 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 160.
78 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:276–77.
79 Busey, Pictures of the City, 222.
80 Sharp, “District of Columbia Volunteer Fire Companies.”
81 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:278.
82 National Intelligencer, September 25, 1844.
83 National Intelligencer, November 11, 1839.
84 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:277.
85 National Intelligencer, March 20, 1850.
86 David R. Goldfield, “Antebellum Washington in Context: The Pursuit of Prosperity and Identity,” in Gillette, Southern City, National Ambition, 16.
87 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:277.
88 Washington Topham, “Centre Market and Vicinity,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 26 (1924): 44.
89 Capitol Fire Museum, Firefighting in Washington, D.C., 14; Goldfield, “Antebellum Washington,” 17.
90 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:403–4, 427.
91 Grimsted, American Mobbing, 238.
92 Gilje, Rioting in America, 69.
93 Paul Gilje, “The Baltimore Riots of 1812 and the Breakdown of the Anglo-American Mob Tradition,” Journal of Social History 13:4 (1980): 556.
94 Greenberg, Cause for Alarm, 86.
95 Fields, Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground, 46.
96 Benjamin Tuska, “Know-Nothingism in Baltimore 1854–1860,” Catholic Historical Review 11:2 (1925): 239.
97 Star, June 3, 1857, quoted in Barry, “The Know Nothing Party,” 34.
98 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 16.
99 Shiner, Diary of Michael Shiner, 156.
100 Star, June 1, 1857, quoted in Barry, “The Know Nothing Party,” 32–33.
101 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 17.
102 Shiner, Diary of Michael Shiner, 156.
103 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 17.
104 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:430; A.G. Brown, Report of the Senate Committee on the District of Columbia, US Senate, 35th Congress, First Session, reprinted in Congressional Globe, April 5, 1860, 1460.
105 Brown, Report of the Senate Committee on the District of Columbia, 1460.
106 Preston S. Brooks, letter to J. H. Brooks, May 23, 1856.
107 Allan L. Damon, “Filibuster,” American Heritage 27:1 (1975): 4.
108 Sharp, Diary of Michael Shiner.
Chapter 7: Illicit Congress
1 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 260–61; Elizabeth Barthold O’Brien, “Illicit Congress in the Nation’s Capital: The History of Mary Ann Hall’s Brothel,” Historical Archaeology 39:1 (2005): 47–58.
2 Donna J. Seifert, “Within Sight of the White House: The Archaeology of Working Women,” Historical Archaeology 25:4 (1991): 87, 88.
3 Ellis, Sights and Secrets of the National Capital, 445–46.
4 “Biography—Mary Ann Hall, 19th Century Entrepreneur, ”Smithsonian Associates, Civil War E-Mail Newsletter 4:1 (2005), accessed at http://civilwarstudies.org/articles/Vol_4/mary-ann-hall.shtm; O’Brien, “Illicit Congress,” 48.
5 Elizabeth J. Himelfarb, “Capitol Sex,” Archaeology 52 (July/August 1999): 18.
6 O’Brien, “Illicit Congress,” 55.
7 Donna J. Seifert and Joseph Balicki, “Mary Ann Hall’s House,” Historical Archaeology 39:1 (2005): 65.
8 Ibid., 66–71; Smithsonian Institution, “Madam on the Mall” (Washington, DC, 2005), accessed at www.si.edu/oahp/madam.
9 O’Brien, “Illicit Congress,” 49.
10 Buel, Mysteries and Miseries, 167, 176, 180.
11 Townsend, Washington, Outside and Inside, 457.
12 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 261.
13 Ibid., 264.
14 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 251.
15 Ibid.
16 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 264.
17 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 69.
18 Neil L. Shumsky, “Tacit Acceptance: Respectable Americans and Segregated Prostitution, 1870–1910,” Journal of Social History 19:4 (Summer 1986): 666.
19 Seifert, “Within Sight of the White House,” 82.
20 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 263–64.
21 Lowry, Thomas P., Sexual Misbehavior in the Civil War: A Compendium (Bloomington, IN: Xlibris, 2005), 98.
22 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 260–61.
23 Ibid., 265.
24 Ibid., 121.
25 Ibid.; Policemen’s Association News, September 1861, quoted in Alfers, Law and Order, 26.
26 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 262–63.
27 O’Brien, “Illicit Congress,” 50, 52.
28 Ibid., 52.
29 Charles D. Cheek and Amy Friedlander, “Pottery and Pig’s Feet: Space, Ethnicity and Neighborhood in Washington, D.C.: 1880–1940,” Historical Archaeology 24:1 (1994): 34.
30 De Gaffenreid, Typical Alley Houses, 10–11.
31 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 363.
32 Borchert, Alley Life in Washington, 19, 23–24.
33 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 255.
34 Garnett P. Williams, “Washington D.C.’s Vanishing Springs and Waterways,” in Moore and Jackson, Geology, Hydrology and History, 87–88.
35 Porter, “Life and Times,” 154; “The Washington Canal—Report to Major Generals Gilmore, Warren and Tower,” Sen. Ex. Doc. 35, US Senate, 39th Congress, First Session, 1866, quoted in National Republican, April 7, 1866.
36 Seifert, “Within Sight of the White House,” 83; Shumsky, “Tacit Acceptance,” 666.
37 Rosen, Lost Sisterhood, 98–99.
38 Donna J. Seifert, “Mrs. Starr’s Profession,” in Scott, Those of Little Note, 161–62; Advertisement, Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, November 27, 1913, 2.
39 Rosen, Lost Sisterhood, 147–48.
40 Sanger, History of Prostitution, 640–642.
41 O’Brien, “Illicit Congress,” 54.
42 Ibid., 55.
Chapter 8: Seeing the Elephant
1 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 56.
2 James H. Whyte, “Divided Loyalties in Washington During the Civil War,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 60/62 (1960/1962): 104.
3 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 231.
4 Benjamin Franklin Cooling, “Civil War Defenses During the Civil War,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 71/72 (1971/1972): 316–17; Ed Hendrickson, “Defending Washington: The District of Columbia Militia,” Washington History 23 (2011): 38.
5 Cooling, “Civil War Defenses,” 317.
6 Hendrickson, “Defending Washington,” 39; Whyte, “Divided Loyalties,” 105.
7 Miller, Second Only to Grant, 75–76.
8 Cooling, “Civil War Defenses,” 317.
9 Whyte, “Divided Loyalties,” 106.
10 Cooling, “Civil War Defenses,” 318; Leech, Reveille in Washington, 55–65.
11 Whyte, “Divided Loyalties,” 108.
12 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 143, 145.
13 Whyte, “Divided Loyalties,” 120.
14 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 248.
15 Whyte, “Divided Loyalties,” 120.
16 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 287.
17 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 134–35.
18 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 250–52.
19 Goode, Capital Losses, 329–30.
20 Curtis Carroll Davis, “The ‘Old Capitol’ and Its Keeper: How William P. Wood Ran a Civil War Prison,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 52 (1989): 207, 211–12.
21 Lomax, Old Capitol and Its Inmates, 66–67.
22 Davis, “ ‘Old Capitol’ and Its Keeper,” 219–22.
23 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 266, 408.
24 Ibid., 143–45.
25 Whyte, “Divided Loyalties,” 119.
26 Donal E. J. MacNamara, “American Police Administration at Mid-Century,” Public Administration Review 10:3 (Summer 1950): 181.
27 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 36–37, 42.
28 Donald E. Press, “From Murder Bay to the Federal Triangle,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society 51 (1984): 57; Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 21, 264.
29 Report of the Board of Metropolitan Police, House Ex. Doc. 1, 37th Congress, 2nd Session (1861), US Serial Set 1157: 649; Alfers, Law and Order, 27.
30 Alfers, Law and Order, 27.
31 Report of the Board of Metropolitan Police, 649.
32 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 36, 49; Report of the Board of Metropolitan Police, 651–52.
33 “Seven of the Finest, They Have Seen Nearly Thirty Years’ Service; Origin of the Police Force,” Evening Star, March 8, 1890.
34 Robert Hill, “Eighty-Four Years of Washington Life by a Man Who Has Seen Them All,” Washington Post, August 19, 1917.
35 Ibid.
36 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 243.
37 Report of the Board of Metropolitan Police, 655; Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 251.
38 Report of the Board of Metropolitan Police, 658.
39 Alfers, Law and Order, 24.
40 Report of the Board of Metropolitan Police, 660.
41 Hill, “Eighty-Four Years of Washington Life.”
42 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 247.
43 “Old Coppers’ Stories; Two Original Members of the Force Tell Some Good Tales; Lively Times in the Sixties,” Washington Post, October 7, 1895.
44 Alfers, Law and Order, 25–26.
45 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 245.
46 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 77.
47 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2: 496–97.
48 Michael A. Cooke, “The Health of the Union Military in the District of Columbia, 1861–1865,” Military Affairs 48:4 (1984): 195.
49 James M. Goode, “Civil War Washington: Rare Images from the Albert H. Small Collection,” Washington History 15:1 (2003): 74.
50 Cooke, “Health of the Union Military,” 195; Leech, Reveille in Washington, 71.
51 Cooke, “Health of the Union Military,” 195.
52 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 209.
53 Marilyn Mayer Culpepper and Pauline Gordon Adams, “Nursing in the Civil War,” American Journal of Nursing 88:7 (1988): 983.
54 Wheelock, Boys in White, 37.
55 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 261.
56 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 205–6; Culpepper and Adams, “Nursing in the Civil War,” 983.
57 Culpepper and Adams, “Nursing in the Civil War,” 983; Wheelock, Boys in White, 201.
58 Martin G. Murray, “Traveling with the Wounded: Walt Whitman and Washington’s Civil War Hospitals,” Washington History 8:2 (1996/1997): 66.
59 Culpepper and Adams, “Nursing in the Civil War,” 983.
60 Wheelock, Boys in White, 208; Ropes, Civil War Nurse, 116.
61 Cooke, “Health of the Union Military,” 196–98.
62 Bray, Armies of Pestilence, 191.
63 Newby, Anderson Ruffin Abbott, 52.
64 Murray, “Traveling with the Wounded,” 64; Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 261.
65 Culpepper and Adams, “Nursing in the Civil War,” 982.
66 Jane E. Schultz, “The Inhospitable Hospital: Gender and Professionalism in Civil War Medicine,” Signs 17:2 (1992): 369–70.
67 Ibid., 370.
68 Culpepper and Adams, “Nursing in the Civil War,” 982, 984.
69 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 209.
70 John R. Brumgardt, “Introduction: Mother, Author, Antislavery Reformer,” in Ropes, Civil War Nurse, 32.
71 Culpepper and Adams, “Nursing in the Civil War,” 982.
72 Cooke, “Health of the Union Military,” 196; Ropes, Civil War Nurse, 102, 105; G. C. Caldwell, “The Hospitals of Washington,” from United States Sanitary Commission Bulletin (New York: 1866): 243.
73 Donald H. Mugridge, “The United States Sanitary Commission in Washington,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 60/62 (1960/1962): 144; J. Foster Jenkins, “Report of Special Relief Department: Washington, D.C.,” from United States Sanitary Commission Bulletin (New York: 1866): 19.
74 “Notes on Nursing,” United States Sanitary Commission Bulletin (New York: 1866): 217–18.
75 Goode, Capital Losses, 351.
76 Murray, “Traveling with the Wounded,” 65–66, 67.
77 Stearns, Lady Nurse of Ward E, 7–8, 86, 101.
78 Ibid., 52–53, 88, 150, 161.
79 Murray, “Traveling with the Wounded,” 67.
80 Stearns, Lady Nurse of Ward E, 56–57.
81 Ibid., 60.
82 Wheelock, Boys in White, 39.
83 Ropes, Civil War Nurse, 89–90; Brumgardt, “Introduction: Mother, Author, Antislavery Reformer,” 41.
84 Brumgardt, “Introduction: Mother, Author, Antislavery Reformer,” 40.
85 Alcott, Hospital Sketches, 34, 72.
86 Brumgardt, “Introduction: Mother, Author, Antislavery Reformer,” 12.
87 Ropes, Six Months in Kansas, 111, 116, 117.
88 Ropes, Civil War Nurse, 50.
89 Brumgardt, “Introduction: Mother, Author, Antislavery Reformer,” 29–33.
90 Ropes, Civil War Nurse, 69.
91 Brumgardt, “Introduction: Mother, Author, Antislavery Reformer,” 45.
92 Culpepper and Adams, “Nursing in the Civil War,” 984.
93 Schultz, “Inhospitable Hospital,” 384, 385.
94 Ropes, Civil War Nurse, 84.
95 Ibid., 84–85, 87.
96 Schultz, “Inhospitable Hospital,” 382–83, 389.
97 Culpepper and Adams, “Nursing in the Civil War,” 982.
98 Elden E. Billings, “Social and Economic Conditions in Washington During the Civil War,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 63/65 (1963/1965): 196–97.
99 Barbara Welter, “The True Cult of Womanhood, 1820–1860,” American Quarterly 18:2 (1966): 174.
100 Ropes, Civil War Nurse, 115.
101 Ibid., 119.
102 Ibid., 121–22.
103 Ropes, Civil War Nurse, 114–15.
104 Joseph P. Reidy, “Coming from the Shadow of the Past: The Transition from Slavery to Freedom at Freedmen’s Village, 1863–1900,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 95:4 (1987): 404.
105 Eric Wills, “The Contraband of America and the Road to Freedom,” Preservation: The Magazine of the National Trust for Historic Preservation (May/June 2011): accessed at www.preservationnation.org/magazine/2011/may-june/the-forgotten.html.
106 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 273, 277.
107 Damani Davis, “Slavery and Emancipation in the Nation’s Capital: Using Federal Records to Explore the Lives of African American Ancestors,” Prologue Magazine, National Archives 42:1 (2011): accessed at www.archives.gov/publications/ prologue/2010/spring/dcslavery.html.
108 Mary Mitchell, “I Held George Washington’s Horse: Compensated Emancipation in the District of Columbia,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 63/65 (1963/1965): 221, 222, 225–26.
109 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 274.
110 Wills, “Contraband of America.”
111 Reidy, “Coming from the Shadow of the Past,” 408–9.
112 Rebecca K. Sharp, “ ‘Their Bedding Is Wet, Their Floors Are Damp’: ‘Pre-Bureau’ Records and Civil War African American Genealogy,” Prologue Magazine, National Archives 39:2 (2007): accessed at www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2007/summer/pre-bureau.html.
113 Reidy, “Coming from the Shadow of the Past,” 407.
114 Holt, Smith-Parker, and Terborg-Penn, Special Mission, 2–3.
115 Press, “From Murder Bay to the Federal Triangle,” 58.
116 US Congress, Senate, Sen. Morrill introduction of Superintendent Report, Office of Metropolitan Police, 39th Congress, 1st Session, March 20, 1866, Congressional Globe, 1508.
117 Harper’s Weekly, May 7, 1864; Reidy, “Coming from the Shadow of the Past,” 409–11.
118 Reidy, “Coming from the Shadow of the Past,” 413–14.
119 US Congress, Senate, Report of the Bureau of the Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, S. Ex. Doc. 6, 39th Congress, 2nd Session, October 22, 1866, p.36; Robert M. Poole, “How Arlington Cemetery Came to Be,” Smithsonian (November 2009): 1, accessed at www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/The-Battle-of-Arlington.html.
120 Reidy, “Coming from the Shadow of the Past,” 411.
121 Newby, Anderson Ruffin Abbott, 62–65.
122 M. Elizabeth Carnegie, “Black Nurses at the Front,” American Journal of Nursing 84:10 (1984): 1251.
123 Newby, Anderson Ruffin Abbott, 60–65, 83–84.
124 Ibid., 80–81.
125 Ibid., 81; Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:531.
126 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:512–13.
127 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 280–82.
128 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 250–52.
129 US Congress, Senate, Report of the Bureau of the Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, S. Ex. Doc. 6, 39th Congress, 2nd Session, October 22, 1866,34–35.
130 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 251.
131 Newby, Anderson Ruffin Abbott, 53; Leech, Reveille in Washington, 253–54.
132 Green, Secret City, 88.
133 Sherrod E. East, “Montgomery C. Meigs and the Quartermaster Department,” Military Affairs 25:4 (Winter 1961–1962): 194.
134 Wills, “Contraband of America.”
135 Miller, Second Only to Grant, 264; East, “Montgomery C. Meigs,” 195.
136 Cynthia R. Field, “A Rich Repast of Classicism: Meigs and Classical Sources,” pp. 73–75, and Barbara A. Wolanin, “Meigs the Art Patron,” pp. 138–143, in Dickinson, Montgomery C. Meigs and the Building of the Nation’s Capital.
137 Dean A. Herrin, “The Eclectic Engineer: Montgomery C. Meigs and His Engineering Projects,” in Dickinson, Montgomery C. Meigs and the Building of the Nation’s Capital, 13.
138 Miller, Second Only to Grant, 20; Harry C. Ways, “Montgomery C. Meigs and the Washington Aqueduct,” in Dickinson, Montgomery C. Meigs and the Building of the Nation’s Capital, 22–23.
139 Miller, Second Only to Grant, 20.
140 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:306.
141 Miller, Second Only to Grant, 72–74.
142 East, “Montgomery C. Meigs and the Quartermaster Department,” 187–90.
143 Cooling, “Civil War Defenses,” 324–25.
144 Goode, “Civil War Washington,” 64.
145 Miller, Second Only to Grant, 18–19, 239.
146 Poole, “How Arlington Cemetery Came to Be,” 2.
147 Ibid., 3.
148 Miller, Second Only to Grant, 259–60.
149 Poole, “How Arlington Cemetery Came to Be,” 3.
Chapter 9: Suspicious Characters
1 “Rival to Boom Towns; Washington Has Had Its Wild and Woolly Days,” Washington Post, September 7, 1902.
2 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 53–54.
3 “Rival to Boom Towns; Washington Has Had Its Wild and Woolly Days,” Washington Post, September 7, 1902.
4 Ibid.
5 Alfers, Law and Order, 35–37.
6 William G. Brock, Report of the Major and Superintendent of Police of the District of Columbia: The Year Ending June 30, 1880 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1881): 3.
7 “Rival to Boom Towns; Washington Has Had Its Wild and Woolly Days,” Washington Post, September 7, 1902.
8 The Evening Union, July 3, 1863, quoted in John G. Sharp, “The Metropolitan Police Department, District of Columbia: Law, Crime and Policing in the District, 1790–1900,” Washington D.C. Genealogy Trails (April 2, 2010), accessed at www.genealogytrails.com/washdc/lawsprisons/historyofpolicedept.html.
9 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 252, 363.
10 Alfers, Law and Order, 27.
11 Leech, Reveille in Washington, 262.
12 David K. Sullivan, “Behind Prison Walls: The Operation of the District Penitentiary, 1831–1862,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 71/72 (1971/1972): 262.
13 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 253; Sullivan, “Behind Prison Walls,” 266.
14 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 62, 67–69.
15 Brock, Report of the Major and Superintendent of Police, 14.
16 Byrnes, Professional Criminals of America, 1–2, 8, 12, 22, 30, 40, 44, 47–49.
17 David R. Johnson, “The Origins and Structure of Intercity Criminal Activity, 1840–1920: An Interpretation,” Journal of Social History 15:4 (Summer 1982): 595.
18 Alfers, Law and Order, 38–39.
19 Moore, Report of the Major and Superintendent of Police, 8.
20 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 237.
21 Ibid., 228–31
22 Collection of Lt. Nicholas Bruel, Historian of the Metropolitan Police, Washington, DC, interview on June 26, 2012.
23 Donald E. Press, “From Murder Bay to the Federal Triangle,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society 51 (1984): 51, 55, 62.
24 Washington Post, July 8, 1888.
25 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 363.
26 “Rival to Boom Towns; Washington Has Had Its Wild and Woolly Days,” Washington Post, September 7, 1902.
27 Washington Post, February 4, 1900.
28 Arrest Books, 1869–1906 (August 14–September 16, 1874); Law Enforcement Records, Metropolitan Police; Records of the Government of the District of Columbia, RG 351, National Archives and Records Administration.
29 Ibid.
30 Identification Books, 1883–90; Law Enforcement Records, Metropolitan Police; Records of the Government of the District of Columbia, Vols. 1–2, RG 351, National Archives and Records Administration.
31 Ibid.
32 Report of the Board of Metropolitan Police, House Ex. Doc. 1, 37th Congress, 2nd Session (1861), US Serial Set 1157: 659; Moore, Report of the Major and Superintendent of Police, 8.
33 Alfers, Law and Order, 33.
34 Sylvester, District of Columbia Police, 213.
35 Ibid., 216; Alfers, Law and Order, 34.
36 Borchert, Alley Life in Washington, 7, 26.
37 Alfers, Law and Order, 35.
38 Cecily Hilleary, “Noah E. Sedgwick: A Black Cop in D.C.’s Gilded Age,” pt. 1, from Quondam Washington: A Compendium of Tales from Forgotten City Archives; accessed at http://quondamdc.wordpress.com.
Chapter 10: The Fall of Washington City
1 James H. Whyte, “The District of Columbia Territorial Government, 1871–1874,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 51/52 (1951/1952): 87–88; Washington Topham, “Centre Market and Vicinity,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 26 (1924): 69–70; William van Zandt Cox, “Matthew Gault Emery, The Last Mayor of Washington, 1870–1871,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 20 (1917): 41–42.
2 Cox, “Matthew Gault Emery,” 41–42.
3 Ibid., 43.
4 Whyte, “District of Columbia Territorial Government,” 88–89.
5 Brian D. Crane, “Filth, Garbage, and Rubbish: Refuse Disposal, Sanitary Reform, and Nineteenth-Century Yard Deposits in Washington, D.C.,” Historical Archaeology 34:1 (2000): 22.
6 Michael A. Cook, “Physical Environment and Sanitation in the District of Columbia, 1860–1868,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 52 (1989): 295–98.
7 Crane, “Filth, Garbage, and Rubbish,” 31; Cook, “Physical Environment and Sanitation,” 299.
8 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 2.
9 Kenneth R. Bowling, “From ‘Federal Town’ to ‘National Capital’: Ulysses S. Grant and the Reconstruction of Washington, D.C.,” Washington History 14:1 (2002): 15.
10 Ibid., 9, 15–16.
11 Carl Abbott, “Dimensions of Regional Change in Washington, D.C.,” American Historical Review 95:5 (1990): 1375–76.
12 Whyte, Uncivil War, 17.
13 John Nolen Jr., “Some Aspects of Washington’s Nineteenth Century Economic Development,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 49 (1973/1974): 528–29.
14 Whyte, Uncivil War, 181–82.
15 Dahlgren, Etiquette of Social Life, 18–26.
16 Whyte, Uncivil War, 182.
17 Twain and Warner, Gilded Age, 254–55.
18 William M. Maury, “Alexander Shepherd and the Board of Public Works,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 71/72 (1971/1972): 394.
19 Ibid., 396, 399.
20 Ibid., 399.
21 Whyte, Uncivil War, 92.
22 Scott, Capital Engineers, 71.
23 Pamela Scott, “Montgomery C. Meigs and Victorian Art Traditions,” p. 62, and Cynthia R. Field, “A Rich Repast of Classicism: Meigs and Classical Sources,” p. 75, in Dickinson, Montgomery C. Meigs and the Building of the Nation’s Capital.
24 Montgomery C. Meigs, Letter to Brig. Gen. Nathaniel Michler (July 27, 1867), in Annual Report of Nathaniel Michler, Office of Public Buildings, Grounds, and Works, Capitol of the United States, Appendix T, Report of the Secretary of War (1867): 544–48.
25 Scott, Capital Engineers, 112–13.
26 In Memory of Nathaniel Michler, Funeral Program (Washington, DC, 1881): 8–10.
27 Ellen Robinson Epstein, “The East and West Wings of the White House,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 48 (1971/1972): 598.
28 William D. Wise, Letter to the Board of Aldermen and the Board of Common Council, January 23, 1864.
29 Nathaniel Michler, Report in Relation to Public Park and Site of Presidential Mansion (January 29, 1867), in Annual Report of Nathaniel Michler, 535–38.
30 Epstein, “East and West Wings of the White House,” 599.
31 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 81.
32 Nathaniel Michler, Report in Relation to Public Park and Site of Presidential Mansion (January 29, 1867), in Annual Report of Nathaniel Michler, 532.
33 Nathaniel Michler, Annual Report of Nathaniel Michler, 523–25.
34 National Park Service, Historic American Buildings Survey: Market Square (Washington, DC: Department of the Interior, 1969): 3–4.
35 Nathaniel Michler, Annual Report of Nathaniel Michler, 525–26.
36 Gordon Chappell, Historic Resource Study: East and West Potomac Parks, A History (Denver, CO: US Department of Interior, 1973), 11–17.
37 Warden, Chorographical and Statistical Description, 18.
38 Cox, “Matthew Gault Emery,” 41.
39 Robert Harrison, “Welfare and Employment Policies of the Freedmen’s Bureau in the District of Columbia,” Journal of Southern History 72:1 (2006): 75–76.
40 Nolen, “Some Aspects,” 528–29; Frances J. Powell, “A Statistical Profile of the Black Family in Washington, D.C., 1850–1880,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C., 52 (1989): 278–79.
41 Powell, “Statistical Profile of the Black Family,” 277.
42 Whyte, Uncivil War, 251–52.
43 Edward Tang, “Rebirth of a Nation: Frederick Douglass as Postwar Founder in ‘Life and Times,’ ” Journal of American Studies 39:1 (2005): 33–34.
44 Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, 352.
45 Whyte, Uncivil War, 258–62.
46 Harrison, “Welfare and Employment Policies,” 80–83, 86–87; Plummer, “History of Public Health,” 154.
47 Robert C. Lieberman, “The Freedmen’s Bureau and the Politics of Institutional Structure,” Social Science History 18:3 (1994): 427.
48 Whyte, Uncivil War, 54–57.
49 Whyte, “District of Columbia Territorial Government,” 89–90.
50 Thomas R. Johnson, “Reconstruction Politics in Washington: ‘An Experimental Garden for Radical Plants,’ ” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 50 (1980): 181.
51 Melvin R. Williams, “A Blueprint for Change: The Black Community in Washington, D.C., 1860–1870,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 71/72 (1971/1972): 380–82.
52 Ibid., 381.
53 Whyte, Uncivil War, 62–63.
54 Johnson, “Reconstruction Politics in Washington,” 180.
55 Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, 333.
56 Whyte, Uncivil War, 67–68.
57 Ibid., 68–69.
58 Johnson, “Reconstruction Politics in Washington,” 82–83; Williams, “Blueprint for Change,” 383; Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 3.
59 Whyte, Uncivil War, 74–75.
60 Ibid., 71–73; Cox, “Matthew Gault Emery,” 26.
61 Williams, “Blueprint for Change,” 384–87.
62 Ames, Ten Years in Washington, 77–78.
63 John Richardson, “Alexander Shepherd and the Race Issue in Washington,” Washington History 22 (2010): 25.
64 Washington Star, January 16, 1868, quoted in Richardson, “Alexander Shepherd and the Race Issue in Washington,” 25.
65 Whyte, “District of Columbia Territorial Government,” 91.
66 Maury, “Alexander Shepherd and the Board of Public Works,” 397–98.
67 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 4.
68 Ibid.
69 Cox, “Matthew Gault Emery,” 43.
70 Tindall, Standard History of the City of Washington, 247.
Chapter 11: A Gilded Cage
1 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 6–7.
2 James H. Whyte, “The District of Columbia Territorial Government, 1871–1874,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 51/52 (1951/1952): 94.
3 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd , 6.
4 Evening Star, August 7, 1871, quoted in Whyte, Uncivil War, 119.
5 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 9, 10.
6 Whyte, Uncivil War, 125–26.
7 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 30.
8 John Richardson, “Alexander Shepherd and the Race Issue in Washington,” Washington History 22 (2010): 17–18.
9 Ibid., 22–23.
10 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 29.
11 Merline Pitre, “Frederick Douglass: The Politician vs. the Social Reformer,” Phylon 40:3 (1979): 270–71.
12 Richardson, “Alexander Shepherd and the Race Issue in Washington,” 30–31.
13 Whyte, Uncivil War, 243–46.
14 Ibid., 114–15.
15 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 247, 249; Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 34.
16 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 30.
17 Noreen, Public Street Illumination, 14–15.
18 William M. Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd and the Board of Public Works (Washington, DC: George Washington University, 1975): 30.
19 Ibid., 30–31.
20 Ibid., 43.
21 Brian D. Crane, “Filth, Garbage, and Rubbish: Refuse Disposal, Sanitary Reform, and Nineteenth-Century Yard Deposits in Washington, D.C.,” Historical Archaeology 34:1 (2000): 22.
22 Cluss & Kammerhueber Engineering, “Report on the Present State, and the Improvement of the Washington City Canal,” (Washington City: May 12, 1865): 8–10.
23 Col. Silas Seymour, letter to Richard Wallach (April 26, 1864), in “Report on the Present State, and the Improvement of the Washington City Canal,” (Washington City: May 12, 1865): 46.
24 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 30–31.
25 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 86.
26 Scott, Capital Engineers, 81.
27 Cowdrey, City for the Nation, 26; Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 86–87.
28 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 86–87; Scott, Capital Engineers, 77.
29 Cowdrey, City for the Nation, 26.
30 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 86–87.
31 Scott, Capital Engineers, 75.
32 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 20.
33 Ibid., 21, 37.
34 Whyte, Uncivil War, 147–48; Whyte, “District of Columbia Territorial Government,” 41.
35 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 352; Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 41–42.
36 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 42.
37 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 354.
38 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 51.
39 Plummer, “History of Public Health,” 143, 161–66.
40 Whyte, “District of Columbia Territorial Government,” 99.
41 Ames, Ten Years in Washington, 78, 81.
42 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 46.
43 Whyte, Uncivil War, 128.
44 Barton, Historical and Commercial Sketches, 29–30.
45 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 35–36.
46 Ibid., 39–40.
47 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 350.
48 Whyte, “District of Columbia Territorial Government,” 97.
49 Ibid., 98–99; Whyte, Uncivil War, 163–64.
50 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 42.
51 Whyte, Uncivil War, 143–44.
52 Melissa McLoud, “Craftsmen and Entrepreneurs: Builders of the Red Brick City, 1880–1900,” in Longstreth, Housing Washington, 26.
53 Whyte, Uncivil War, 146–47.
54 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 355.
55 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:619; Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 355.
56 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 86; Whyte, Uncivil War, 147.
57 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 51.
58 Whyte, Uncivil War, 168–69.
59 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 358; Whyte, “District of Columbia Territorial Government,” 99.
60 Whyte, Uncivil War, 159.
61 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 359.
62 Whyte, “District of Columbia Territorial Government,” 100.
63 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 360.
64 Tindall, Standard History of the City of Washington, 268.
65 Richardson, “Alexander Shepherd and the Race Issue in Washington,” 30.
66 Whyte, Uncivil War, 257; Richardson, “Alexander Shepherd and the Race Issue in Washington,” 30.
67 Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, 357.
68 Sen. Allan Thurman, Debate on the Morrill Bill, US Senate, 43rd Congress, Second Session, Congressional Record, December 17, 1874: 128.
69 Sen. Thomas Bayard, Debate on the Morrill Bill, US Senate, 43rd Congress, Second Session, Congressional Record, December 17, 1874: 126.
70 National Republican, November 17, 1874.
71 Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 361.
72 Sen. Oliver Morton, Debate on the Morrill Bill, US Senate, 43rd Congress, Second Session, Congressional Record, December 17, 1874: 120.
73 William M. Maury, “Alexander Shepherd and the Board of Public Works,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 71/72 (1971/1972): 406.
74 Tindall, Standard History of the City of Washington, 271.
75 Moore, Picturesque Washington, 52; Scott, Capital Engineers, 114.
76 Maury, Alexander “Boss” Shepherd, 50, 51.
77 Scott, Capital Engineers, 114.
78 Poore, Reminiscences of Sixty Years, 313–14.
79 Scott, Capital Engineers, 81.
80 Tindall, Standard History of the City of Washington, 278.
81 Ibid., 277; Scott, Capital Engineers, 114–15.
82 Alan Lessoff, “Review of Montgomery C. Meigs and the Building of the Nation’s Capital,” by William C. Dickinson et al., in Washington History 15:1 (2003): 89.
83 Cowdrey, City for the Nation, 27–29.
84 Scott, Capital Engineers, 116.
85 Bryan, History of the National Capital, 2:641.
Epilogue: The Sea of Pavement
1 Goode, Capital Losses, 375.
2 Donald E. Press, “From Murder Bay to the Federal Triangle,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 51 (1984): 68.
3 Ibid., 66.
4 Highsmith and Landphair, Pennsylvania Avenue, 107.
5 Carl Abbott, “Dimensions of Regional Change in Washington, D.C.,” American Historical Review 95:5 (1990): 1378–79.
6 Green, Secret City, 200.
7 Abbott, “Dimensions of Regional Change,” 1383.
8 Donald Roe, “The Dual School System in the District of Columbia,” Washington History 16:2 (2004/2005): 31.
9 Green, Secret City, 214.
10 David F. Krugler, “A Mob in Uniform: Soldiers and Civilians in Washington’s Red Summer, 1919,” Washington History 21 (2009): 58–59, 62.
11 Steven Mintz, “A Historical Ethnography of Black Washington, D.C.,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 52 (1989): 239–40.
12 Press, “From Murder Bay to the Federal Triangle,” 69.
13 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 172.
14 Highsmith and Landphair, Pennsylvania Avenue, 107.
15 Green, Washington: Capital City, 291.
16 Highsmith and Landphair, Pennsylvania Avenue, 108.
17 Goode, Capital Losses, 299, 303, 317, 404.
18 Helen Tangires, “The Life and Death of Center Market,” Washington History 7:1 (1995): 47, 67.
19 Gutheim, Worthy of the Nation, 175.
20 Green, Washington: Capital City, 503.
21 Gutheim, Federal City, 43; National Park Service, Historic American Buildings Survey: Market Square (Washington, DC: Department of the Interior, 1969): 6–7.