Notes

Introduction

1 Walid Jumblatt repeated Hariri’s remarks to a journalist from the New York Times, “Behind Lebanon Upheaval, 2 Men’s Fateful Clash,” March 20, 2005.

2 Samir Kassir, Being Arab (London: Verso, 2006), from the author’s introduction.

3 Thomas Philipp and Moshe Perlmann, eds., ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 3 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994), p. 7.

4 Reproduced in Robert Fisk, The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East (London: Fourth Estate, 2005), p. 172.

5 Abd al-Razzaq al-Hasani, al-’Iraq fi dawray al-ihtilal wa’l-intidab, vol. 1 [Iraq in the occupation and the mandate eras] (Sidon: Al-Irfan, 1935), pp. 117–118.

6 Kassir, Being Arab, p. 4.

Chapter 1

1 The death of the Prophet Muhammad gave rise to one of the earliest splits in Islam as his followers disagreed over how to choose his successor, or caliph, to head the Muslim community. One group of Muslims argued for succession within the family of the Prophet and championed the candidacy of Ali ibn Abu Talib, who, as first cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, was his closest relative. This faction came to be known in Arabic as Shi‘at ’Ali, or “the Party of Ali,” from which the word Shiite is derived. The majority of Muslims, however, argued that the caliph should be the most pious Muslim best able to uphold the sunna, or practices and beliefs of the Prophet Muhammad; these came to be known as the Sunnis. For most of Islamic history, the Sunnis have been the dominant majority of the community of believers, particularly in the Arab and Turkish world, with variants of Shi’ite Islam taking root in South Arabia, Persia, and South Asia.

2 The chronicles of Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ibn Iyas (c. 1448–1524), Bada’i‘ al-zuhur fi waqa’i’ al-duhur [The most remarkable blossoms among the events of the age], were first published in Cairo in 1893–1894. There is an English translation of excerpts relating to the Ottoman conquest of Syria and Egypt: W. H. Salmon, An Account of the Ottoman Conquest of Egypt in the Year A.H. 922 (A.D. 1516) (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1921); and a full translation by Gaston Wiet, Journal d’un bourgeois du Caire: Chronique d’Ibn Iyâs, vol. 2 (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1960). This account is found in Salmon, Account of the Ottoman Conquest, pp. 41–46, and in Wiet, Journal d’un bourgeois du Caire, pp. 65–67.

3 Salmon, Account of the Ottoman Conquest, pp. 92–95; Wiet, Journal d’un bourgeois du Caire, pp. 117–120.

4 Salmon, Account of the Ottoman Conquest, pp. 111–113; Wiet, Journal d’un bourgeois du Caire, pp. 137–139.

5 Salmon, Account of the Ottoman Conquest, pp. 114–117; Wiet, Journal d’un bourgeois du Caire, pp. 140–43.

6 Wiet, Journal d’un bourgeois du Caire, pp. 171–172.

7 Ibid., p. 187.

8 The Rightly Guided Caliphs were the first four successors of the Prophet Muhammad—Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ’Uthman, and ‘Ali—who ruled the early Islamic community in the seventh century. They were followed by the Umayyad dynasty, which ruled from Damascus between 661–750 CE.

9 Thomas Philipp and Moshe Perlmann, eds., ’Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 1 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994), p. 33.

10 Salmon, Account of the Ottoman Conquest, pp. 46–49; Wiet, Journal d’un bourgeois du Caire, pp. 69–72.

11 The chronicle of Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn ‘Ali Ibn Tulun (c. 1485–1546), “Background Information on the Turkish Governors of Greater Damascus,” has been edited and translated by Henri Laoust, Les Gouverneurs de Damas sous les Mamlouks et les premiers Ottomans (658–1156/1260–1744) (Damascus: Institut Français de Damas, 1952).

12 Bruce Masters, The Origins of Western Economic Dominance in the Middle East: Mercantilism and the Islamic Economy in Aleppo, 1600–1750 (New York: New York University Press, 1988).

13 Laoust, Les Gouverneurs de Damas, p. 151.

14 Salmon, Account of the Ottoman Conquest, p. 49; Wiet, Journal d’un bourgeois du Caire, p. 72.

15 Laoust, Les Gouverneurs de Damas, pp. 154–157.

16 From the chronicle of Ibn Jum’a (d. after 1744), in Laoust, Les Gouverneurs de Damas, p. 172.

17 The accounts of Ibn Jum‘a and Ibn Tulun are almost identical, the later chronicler repeating almost verbatim points of Ibn Tulun’s narrative. Laoust, Les Gouverneurs de Damas, pp. 154–159 and 171–174.

18 Amnon Cohen and Bernard Lewis, Population and Revenue in the Towns of Palestine in the Sixteenth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 3–18.

19 Muhammad Adnan Bakhit, The Ottoman Province of Damascus in the Sixteenth Century (Beirut: Librairie du Liban, 1982), pp. 91–118.

20 I. Metin Kunt, The Sultan’s Servants: The Transformation of Ottoman Provincial Government, 1550–1650 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), pp. 32–33.

21 Philipp and Perlmann, Al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 1, p. 33.

22 Michael Winter, Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, 1517–1798 (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 16–17.

23 Bakhit, Ottoman Province of Damascus, pp. 105–106.

24 Sayyid Murad’s sixteenth-century manuscript Ghazawat-i Khayr al-Din Pasha [Conquests of Khayr al-Din Pasha] has been published in an abridged French translation by Sander Rang and Ferdinand Denis, Fondation de la régence d’Alger: Histoire de Bar-berousse (Paris: J. Angé, 1837). This account is found in vol. 1, p. 306.

25 John B. Wolf, The Barbary Coast: Algeria Under the Turks (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979), p. 20.

26 Cited in ibid., p. 27.

27 Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Khalidi al-Safadi, Kitab tarikh al-Amir Fakhr al-Din alMa’ ni [The book of history of the Amir Fakhr al-Din al-Ma‘ni], edited and published by Asad Rustum and Fuad al-Bustani under the title Lubnan fi ’ahd al-Amir Fakhr al-Din al-Ma‘ni al-Thani [Lebanon in the age of Amir Fakhr al-Din II al-Ma’ni] (Beirut: Editions St. Paul, 1936, reprinted 1985).

28 Abdul-Rahim Abu-Husayn, Provincial Leaderships in Syria, 1575–1650 (Beirut: American University in Beirut Press, 1985) pp. 81–87.

29 Al-Khalidi al-Safadi, Amir Fakhr al-Din, pp. 17–19.

30 Ibid., pp. 214–215.

31 Ibid., pp. 150–154.

32 Daniel Crecelius and ‘Abd al-Wahhab Bakr, trans., Al-Damurdashi’s Chronicle of Egypt, 1688–1755 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), p. 286.

33 Ibid., p. 291.

34 Ibid., p. 296.

35 Ibid., pp. 310–312.

36 Winter, Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, p. 24.

Chapter 2

1 Ahmad al-Budayri al-Hallaq, Hawadith Dimashq al-Yawmiyya [Daily events of Damascus] 1741–1762 (Cairo: Egyptian Association for Historical Studies, 1959), p. 184; and George M. Haddad, “The Interests of an Eighteenth Century Chronicler of Damascus,”Der Islam 38 (June 1963): 258–271.

2 Budayri, Hawadith Dimashq, p. 202.

3 Ibid., p. 129.

4 Ibid., p. 219.

5 Ibid., p. 57.

6 Ibid., p. 112.

7 Quoted by Albert Hourani, “The Fertile Crescent in the Eighteenth Century,” A Vision of History (Beirut: Khayats, 1961), p. 42.

8 Thomas Philipp and Moshe Perlmann, eds., ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 1 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994), p. 6.

9 On the Shihabs of Mount Lebanon see Kamal Salibi, The Modern History of Lebanon (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1965). On the Jalilis of Mosul, see Dina Rizk Khoury, State and Provincial Society in the Ottoman Empire: Mosul, 1540–1830(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

10 Roger Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy, 1800–1914 (London: Methuen, 1981), p. 7.

11 Budayri, Hawadith Dimashq, pp. 27–29.

12 Ibid., pp. 42–45.

13 Amnon Cohen, Palestine in the Eighteenth Century (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1973), p. 15.

14 Thomas Philipp, Acre: The Rise and Fall of a Palestinian City, 1730–1831 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), p. 36.

15 Philipp and Perlmann, Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 1, p. 636. On ’Ali Bey al-Kabir see Daniel Crecelius, The Roots of Modern Egypt: A Study of the Regimes of ‘Ali Bey al-Kabir and Muhammad Bey Abu al-Dhahab, 1760–1775(Minneapolis and Chicago: University of Minnesota Press, 1981).

16 Philipp and Perlmann, Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 1, p. 639.

17 Ibid., p. 638.

18 Ibid., p. 639.

19 This account is from the chronicle of al-Amir Haydar Ahmad al-Shihab of Mount Lebanon (1761–1835), Al-Ghurar al-Hisan fi akhbar abna’ al-zaman [Exemplars in the chronicles of the sons of the age]. Shihab’s chronicles were edited and published by Asad Rustum and Fuad al-Bustani under the title Lubnan fi ’ahd al-umara’ al-Shihabiyin [Lebanon in the era of the Shihabi Amirs], vol. 1 (Beirut: Editions St. Paul, 1984), p. 79.

20 Shihab, Lubnan fi ‘ahd al-umara’ al-Shihabiyin, vol. 1, pp. 86–87.

21 Philipp and Perlmann, Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 1, p. 639.

22 Philipp, citing Ahmad al-Shihab’s Tarikh Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, in Acre, p. 45.

23 This dramatic account of Zahir al-’Umar’s death is found in the chronicle of Mikha’il al-Sabbagh (c. 1784–1816), Tarikh al-Shaykh Zahir al-‘Umar al-Zaydani [The history of Shaykh Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani] (Harisa, Lebanon: Editions St. Paul, 1935), pp. 148–158.

24 Cited in Alexei Vassiliev, The History of Saudi Arabia (London: Saqi, 2000), p. 98.

25 Philipp and Perlmann, Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 4, p. 23.

26 Mikhayil Mishaqa, Murder, Mayhem, Pillage, and Plunder: The History of Lebanon in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Albany: SUNY Press, 1988), p. 62.

Chapter 3

1 Thomas Philipp and Moshe Perlmann, eds., ’Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 3 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994), p. 2.

2 Ibid., p. 13.

3 Ibid., p. 8.

4 Ibid., p. 51.

5 M. de Bourienne, Mémoires sur Napoléon, 2 vols. (Paris, 1831), cited in ibid., p. 57, n. 63.

6 Philipp and Perlmann, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 3, pp. 56–57.

7 Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 37. See also Darrell Dykstra, “The French Occupation of Egypt,” in M. W. Daly, ed., The Cambridge History of Egypt, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 113–138.

8 Philipp and Perlmann, ’Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 3, pp. 505–506.

9 Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 179–180.

10 Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali, p. 72.

11 Ibid., p. 201. One purse equaled 500 piasters, and the exchange rate in the 1820s was approximately U.S. $1 = 12.6 piasters.

12 The account of the execution of the Wahhabi leadership was given by the Russian ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, cited in Alexei Vassiliev, The History of Saudi Arabia (London: Saqi, 2000), p. 155.

13 Khaled Fahmy, All the Pasha’s Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army, and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 92.

14 Mustafa Rashid Celebi Efendi, cited in ibid., p. 81.

15 Letter from Muhammad ‘Ali to his agent Najib Efendi dated October 6, 1827, translated by Fahmy in All the Pasha’s Men, pp. 59–60.

16 Mikhayil Mishaqa’s 1873 chronicle, al-Jawab ’ala iqtirah al-ahbab [The response to the suggestion of the loved ones] was translated by Wheeler Thackston and published under the title Murder, Mayhem, Pillage, and Plunder: The History of the Lebanon in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Albany: SUNY Press, 1988), pp. 165–169.

17 Ibid., pp. 172–174.

18 Ibid., pp. 178–187.

19 Palmerston’s letter of July 20, 1838, cited in Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali, p. 238.

20 Mishaqa, Murder, Mayham, Pillage, and Plunder, p. 216.

21 London Convention for the Pacification of the Levant, 15–17 September 1840, reproduced in J. C. Hurewitz, The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, vol. 1 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 271–275.

Chapter 4

1 For a complete English translation and study of al-Tahtawi’s work, Takhlis al-Ibriz fi Talkhis Bariz [The extraction of pure gold in the abridgement of Paris], see Daniel L. Newman, An Imam in Paris: Al-Tahtawi’s Visit to France (1826–1831) (London: Saqi, 2004).

2 Ibid., pp. 99, 249.

3 Ibid., pp. 105, 161.

4 The analysis of the constitution is reproduced in ibid., pp. 194–213.

5 Al-Tahtawi’s analysis of the July Revolution of 1830 may be found in ibid., pp. 303–330.

6 A translation of the 1839 Reform Decree is reproduced in J. C. Hurewitz, The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, vol. 1 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 269–271.

7 The text of the 1856 Decree is reproduced in ibid., pp. 315–318.

8 The diary of Muhammad Sa‘id al-Ustuwana, the Ottoman judge of Damascus, was edited and published by As’ad al-Ustuwana, Mashahid wa ahdath dimishqiyya fi muntasif al-qarn al-tasi’ ’ashar (1840–1861) [Eyewitness to Damascene events in the mid-nineteenth century, 1840–1861] (Damascus: Dar al-Jumhuriyya, 1993), p. 162.

9 Jonathan Frankel, The Damascus Affair: “Ritual Murder,” Politics, and the Jews in 1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

10 Bruce Masters, “The 1850 Events in Aleppo: An Aftershock of Syria’s Incorporation into the Capitalist World System,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 22 (1990): 3–20.

11 Leila Fawaz, An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860 (London: I. B. Tauris, 1994); and Ussama Makdisi, The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000).

12 The memoirs of Abu al-Sa‘ud al-Hasibi, Muslim notable of Damascus, as quoted by Kamal Salibi in “The 1860 Upheaval in Damascus as Seen by al-Sayyid Muhammad Abu’l-Su’ud al-Hasibi, Notable and Later Naqib al-Ashraf of the City,” in William Polk and Richard Chambers, eds.,Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 190.

13 Wheeler Thackston Jr. has translated Mikhayil Mishaqa’s 1873 history under the title Murder, Mayhem, Pillage, and Plunder: The History of the Lebanon in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Albany: SUNY Press, 1988), p. 244.

14 Mishaqa’s report to the U.S. Consul in Beirut of September 27, 1860, in Arabic, is held in the National Archives, College Park, Maryland.

15 Y. Hakan Erdem, Slavery in the Ottoman Empire and Its Demise, 1800–1909 (Basingstoke, UK: 1996).

16 Roger Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy, 1800–1914 (London: Methuen, 1981), p. 123.

17 David Landes, Bankers and Pashas: International Finance and Economic Imperialism in Egypt (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), pp. 91–92.

18 Owen, Middle East in the World Economy, pp. 126–127.

19 Janet Abu Lughod, Cairo: 1001 Years of the City Victorious (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), pp. 98–113.

20 The autobiography of Khayr al-Din, “À mes enfants” [To my children], was edited by M. S. Mzali and J. Pignon and published under the title “Documents sur Kheredine,” Revue Tunisienne (1934): 177–225, 347–396. Passage cited appears on p. 183.

21 Khayr al-Din’s political treatise, Aqwam al-masalik li ma‘rifat ahwal al-mamalik [The surest path to knowledge concerning the conditions of countries], was translated and edited by Leon Carl Brown, The Surest Path: The Political Treatise of a Nineteenth-Century Muslim Statesman(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967).

22 Ibid., pp. 77–78.

23 Jean Ganiage, Les Origines du Protectorat francaise en Tunisie (1861–1881) (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1959); L. Carl Brown, The Tunisia of Ahmad Bey (1837–1855) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974); and Lisa Anderson, The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830–1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986).

24 Quoted in Brown, The Surest Path, p. 134.

25 Mzali and Pignon, “Documents sur Kheredine,” pp. 186–187.

26 P. J. Vatikiotis, The History of Egypt from Muhammad Ali to Sadat (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980).

27 Niyazi Berkes, The Emergence of Secularism in Turkey (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 207.

28 Ahmet Cevdet Pasha in Charles Issawi, The Economic History of Turkey, 1800–1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 349–351; and Roderic Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 112.

29 Mzali and Pignon, “Documents sur Kheredine,” pp. 189–190.

30 Owen, Middle East in the World Economy, pp. 100–121.

31 Ibid., pp. 122–152.

Chapter 5

1 Both texts are reproduced in Hurewitz, The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, vol. 1 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 227–231.

2 Rifa’a Rafi’ al-Tahtawi, An Imam in Paris (London: Saqi, 2004), pp. 326–327.

3 Alexandre Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader: Sa Vie politique et militaire (Paris: Hachette, 1863), p. 120.

4 The original texts of both agreements, with English translation, are reproduced in Raphael Danziger, Abd al-Qadir and the Algerians: Resistance to the French and Internal Consolidation (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1977), pp. 241–260. For maps showing the territories allotted France and Algeria under these treaties, see ibid., between pp. 95–96 and between pp. 157–158.

5 Reproduced in Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader, p. 260.

6 Ibid., p. 223.

7 A. de France, Abd-El-Kader’s Prisoners; or Five Months’ Captivity Among the Arabs (London: Smith, Elder and Co., n.d.), pp. 108–110.

8 Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader, pp. 286–289. Abd al-Qadir’s son wrote on the impact of the capture of the zimala on his soldiers’ morale in Tuhfat al-za’ir fi tarikh al-Jaza’ir wa’l-Amir ’Abd al-Qadir (Beirut: Dar al-Yaqiza al-‘Arabiyya, 1964), pp. 428–431.

9 Tangier Convention for the Restoration of Friendly Relations: France and Morocco, September 10, 1844, reproduced in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, pp. 286–287.

10 Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader, p. 242.

11 Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 190–191. Note that French francs converted to pounds sterling at FF25 = £1, and the Turkish pound converted at the rate of £T1 = £0.909.

12 Urabi contributed an autobiographical essay to Jurji Zaydan’s biographical dictionary, Tarajim Mashahir al-Sharq fi’l-qarn al-tasi’ ‘ashar [Biographies of famous people of the East in the nineteenth century], vol. 1 (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1910), pp. 254–280 (hereafter Urabi memoirs).

13 Ibid., p. 261.

14 Urabi recounted these events to Wilfrid Scawen Blunt in 1903, who reproduced the account in his Secret History of the British Occupation of Egypt (New York: Howard Fertig, 1967, reprint of 1922 ed.), p. 369.

15 Urabi memoirs, p. 269.

16 Ibid., p. 270.

17 Ibid., p. 272.

18 Blunt asked Muhammad Abdu to comment on Urabi’s account of events; Blunt, Secret History, p. 376.

19 Urabi memoirs, p. 274.

20 Blunt, Secret History, p. 372.

21 A. M. Broadley, How We Defended Arabi and His Friends (London: Chapman and Hall, 1884), p. 232.

22 Ibid., pp. 375–376.

23 Blunt, Secret History, p. 299.

24 Mudhakkirat ’Urabi [Memoirs of Urabi], vol. 1 (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1954), pp. 7–8.

25 On the “scramble for Africa” and the Fashoda Incident see Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism, 2nd ed. (Houndmills, UK: Macmillan, 1981).

26 Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 1, p. 477.

27 Ibid., pp. 508–510.

28 Ahmad Amin, My Life, translated by Issa Boullata (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978), p. 59.

29 Cited by Ami Ayalon in his The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 15.

30 Cited in ibid., p. 30.

31 Cited in ibid., p. 31.

32 Martin Hartmann, The Arabic Press of Egypt (London, Luzac, 1899), pp. 52–85, cited in Roger Owen, Lord Cromer: Victorian Imperialist, Edwardian Proconsul (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 251.

33 Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 113.

34 Ahmad Amin, My Life, pp. 48–49.

35 Thomas Philipp and Moshe Perlmann, trans. and eds., ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt, vol. 3 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994), pp. 252–253.

36 Daniel L. Newman, An Imam in Paris: Al-Tahtawi’s Visit to France (1826–1831) (London: Saqi, 2004), p. 177.

37 Ahmad Amin, My Life, p. 19.

38 Judith Tucker, Women in Nineteenth Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 129.

39 Qasim Amin, The Liberation of Women, trans. Samiha Sidhom Peterson (Cairo: American University at Cairo Press, 1992), p. 12.

40 Ibid., p. 15.

41 Ibid., p. 72.

42 Ibid., p. 75.

43 Ahmad Amin, My Life, p. 90.

44 Ibid., p. 60.

45 Ibid., pp. 60–61. The translator here used the term upset where the Arabic term is stronger, meaning “grief.”

Chapter 6

1 “De Bunsen Committee Report,” in J. C. Hurewitz, ed., The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, vol. 2 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979), pp. 26–46.

2 The Husayn-McMahon Correspondence has been reproduced in ibid., pp. 46–56.

3 Quote from the unpublished memoirs of the resident of Karak, ’Uda al-Qusus, cited in Eugene Rogan, Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1851–1921 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 232–233.

4 The Sykes-Picot Agreement is reproduced in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 2, pp. 60–64.

5 George Antonius, The Arab Awakening: The Story of the Arab National Movement (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1938), p. 248.

6 The Basle Program of the First Zionist Congress is reproduced in Paul R. Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz, The Jew in the Modern World: A Documentary History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 429.

7 Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete (London: Abacus, 2001) p. 44.

8 The Balfour Declaration is reproduced in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 2, pp. 101–106.

9 Cemal Pasha’s remarks were published in al-Sharq newspaper, cited in Antonius, Arab Awakening, pp. 255–256.

10 Anglo-French Declaration of November 7, 1918, cited in ibid., pp. 435–436; Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 2, p. 112.

11 The Faysal-Weizmann Agreement is reproduced in Walter Laqueur and Barry Rubin, eds., The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict (New York: Penguin, 1985), pp. 19–20.

12 Faysal’s memo is reproduced in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 2, pp. 130–32.

13 Harry N. Howard, The King-Crane Commission (Beirut: Khayyat, 1963), p. 35.

14 The King-Crane Report was first published in Editor & Publisher 55, 27, 2nd section, December 2, 1922. An abridged version of their recommendations is reproduced in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 2, pp. 191–99.

15 Abu Khaldun Sati’ al-Husri, The day of Maysalun: A Page from the Modern History of the Arabs (Washington, DC: Middle East Institute, 1966), pp. 107–108.

16 Reproduced in the Arabic edition of Sati’ al-Husri, Yawm Maysalun (Beirut: Maktabat al-Kishaf, 1947), plate 25. On the political use of slogans, see James L. Gelvin, Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire (Los Angeles and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).

17 Al-Husri, Day of Maysalun, p. 130; this is confirmed in the confidential appendix of the King-Crane Report, written for the American delegation at Paris.

18 Yusif al-Hakim, Suriyya wa’l-‘ahd al-Faysali [Syria and the Faysali era] (Beirut: Dar An-Nahar, 1986), p. 102.

19 “Resolution of the General Syrian Congress at Damascus,” reproduced in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 2, pp. 180–182.

20 “King-Crane Recommendations,” in ibid., p. 195.

21 Al-Husri, Day of Maysalun, p. 79.

22 Elie Kedourie, “Sa’ad Zaghlul and the British,” St. Antony’s Papers 11, 2 (1961): 148–149.

23 McPherson’s letters on the 1919 Revolution are reproduced in Barry Carman and John McPherson, eds., The Man Who Loved Egypt: Bimbashi McPherson (London: Ariel Books, 1985), pp. 204–221.

24 Huda Shaarawi, Harem Years: The Memoirs of an Egyptian Feminist, trans. and ed. Margot Badran (New York: The Feminist Press, 1986), p. 34.

25 Ibid., pp. 39–40.

26 Ibid., p. 55.

27 Ibid., pp. 92–94.

28 Al-Istiqlal, October 6, 1920, reproduced in Abd al-Razzaq al-Hasani, al-‘Iraq fi dawray al-ihtilal wa’l intidab [Iraq in the occupation and mandate eras] (Sidon: al-’Irfan, 1935), pp. 117–118.

29 Charles Tripp, A History of Iraq (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 36–45.

30 Published by Shaykh Muhammad Baqr al-Shabibi in Najaf, July 30, 1920. Reproduced in al-Hasani, al-‘Iraq, pp. 167–168.

31 Ghassan R. Atiyya, Iraq, 1908–1921: A Political Study (Beirut: Arab Institute for Research and Publishing, 1973).

32 Muhammad Abd al-Husayn, writing in the Najaf newspaper al-Istiqlal, October 6, 1920, reproduced in al-Hasani, al-’Iraq, pp. 117–118.

33 Aylmer L. Haldane, The Insurrection in Mesopotamia, 1920 (Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1922), p. 331.

Chapter 7

1 Charles E. Davies, The Blood-Red Arab Flag: An Investigation into Qasimi Piracy, 1797–1820 (Exeter: Exeter University Press, 1997), pp. 5–8, 190. See also Sultan Muhammad al-Qasimi, The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf (London: Croom Helm, 1986).

2 Agreement between Britain and the Shaykh of Bahrain signed December 22, 1880, in J. C. Hurewitz, The Middle East and North Africa in World Affairs, vol. 1 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), p. 432.

3 From the Exclusive Agreement between Bahrain and Britain signed March 13, 1892, in ibid., p. 466.

4 Great Britain, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 55, cols. 1465–1466, cited in ibid., p. 570.

5 De Bunsen Report of June 30, 1915, reprinted in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 2, pp. 28–29.

6 Middle East Centre Archives, St. Antony’s College, Oxford (hereafter MECA), Philby Papers 15/5/241, letter from Sharif Husayn to Ibn Saud dated February 8, 1918.

7 MECA, Philby Papers 15/5/261, letter from Sharif Husayn to Ibn Saud dated May 7, 1918.

8 King Abdullah of Transjordan, Memoirs (New York: Philosophical Library, 1950), p. 181.

9 Documents captured by Saudi forces in the second battle of Khurma (June 23–July 9, 1918) showed Hashemite forces numbered 1,689 infantry and some 900 cavalry and other troops, for a total of 2,636 troops. MECA, Philby Papers 15/5/264.

10 MECA, Philby Papers 15/2/9 and 15/2/30, two copies of Ibn Saud’s letter to Sharif Husayn dated August 14, 1918.

11 MECA, Philby Papers 15/2/276, letter from Sharif Husayn to Shakir bin Zayd dated August 29, 1918.

12 King Abdullah, Memoirs, p. 181.

13 Ibid., p. 183; Mary Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain, and the Making of Jordan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 37.

14 King Abdullah, Memoirs, p. 183.

15 Alexei Vassiliev, The History of Saudi Arabia (London: Saqi, 2000), p. 249.

16 Cited in Timothy J. Paris, Britain, the Hashemites, and Arab Rule, 1920–1925 (London: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 1.

17 Cited in Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain, and the Making of Jordan, p. 53.

18 The memoirs of Awda al-Qusus (1877–1943), a Christian from the southern town of al-Karak, have never been published. All passages quoted here are from the ninth chapter of the Arabic typescript on Amir Abdullah in Transjordan.

19 Awda al-Qusus reproduced the indictment, dated November 1, 1923, in his memoirs, p. 163. A copy of the indictment reached him in Jidda on January 9, 1924.

20 Uriel Dann, Studies in the History of Transjordan, 1920–1949: The Making of a State (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984), pp. 81–92.

21 Letter of July 8, 1921. The letters of Gertrude Bell have been made accessible on the Internet by the University of Newcastle upon Tyne Library’s Gertrude Bell Project, http://www.gerty.ncl.ac.uk/.

22 Sulayman Faydi, Mudhakkirat [Memoirs of] Sulayman Faydi (London: Saqi, 1998), pp. 302–303.

23 Gertrude Bell, letter of August 28, 1921.

24 Muhammad Mahdi Kubba, Mudhakkirati fi samim al-ahdath, 1918–1958 [My memoirs at the center of events, 1918–1958] (Beirut: Dar al-Tali‘a, 1965), pp. 22–25.

25 The text of the 1922 treaty is reproduced in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 2, pp. 310–312.

26 Kubba, Mudhakkirati, pp. 26–27.

27 Faysal’s confidential memo was cited in Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 25–26.

28 Zaghlul’s comments quoted in “Bitter Harvest,” Al-Ahram Weekly Online, October 12–18, 2000, http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/.

29 Ismail Sidqi, Mudhakkirati [My memoirs] (Cairo: Madbuli, 1996), p. 85.

30 Ibid., p. 87. The casualty figures are from a sympathetic political biography of Sidqi by Malak Badrawi, Isma’il Sidqi, 1875–1950: Pragmatism and Vision in Twentieth-Century Egypt (Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1996), p. 61.

31 Sidqi, Mudhakkirati, p. 97.

32 Population figures for the Ottoman period are particularly unreliable. This has been compounded by the highly politicized nature of demography in the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. The most reliable source is Justin McCarthy, The Population of Palestine (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990). These figures are from table 1.4D, p. 10.

33 Ibid., p. 224.

34 Neville J. Mandel, The Arabs and Zionism Before World War I (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976); Hasan Kayali, Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1918 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 103–106.

35 Immigration figures from McCarthy, Population of Palestine, p. 224; casualty figures from Charles Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 4th ed. (Boston and New York: Bedford/St Martin’s, 2001), pp. 113, 130.

36 Churchill’s memorandum is reproduced in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 2, pp. 301–305. Emphasis in the original.

37 Matiel E. T. Mogannam, The Arab Woman and the Palestine Problem (London: Herbert Joseph, 1937), pp. 70–73.

38 Ibid., p. 99.

39 McCarthy, Population of Palestine, pp. 34–35.

40 Akram Zuaytir, Yawmiyat Akram Zu’aytir: al-haraka al-wataniyya al-filastiniyya, 1935–1939 [The diaries of Akram Zuaytir: The Palestinian national movement, 1935–1939] (Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1980), pp. 27–30.

41 Ibid., p. 29.

42 Ibid., pp. 32–33.

43 Quoted in Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain, and the Making of Jordan, p. 119.

44 Abu Salman’s poem was reproduced by Palestinian novelist Ghassan Kanafani in his essay “Palestine, the 1936–1939 Revolt” (London: 1982).

45 Ben-Gurion diaries cited in Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete (London: Abacus, 2001), pp. 403–404.

46 Tom Segev details these and other repressive measures undertaken by the British to combat the Arab Revolt in One Palestine, Complete, pp. 415–443. See also Matthew Hughes, “The Banality of Brutality: British Armed Forces and the Repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936–39,”English Historical Review 124 (2009): 313–354.

47 Harrie Arrigonie, British Colonialism: 30 Years Serving Democracy or Hypocrisy (Devon: Edward Gaskell, 1998), described these events, which took place the week before he arrived in Bassa. Arrigonie also reproduced photographs of the destroyed bus and the bodies of the villagers. An Arab account of the massacre is given by Eid Haddad, whose father witnessed the atrocity as a fifteen-year-old, though he dates the event to September 1936; “Painful memories from Al Bassa,” http://www.palestineremembered.com. A similar account was told to Ted Swedenburg from the village of Kuwaykat; Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2003), pp. 107–108.

48 The 1939 White Paper is reproduced in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, vol. 2, pp. 531–538.

Chapter 8

1 Meir Zamir, The Formation of Modern Lebanon (London: Croom Helm, 1985), p. 15.

2 Ammoun was accompanied by another Maronite, a Sunni Muslim, a Greek Orthodox Christian, and a Druze. Lyne Lohéac, Daoud Ammoun et la Création de l’État libanais (Paris: Klincksieck, 1978), p. 73.

3 Ammoun’s presentation was reported in the influential Paris daily, Le Temps, January 29, 1919, and reproduced in George Samné, La Syrie (Paris: Editions Bossard, 1920), pp. 231–232.

4 Ghanim’s introduction in Samné, La Syrie, pp. xviii–xix.

5 Muhammad Jamil Bayhum, Al-‘Ahd al-Mukhdaram fi Suriya wa Lubnan, 1918–1922 [The era of transition in Syria and Lebanon] (Beirut: Dar al-Tali’a, n.d. [1968]), p. 109.

6 Ibid., p. 110.

7 Lohéac, Daoud Ammoun, pp. 84–85.

8 Bishara Khalil al-Khoury, Haqa’iq Lubnaniyya [Lebanese realities], vol. 1 (Harisa, Lebanon: Basil Brothers, 1960), p. 106.

9 Lohéac, Daoud Ammoun, pp. 91–92.

10 Alphonse Zenié, quoted in ibid., p. 96.

11 Yusif Sawda, resident in Alexandria, cited in ibid., p. 139.

12 Bayhum, al-‘Ahd al-Mukhdaram, pp. 136–140.

13 Si Madani El Glaoui, cited in C. R. Pennell, Morocco Since 1830: A History (London: Hurst, 2000), p. 176.

14 Pennell, Morocco Since 1830, p. 190.

15 Muhammad ibn Abd al-Karim (Abd el-Krim) published a statement of his political views after his capture by the French in Rashid Rida’s influential magazine, al-Manar 27, 1344–1345 (1926–1927): 630–634. For a translation see C. R. Pennell, A Country with a Government and a Flag: The Rif War in Morocco, 1921–1926 (Wisbech: MENAS Press, 1986), pp. 256–259.

16 Quoted in Pennell, Country with a Government, from French interviews with tribesmen after Abd el-Krim’s defeat, p. 186.

17 Ibid., pp. 189–190.

18 Ibid., pp. 256–259.

19 Fawzi al-Qawuqji, Mudhakkirat [Memoirs of] Fawzi al-Qawuqji, vol. 1, 1914–1932 (Beirut: Dar al-Quds, 1975), p. 81.

20 Edmund Burke III, “A Comparative View of French Native Policy in Morocco and Syria, 1912–1925,” Middle Eastern Studies 9 (1973): 175–186.

21 Philip S. Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), pp. 102–108.

22 Burke, “Comparative View,” pp. 179–180.

23 Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar, Mudhakkirat [Memoirs] (Beirut: Dar al-Irshad, 1967), p. 154.

24 Al-Qawuqji, Mudhakkirat, p. 84.

25 Shahbandar, Mudhakkirat, pp. 156–157.

26 Al-Qawuqji, Mudhakkirat, pp. 86–87.

27 Ibid., p. 89; Michael Provence, The Great Syrian Revolt and the Rise of Arab Nationalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005), pp. 95–100.

28 Siham Tergeman, Daughter of Damascus (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994), p. 97.

29 Shahbandar, Mudhakkirat, pp. 186–189.

30 Al-Qawuqji, Mudhakkirat, pp. 109–112.

31 John Ruedy, Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation, 2nd ed. (Bloomington and Indianapolis: University of Indiana Press, 2005), p. 69.

32 Gustave Mercier, Le Centenaire de l’Algérie, vol. 1 (Algiers: P & G Soubiron, 1931), pp. 278–281.

33 Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 296–300.

34 Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 298–304.

35 Ferhat Abbas, Le jeune Algérien: De la colonie vers la province [The young Algerian: From the colony toward the province] (Paris: Editions de la Jeune Parque, 1931), p. 8.

36 According to Ruedy’s figures, 206,000 Algerians were drafted, of which 26,000 were killed and 72,000 wounded; p. 111. Abbas claimed 250,000 Algerians were drafted, of which 80,000 died; p. 16.

37 Abbas, Le jeune Algérien, p. 24.

38 Ibid., p. 119.

39 Ibid., pp. 91–93.

40 Claude Collot and Jean-Robert Henry, Le Mouvement national algérien: Textes 1912–1954 [The Algerian national movement: Texts 1912–1954] (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1978), pp. 66–67.

41 Ibid., pp. 68–69.

42 Ibid., pp. 38–39. On Messali, see Benjamin Stora, Messali Hadj (1898–1974): pionnier du nationalism algérien [Messali Hadj (1898–1974): Pioneer of Algerian nationalism] (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1986).

43 A full translation of the bill is reproduced in J. C. Hurewitz, The Middle East and North Africa in World Affairs, vol. 2 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 504–508.

44 Al-Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate, p. 592.

45 Bishara al-Khoury, Haqa’iq Lubnaniyya [Lebanese realities], vol. 2 (Beirut: Awraq Lubnaniyya, 1960), pp. 15–16.

46 Ibid., pp. 33–52.

47 Khalid al-Azm, Mudhakkirat [Memoirs of] Khalid al-’Azm, vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Muttahida, 1972), pp. 294–299.

48 Tergeman, Daughter of Damascus, pp. 97–98.

Chapter 9

1 Communiqué of the Jewish Underground Resistance in Palestine, cited in Menachem Begin, The Revolt (London: W. H. Allen, 1951), pp. 42–43.

2 Stern’s words were reproduced by Joseph Heller, The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror, 1940–1949 (London: Frank Cass, 1995), pp. 85–87.

3 Begin, The Revolt, p. 215.

4 Ibid., pp. 212–230.

5 Manchester Guardian, August 1, 1947, p. 5, cited in Paul Bagon, “The Impact of the Jewish Underground upon Anglo Jewry: 1945–1947” (M.Phil. thesis, Oxford, 2003), pp. 118–119.

6 Jewish Chronicle, August 8, 1947, p. 1, cited in Bagon, “Impact of the Jewish Underground,” p. 122.

7 Cited in William Roger Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 485.

8 Charles D. Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 4th ed. (Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001) pp. 190–192.

9 Reproduced in T. G. Fraser, The Middle East, 1914–1979 (London: E. Arnold, 1980), pp. 49–51.

10 Al-Ahram, February 2, 1948.

11 Qasim al-Rimawi accompanied Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni to Damascus and gave his account to the Palestinian historian of the 1948 Palestinian “Catastrophe,” Arif al-Arif; see al-Arif, al-Nakba: Nakbat Bayt al-Maqdis wa’l-Firdaws al-Mafqud [The catastrophe: The catastrophe of Jerusalem and the lost paradise], vol. 1 (Sidon and Beirut: al-Maktaba al-‘Asriyya, 1951), pp. 159–161.

12 Ibid., p. 161. In a footnote, Arif reminded his readers that other British soldiers had joined forces with the Haganah.

13 Ibid., p. 168.

14 Ibid., pp. 171 and 170.

15 Testimony of Ahmad Ayesh Khalil, son of a factory owner, and of Aisha Jima Ziday (Zaydan), from a family of small farmers who was seventeen at the time, reproduced in Staughton Lynd, Sam Bahour, and Alice Lynd, eds., Homeland: Oral Histories of Palestine and Palestinians (New York: Olive Branch Press, 1994), pp. 24–26.

16 Arif, al-Nakba, p. 173.

17 Ibid., pp. 173–174.

18 Ibid., pp. 174–175.

19 Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 30.

20 Rashid al-Hajj Ibrahim, al-Difa’ ‘an Hayfa wa qadiyyat filastin [The defense of Haifa and the Palestine problem] (Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 2005), p. 44.

21 Ibid., p. 104.

22 Ibid., pp. 109–112.

23 From the diary of Khalil al-Sakakini, quoted in Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete (London: Abacus, 2000), p. 508.

24 Morris, Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, p. 141.

25 Avi Shlaim, The Politics of Partition: King Abdullah, the Zionists, and Palestine, 1921–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).

26 John Bagot Glubb, A Soldier with the Arabs (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1957), p. 66.

27 Quoted in Fawaz Gerges, “Egypt and the 1948 War,” in Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim, eds., The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 159.

28 Avi Shlaim, “Israel and the Arab Coalition in 1948,” in ibid., p. 81. Only the Egyptian army expanded its numbers significantly in the course of the war, from an initial deployment of 10,000 to a maximum of 45,000 by the end of the war. Gerges, “Egypt and the 1948 War,” p. 166.

29 Gamal Abdel Nasser, The Philosophy of the Revolution (Buffalo, NY: Economica Books, 1959), pp. 28–29.

30 Constantine K. Zurayk, The Meaning of the Disaster, trans. R. Bayly Winder (Beirut: Khayat, 1956).

31 Musa Alami, “The Lesson of Palestine,” Middle East Journal 3 (October 1949): 373–405.

32 Zurayk, Meaning of the Disaster, p. 2.

33 Ibid., p. 24.

34 Alami, “Lesson of Palestine,” p. 390.

35 Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 6.

36 ’Adil Arslan, Mudhakkirat al-Amir ‘Adil Arslan [The memoirs of Amir ’Adil Arslan], vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Taqaddumiya, 1983), p. 806.

37 Avi Shlaim, “Husni Za‘im and the Plan to Resettle Palestinian Refugees in Syria,” Journal of Palestine Studies 15 (Summer 1986): 68–80.

38 Arslan, Mudhakkirat, p. 846.

39 Mary Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain, and the Making of Jordan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 209–213.

Chapter 10

1 Nawal El Saadawi, A Daughter of Isis: The Autobiography of Nawal El Saadawi (London: Zed Books, 2000), pp. 260–261.

2 Nawal El Saadawi, Walking Through Fire: A Life of Nawal El Saadawi (London: Zed Books, 2002), p. 33.

3 Anouar Abdel-Malek, Egypt: Military Society (New York: Random House, 1968), p. 36.

4 Mohammed Naguib, Egypt’s Destiny (London: Gollancz, 1955), p. 101.

5 Anwar el-Sadat, In Search of Identity (London: Collins, 1978), pp. 100–101.

6 Khaled Mohi El Din, Memories of a Revolution: Egypt 1952 (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1995), pp. 41–52.

7 Ibid., p. 81.

8 Naguib, Egypt’s Destiny, p. 110.

9 Ibid., pp. 112–113.

10 Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 107, notes he was at the cinema when the coup began; Mohi El Din, Memories of a Revolution, notes the fight and police report.

11 Mohi El Din, Memories of a Revolution, pp. 103–104.

12 El Saadawi, Walking Through Fire, p. 51.

13 Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 121.

14 Naguib, Egypt’s Destiny, pp. 139–140.

15 Ibid., p. 148.

16 Alan Richards, Egypt’s Agricultural Development, 1800–1980 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982), p. 178.

17 El Saadawi, Walking Through Fire, pp. 53–54.

18 Charles Issawi, An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), table A.3, p. 231.

19 Figures in Naguib, Egypt’s Destiny, p. 168.

20 Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 149.

21 Joel Gordon, Nasser’s Blessed Movement: Egypt’s Free Officers and the July Revolution (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 179.

22 Mohamed Heikal, Nasser: The Cairo Documents (London: New English Library, 1972), p. 51.

23 Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), p. 112.

24 Hassan II, The Challenge (London, 1978), p. 31, cited in C. R. Pennell, Morocco Since 1830: A History (London: Hurst, 2000), p. 263.

25 Leila Abouzeid, Year of the Elephant: A Moroccan Woman’s Journey Toward Independence (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989), pp. 20–21. Abouzeid first published her novel in Arabic in the early 1980s.

26 Ibid., pp. 36–38. In the preface of her English translation she wrote: “The main events and characters throughout the whole collection are real. I have not created these stories. I have simply told them as they are. And, Morocco is full of untold stories.”

27 Ibid., pp. 49–50.

28 John Ruedy, Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation (Bloomington and Indianapolis: University of Indiana Press, 2005), p. 163.

29 Heikal, The Cairo Documents, pp. 57–63.

30 Motti Golani, “The Historical Place of the Czech-Egyptian Arms Deal, Fall 1995,” Middle Eastern Studies 31 (1995): 803–827.

31 Heikal, The Cairo Documents, p. 68.

32 Ibid., p. 74.

33 Ezzet Adel, quoted by the BBC, “The Day Nasser Nationalized the Canal,” July 21, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/5168698.stm.

34 Heikal, The Cairo Documents, pp. 92–95.

35 Quoted in Shlaim, The Iron Wall, p. 166.

36 Heikal, The Cairo Documents, p. 107.

37 For details of the CIA coup plot see Wilbur Crane Eveland, Ropes of Sand: America’s Failure in the Middle East (New York: W. W. Norton, 1980).

38 El Saadawi, Walking Through Fire, pp. 89–99. The casualty figure is from Heikal, Cairo Documents, p. 115.

39 Heikal, Cairo Documents, p. 118.

40 Abdullah Sennawi, quoted by Laura James, “Whose Voice? Nasser, the Arabs, and ‘Sawt al-Arab’ Radio,” Transnational Broadcasting Studies 16 (2006), http://www.tbsjournal.com/James.html.

41 Youmna Asseily and Ahmad Asfahani, eds., A Face in the Crowd: The Secret Papers of Emir Farid Chehab, 1942–1972 (London: Stacey International, 2007), p. 166.

42 Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-War Arab Politics, 1945–1958 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986), p. 307.

43 Khalid al-Azm, Mudhakkirat [Memoirs of] Khalid al-Azm, vol. 3 (Beirut: Dar al-Muttahida, 1972), pp. 125–126.

44 Ibid., pp. 127–128.

45 Seale, The Struggle for Syria, p. 323.

46 Avi Shlaim, Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace (London: Allen Lane, 2007), pp. 129–152; Lawrence Tal, Politics, the Military, and National Security in Jordan, 1955–1967 (Houndmills, UK: Macmillan, 2002), pp. 43–53.

47 Eveland, Ropes of Sand, pp. 250–253.

48 Yunis Bahri, Mudhakkirat al-rahala Yunis Bahri fi sijn Abu Ghurayb ma’ rijal al- ‘ahd al-maliki ba’d majzara Qasr al-Rihab ’am 1958 fi’l-‘Iraq [Memoirs of the traveler Yunis Bahri in Abu Ghurayb Prison with the men of the Monarchy era after the 1958 Rihab Palace Massacre in Iraq] (Beirut: Dar al-Arabiyya li’l-Mawsu’at, 2005), p. 17.

49 This account was told to Yunis Bahri by an eyewitness while both were in prison in Abu Ghurayb. Bahri, Mudhakkirat, pp. 131–134.

50 Ibid., pp. 136–138.

51 Camille Chamoun, La Crise au Moyen Orient (Paris, 1963), p. 423, cited in Irene L. Gendzier, Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), p. 297–298.

52 Heikal, Cairo Documents, p. 131.

Chapter 11

1 Quoted by Malcolm Kerr, The Arab Cold War: Gamal ‘Abd al-Nasir and His Rivals, 1958–1970, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 21.

2 Mohamed Heikal, Nasser: The Cairo Documents (London: New English Library, 1972), p. 187.

3 Mouloud Feraoun, Journal 1955–1962 (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1962), p. 156.

4 Ibid., pp. 151–152.

5 The story was told by Zohra Drif, another woman veteran of the Battle of Algiers, in Danièle Djamila Amrane-Minne, Des Femmes dans la guerre d’Algérie [Women in the Algerian War] (Paris: Karthala, 1994), p. 139.

6 Georges Arnaud and Jacques Vergès, Pour [For] Djamila Bouhired (Paris: Minuit, 1961), p. 10. Djamila Bouhired was the subject of a feature film by Egyptian filmmaker Youssef Chahine.

7 Amrane-Minne, Femmes dans la guerre d’Algérie, pp. 134–135.

8 Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 (New York: New York Review Books, 2006), p. 151.

9 The controversy in France surrounding the use of torture in Algeria was reawakened with the publication in 2001 of General Paul Aussaresses’ memoirs of the Battle of Algiers in which he openly acknowledged the extent of torture. The book was published in English under the title The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957 (New York: Enigma, 2002).

10 Horne, Savage War of Peace, p. 282.

11 Feraoun, Journal, p. 274.

12 Ibid., pp. 345–346.

13 Amrane-Minne, Femmes dans la guerre d’Algérie, pp. 319–320.

14 Anouar Abdel-Malek, Egypt: Military Society (New York: Random House, 1968), p. 287.

15 Quoted in Laura M. James, Nasser at War: Arab Images of the Enemy (Houndmills, UK: Palgrave, 2006), p. 56.

16 “There is no doubt that northern tribesmen . . . were listening regularly to Cairo by the mid-1950s.” Paul Dresch, A History of Modern Yemen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 77.

17 Ibid., p. 86.

18 Quoted in Mohamed Abdel Ghani El-Gamasy, The October War: Memoirs of Field Marshal El-Gamasy of Egypt (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1993), p. 18.

19 Heikal, Cairo Documents, p. 217.

20 Gamasy, The October War, p. 28.

21 Anwar el-Sadat, In Search of Identity (London: Collins, 1978), p. 172.

22 Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), p. 239.

23 Cited in Gamasy, The October War, p. 53.

24 Ibid., p. 54.

25 Ibid., p. 62.

26 Ibid., p. 65.

27 Hussein of Jordan, My “War” with Israel (New York: Peter Owen, 1969), pp. 89–91.

28 Michael B. Oren, Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (London: Penguin, 2003), p. 178.

29 Hasan Bahgat, cited in Oren, Six Days of War, p. 201.

30 BBC Monitoring Service, cited in ibid., p. 209.

31 Ibid., p. 226.

32 Sadat, In Search of Identity, pp. 175–176.

33 Ibid., p. 179.

34 Ibid.

35 On Nasser’s diplomacy see Shlaim, The Iron Wall, pp. 117–123; on the initiation of Hussein’s meetings with Israeli officials see Avi Shlaim, The Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace (London: Allen Lane, 2007), pp. 192–201.

36 Salah Khalaf wrote his memoirs under his nom de guerre, Abu Iyad (with Eric Rouleau), My Home, My Land: A Narrative of the Palestinian Struggle (New York: Times Books, 1981), pp. 19–23.

37 Cited in Helena Cobban, The Palestinian Liberation Organisation: People, Power, and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 33.

38 Leila Khaled, My People Shall Live (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1973), pp. 85, 88.

39 Mahmoud Issa, Je suis un Fedayin [I am a Fedayin] (Paris: Stock, 1976), pp. 60–62.

40 Figures from Yezid Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for Peace: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 178–179.

41 Khaled, My People Shall Live, p. 107.

42 Abu Iyad, My Home, My Land, p. 60.

43 Sayigh, Armed Struggle, p. 203.

44 Khaled, My People Shall Live, p. 112.

45 Ibid.

46 Ibid., p. 116.

47 Ibid., p. 124.

48 Ibid., p. 126.

49 Ibid., pp. 136–143.

50 Khalaf, My Home, My Land, p. 76.

51 Khaled, My People Shall Live, p. 174.

52 Cited in Peter Snow and David Phillips, Leila’s Hijack War (London: Pan Books, 1970), p. 41.

53 Heikal, Cairo Documents, pp. 21–22.

Chapter 12

1 Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (New York: Free Press, 1991), p. 446.

2 Ibid., p. 500.

3 See for instance al-Turayqi’s arguments for an Arab oil pipeline; Naql al-batrul al-’arabi [Transport of Arab petroleum] (Cairo: League of Arab States, Institute of Arab Studies, 1961), pp. 114–122.

4 Muhammad Hadid, Mudhakkirati: al-sira‘ min ajli al-dimuqtratiyya fi’l-Iraq [My memoirs: The struggle for democracy in Iraq] (London: Saqi, 2006), p. 428; Yergin, The Prize, pp. 518–523.

5 Yergin, The Prize, pp. 528–529.

6 Cited in Mirella Bianco, Gadhafi: Voice from the Desert (London: Longman, 1975), pp. 67–68.

7 Mohammed Heikal, The Road to Ramadan (London: Collins, 1975), p. 70.

8 Abdullah al-Turayqi, Al-bitrul al-’Arabi: Silah fi’l-ma‘raka [Arab petroleum: A weapon in the battle] (Beirut: PLO Research Center, 1967), p. 48.

9 Jonathan Bearman, Qadhafi’s Libya (London: Zed, 1986), p. 81; Frank C. Wad-dams, The Libyan Oil Industry (London: Croom Helm, 1980), p. 230; Yergin, The Prize, p. 578.

10 Ali A. Attiga, The Arabs and the Oil Crisis, 1973–1986 (Kuwait: OAPEC, 1987), pp. 9–11.

11 Al-Turayqi, al-Bitrul al-’Arabi, pp. 7, 68.

12 Mohamed Abdel Ghani El-Gamasy, The October War: Memoirs of Field Marshal El-Gamasy of Egypt (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1993), p. 114.

13 Ibid., pp. 149–151.

14 Ibid., pp. 180–181.

15 Riad N. El-Rayyes and Dunia Nahas, eds., The October War: Documents, Personalities, Analyses, and Maps (Beirut: An-Nahar, 1973), p. 63.

16 Cited in Yergin, The Prize, p. 597. Khalid al-Hasan repeated the same story to Alan Hart: “Feisal said: ‘The condition is that you will fight for a long time and that you won’t ask for a cease-fire after a few days. You must fight for not less than three months.’” Alan Hart, Arafat: Terrorist or Peacemaker? (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1984), p. 370.

17 Heikal, The Road to Ramadan, p. 40.

18 El-Gamasy claimed that 27 Israeli aircraft were shot down on October 6 and that 48 aircraft were downed on October 7, for a total of 75 Israeli planes in the first two days of fighting; p. 234. He put Israel’s armored losses at more than 120 tanks destroyed on October 6 and 170 tanks on October 7; pp. 217, 233. These figures seem credible when compared to the official figures for the war as a whole, in which Israel lost a total of 103 aircraft and 840 tanks and Arab forces lost 329 aircraft and 2,554 tanks. Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), p. 321.

19 Cited in Yergin, The Prize, pp. 601–606.

20 El-Rayyes and Nahas, The October War, pp. 71–73.

21 Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 234.

22 Official Israeli figures cited by Shlaim, Iron Wall, p. 321.

23 Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 275.

24 Cited in Hart, Arafat, p. 411.

25 Ibid., p. 383.

26 Ibid., p. 379.

27 Uri Avnery, My Friend, the Enemy (London: Zed, 1986), p. 35.

28 Ibid., p. 52.

29 Ibid., p. 36.

30 Ibid., p. 43.

31 Ibid., p. 44.

32 Lina Mikdadi Tabbara, Survival in Beirut (London: Onyx Press, 1979), pp. 3–4, 116.

33 Hart, Arafat, p. 411.

34 The full text of Arafat’s speech is reproduced in Walter Laqueur and Barry Rubin, eds., The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict (New York: Penguin, 1985).

35 Hart, Arafat, p. 392.

36 Patrick Seale, Abu Nidal: A Gun for Hire (London: Arrow, 1993), pp. 162–163.

37 United Nations Relief Works Agency statistics for numbers of registered refugees. As UNRWA notes, registration is voluntary and the number of registered refugees is not an accurate population figure, but would be less than the actual total. Robert Fisk gave the 1975 figure at 350,000 inPity the Nation: Lebanon at War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 73. Refugee statistics posted to the UNRWA website, http://www.un.org/unrwa/publications/index.html.

38 Camille Chamoun, Crise au Liban [Crisis in Lebanon] (Beirut: 1977), pp. 5–8.

39 Kamal Joumblatt, I Speak for Lebanon (London: Zed Press, 1982), pp. 46, 47.

40 Tabbara, Survival in Beirut, p. 25.

41 Ibid., p. 19.

42 Ibid., pp. 20, 29.

43 Ibid., pp. 53–54.

44 Saad Eddin Ibrahim, “Oil, Migration, and the New Arab Social Order,” in Malcolm Kerr and El Sayed Yasin, eds., Rich and Poor States in the Middle East (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982), p. 55.

45 Tabbara, Survival in Beirut, p. 66.

46 Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), pp. 60–62.

47 Ibid., p. 104.

48 Tabbara, Survival in Beirut, p. 114.

49 Jumblatt, I Speak for Lebanon, p. 19.

50 Tabbara, Survival in Beirut, p. 178.

51 The bread riots took place on January 18–19, 1977. Mohamed Heikal, Secret Channels: The Inside Story of Arab-Israeli Peace Negotiations (London: Harper Collins, 1996), p. 245.

52 Ibid., p. 247–248. For the Libyan perspective of the attack, see Bearman, Qadhafi’s Libya, pp. 170–171.

53 Heikal, Secret Channels, pp. 252–254. Sadat gives a similar account in his own memoirs: see Anwar el-Sadat, In Search of Identity (London: Collins, 1978), p. 306.

54 Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem (New York: Random House, 1997), pp. 11–12.

55 Ibid., p. 16.

56 Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 259.

57 Boutros-Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem, p. 17.

58 Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 262.

59 Doc. 74, Statement to the Knesset by Prime Minister Begin, November 20, 1977, in Israel’s Foreign Relations: Selected Documents, vols. 4–5: 1977–1979, posted to the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs website,www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign+Relations/Israels+Foreign+Relations+since+1947/1977–1979/. Emphasis added by the author.

60 Boutros-Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem, pp. 134–135.

61 The statistics are drawn from Saad Eddin Ibrahim, “Oil, Migration, and the New Arab Social Order,” pp. 53, 55.

62 Ibid., pp. 62–65.

63 Boutros-Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem, pp. 181–182, 189.

64 Alexei Vassiliev, The History of Saudi Arabia (London: Saqi, 2000), pp. 395–396.

Chapter 13

1 Giles Kepel, The Prophet and the Pharaoh: Muslim Extremism in Egypt (London: Saqi, 1985), p. 192.

2 Mohamed Heikal, Autumn of Fury: The Assassination of Sadat (London: Deutsch, 1983), pp. xi–xii.

3 Sayyid Qutb, “The America I Have Seen,” in Kamal Abdel-Malek, ed., America in an Arab Mirror: Images of America in Arabic Travel Literature (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2000), pp. 26–27.

4 Ibid., p. 10.

5 Sayyid Qutb, Ma‘alim fi’l-tariq [lit. “Signposts along the road,” often translated under the title Milestones] (Cairo: Maktabat Wahba, 1964). There are many English editions of Qutb’s Milestones. The edition I cite was published in Damascus by Dar al-Ilm (no date). These arguments from the introduction, pp. 8–11; ch. 4, “Jihad in the Cause of God,” p. 55; ch. 7, “Islam Is the Real Civilization,” p. 93.

6 Ibid., ch. 11, “The Faith Triumphant,” p. 145.

7 Zaynab al-Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh: Memoir in Nasir’s Prison (Leicester, UK: The Islamic Foundation, n.d.), pp. 40–41.

8 Ibid., pp. 48–49.

9 Ibid., p. 67.

10 One of Hadid’s recruits recounted his experiences to a Syrian judge, reproduced in translation in Olivier Carré and Gérard Michaud, Les frères musulmans [The Muslim brothers] (1928–1982) (Paris: Gallimard, 1983), p. 152.

11 Ibid., p. 139.

12 Isa Ibrahim Fayyad had been arrested in Jordan and accused of being part of a Syrian assassination squad sent to kill the Jordanian prime minister. His account of the massacre in the Tadmur Prison was reproduced in ibid., pp. 147–148.

13 The anonymous eyewitness account was recorded by a Washington Post correspondent and reproduced in the article “Syrian Troops Massacre Scores of Assad’s Foes,” June 25, 1981.

14 Thomas Friedman, From Beirut to Jerusalem (London: Collins, 1990), p. 86.

15 Quoted in Robert Fisk, Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 518.

16 Emphasis in the original; ibid., p. 512.

17 Quoted in ibid., pp. 480, 520.

18 Quoted in Augustus Richard Norton, Hezbollah (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), p. 19.

19 On the Maronite-Israel alliance, see Kirsten E. Schulze, Israel’s Covert Diplomacy in Lebanon (London: Macmillan, 1998), pp. 104–124.

20 On Sharon’s plans for the restructuring of the Middle East, see Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), pp. 395–400.

21 Lina Mikdadi, Surviving the Siege of Beirut: A Personal Account (London: Onyx Press, 1983), pp. 107–108.

22 Colonel Abu Attayib, Flashback Beirut 1982 (Nicosia: Sabah Press, 1985), p. 213.

23 Mikdadi, Surviving the Siege of Beirut, p. 121.

24 Ibid., pp. 132–133.

25 From the official translation of the Final Report of “The Commission of Inquiry into the Events at the Refugee Camps in Beirut, 1983,” chaired by the president of the Israeli Supreme Court, Yitzhak Kahan, pp. 12, 22.

26 Selim Nassib with Caroline Tisdall, Beirut: Frontline Story (London: Pluto, 1983), pp. 148–158.

27 Naim Qassem, Hizbullah: The Story from Within (London: Saqi, 2005), pp. 92–93.

28 Ibid., pp. 88–89.

29 The full text of this foundation document, “Open Letter Addressed by Hizbullah to the Downtrodden in Lebanon and in the World” of February 16, 1985, is reproduced in Augustus Richard Norton, Amal and the Shi’a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987). Passage quoted on pp. 174–175.

30 Fisk, Pity the Nation, p. 460.

31 Norton, Hezbollah, p. 81.

32 Abdullah Anas, Wiladat “al-Afghan al-‘Arab”: Sirat Abdullah Anas bayn Mas’ud wa ‘Abdullah ’Azzam [The birth of the “Arab Afghans”: The autobiography of Abdullah Anas between Mas‘ud and Abdullah ’Azzam] (London: Saqi, 2002), p. 14. Born Bou Jouma‘a, he adopted the alias Anas as his surname after joining the Afghan jihad.

33 For a brief biography, see Thomas Hegghammer, “Abdallah Azzam, the Imam of Jihad,” in Gilles Kepel and Jean-Pierre Milelli, eds., Al Qaeda in Its Own Words (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 81–101.

34 Abdullah ’Azzam, “To Every Muslim on Earth,” published in Arabic in the magazine he edited from Afghanistan, Jihad, March 1985, p. 25.

35 Abdullah ‘Azzam, “The Defense of Muslim Territories Constitutes the First Individual Duty,” in Keppel and Milelli, pp. 106–107.

36 The full record of U.S. support for the Afghan mujahidin is provided by Steve Coll in Ghost Wars (New York: Penguin, 2004); figures for the Carter years p. 89; for 1985, p. 102.

37 Anas, Wiladat “al-Afghan al-’Arab,” p. 15.

38 Ibid., pp. 16–17.

39 Ibid., pp. 25–29.

40 Ibid., pp. 33–34.

41 Interview with Zaynab al-Ghazali, Jihad, December 13, 1985, pp. 38–40.

42 Anas, Wiladat “al-Afghan al-‘Arab,” p. 58.

43 Ibid., p. 67.

44 Ibid., p. 87.

45 Shaul Mishal and Reuben Aharoni, Speaking Stones: Communiqués from the Intifada Underground (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994), p. 21.

46 Azzam Tamimi, Hamas: Unwritten Chapters (London: Hurst, 2007), pp. 11–12.

47 Sari Nusseibeh with Anthony David, Once Upon a Country: A Palestinian Life (London: Halban, 2007), p. 265.

48 Ibid., p. 269.

49 The charter was published on August 18, 1988; quote from art. 15. “Charter of the Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas) of Palestine,” Journal of Palestine Studies 22, 4 (Summer 1993): 122–134.

50 Communiqués 1 and 2, in Mishal and Aharoni, Speaking Stones, pp. 53–58.

51 Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country, p. 272.

52 M. Cherif Bassiouni and Louise Cainkar, eds., The Palestinian Intifada—December 9, 1987–December 8, 1988: A Record of Israeli Repression (Chicago: Database Project on Palestinian Human Rights, 1989), pp. 19–20.

53 Ibid., pp. 92–94.

54 Hamas Communiqué No. 33, December 23, 1988, and UNC Communiqué No. 25, September 6, 1988, in Mishal and Aharoni, Speaking Stones, pp. 125–126, 255.

55 UNC Communiqué No. 25, September 6, 1988, in Mishal and Aharoni, Speaking Stones, p. 125.

56 Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country, pp. 296–297.

57 Yezid Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 624.

58 Cited in Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall, p. 466.

59 Communiqué No. 33, December 23, 1988, in Mishal and Aharoni, Speaking Stones, p. 255.

60 Robert Hunter, The Palestinian Uprising: A War by Other Means (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991), p. 215.

Chapter 14

1 Mohamed Heikal, Illusion of Triumph: An Arab View of the Gulf War (London: Harper Collins, 1992), pp. 14–17, for both Habash and Asad quotes. See also Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World (New York: Basic Books, 2005), pp. 212–213.

2 Mohamed Heikal, Illusion of Triumph, pp. 16–17.

3 Quoted in Zachary Karabell, “Backfire: U.S. Policy Toward Iraq, 1988–2 August 1990,” Middle East Journal (Winter 1995): 32–33.

4 Human Rights Watch, Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds (New York and Washington, DC: Human Rights Watch, 1993).

5 Samir al-Khalil, the alias used by Iraqi author Kanan Makiya, provided a graphic description of political repression in Saddam Hussein’s Iraq in his 1989 study, The Republic of Fear (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989).

6 Charles Tripp, A History of Iraq (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 251.

7 Daniel Yergin, The Prize (New York: Free Press, 1991), p. 767.

8 A transcript of the Glaspie-Hussein interview is reproduced in Phyllis Bennis and Michel Moushabeck, eds., Beyond the Storm: A Gulf Crisis Reader (New York: Olive Branch, 1991), pp. 391–396.

9 Jehan S. Rajab, Invasion Kuwait: An English Woman’s Tale (London: Radcliffe Press, 1993), p. 1.

10 Heikal, Illusion of Triumph, pp. 196–198.

11 Ibid., p. 207.

12 Rajab, Invasion Kuwait, pp. 55, 99–100.

13 Heikal, Illusion of Triumph, p. 250.

14 Mohammed Abdulrahman Al-Yahya, Kuwait: Fall and Rebirth (London: Kegan Paul International, 1993), p. 86.

15 Rajab, Invasion Kuwait, pp. 14–19.

16 Ibid., pp. 73–74; Al-Yahya, Kuwait: Fall and Rebirth, pp. 87–88.

17 Rajab, Invasion Kuwait, pp. 43–45.

18 Ibrahim al-Marashi, “The Nineteenth Province: The Invasion of Kuwait and the 1991 Gulf War from the Iraqi Perspective” (D.Phil. thesis, Oxford, 2004), p. 92.

19 Abdul Bari Atwan, The Secret History of Al-Qa’ida (London: Abacus, 2006), pp. 37–38.

20 “Declaration of Jihad Against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Sanctuaries,” reprinted in Gilles Kepel and Jean-Pierre Milelli, eds., Al-Qaeda in Its Own Words (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 47-50. See also Bin Ladin’s CNN interview in ibid., pp. 51–52.

21 Heikal, Illusion of Triumph, pp. 15–16.

22 Ibid., p. 230.

23 Ibid.

24 Ibid., p. 234.

25 Ibid., p. 13.

26 Sari Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country: A Palestinian Life (London: Halban, 2007), p. 318.

27 Rajab, Invasion Kuwait, p. 181.

28 Theodor Hanf, Coexistence in Wartime Lebanon: Decline of a State and Rise of a Nation (London: I. B. Tauris, 1993), p. 319.

29 Ibid., p. 570.

30 Ibid., p. 595.

31 Ibid., p. 616.

32 Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions (London: I. B. Tauris, 1988).

33 Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country, p. 337.

34 Hanan Ashrawi, This Side of Peace: A Personal Account (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), p. 75.

35 Ibid., pp. 82–84.

36 Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country, p. 342.

37 The full text of Haidar Abdul Shafi’s lecture is reproduced on the Jerusalem Media and Communications Center website, http://www.jmcc.org/documents/haidarmad.htm.

38 Transcriptions of all opening and closing speeches by heads of delegations to Madrid are reproduced on the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs website, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Archive/. Israeli historian Amitzur Ilan attributes “true responsibility for the murder” of Bernadotte to Shamir and two other LEHI leaders; Ilan, Bernadotte in Palestine, 1948 (Houndmills, UK, and London: Macmillan, 1989), p. 233.

39 Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall, p. 500.

40 Ashrawi, This Side of Peace, p. 212.

41 Ahmed Qurie (‘Abu Ala’), From Oslo to Jerusalem: The Palestinian Story of the Secret Negotiations (London: I. B. Tauris, 2006), p. 58.

42 Ibid., p. 59.

43 Yezid Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 656–658.

44 Ashrawi, This Side of Peace, p. 259.

45 Qurie, From Oslo to Jerusalem, p. 279.

46 Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), p. 547.

47 World Bank, “Poverty in the West Bank and Gaza,” Report No. 22312-GZ, June 18, 2001.

48 The construction of new settlements violated Art. 31 of the Oslo II accords, which stipulated: “Neither side shall initiate or take any step that will change the status of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip pending the outcome of the permanent status negotiations.”

49 B’tselem, the Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, “Land Grab: Israel’s Settlement Policy in the West Bank,” May 2002, p. 8.

50 Ibid., pp. 433–444.

51 Bob Woodward, Bush at War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), p. 35.

Epilogue

1 Osama bin Ladin’s television statement was broadcast on al-Jazeera television on October 7, 2001. An English transcription of his statement is posted on the BBC website, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1585636.stm.

2 Israeli statistics reproduced from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs website, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism.

3 All statistics relating to administrative detention, house demolition, and the Separation Barrier can be found on the B’Tselem website, http://www.btselem.org/english/list_of_Topics.asp.

4 “Bridging the Dangerous Gap Between the West and the Muslim World,” remarks prepared for delivery by Deputy Secretary Paul Wolfowitz at the World Affairs Council, Monterey, CA, May 3, 2002.

5 Secretary Colin L. Powell, “The U.S.–Middle East Partnership Initiative: Building Hope for the Years Ahead,” lecture delivered to the Heritage Foundation, Washington, DC, 2002.

6 White House spokesman Gordon Johndroe, quoted in the Guardian, December 27, 2008.