Notes

Prologue: Europe – a present with a past

1  G. Erler, ed., Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Werke, VIII, Faust, Berlin 1984, Faust I, 77.

2  As in, for example, N. Ferguson, Why the West Beat the Rest, London 2011.

3  For this and the following: Zigmantas Kiaupa, et al., Geschichte des Baltikums, Tallinn 2002.

4  Cf. P. Sztompka, From East Europeans to Europeans: Shifting Identities and Boundaries in the New Europe, Wassenaar 2004.

5  M. Kunze, ed., Winckelmann und Egypte, Tubingen 2003; D. Wildung, Preussen am Nil, Berlin 2002.

6  S. Marchand, Down from Olympus: Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750–1970, Princeton 1996.

7  M. Wellen, Die Deutschen sind im Treppenhaus. Der Fries Otto Geyers in der Alte Nationalgalerie, Cologne 2002.

8  Peter Rietbergen, ‘Orientalisme: een theorie van ficties – de fictie van een theorie? Een poging to contextualisering en herinterpretatie’, Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 111 (1998), 545–75, esp. 552–70.

9  Some surveys: C. Curcio, Europa: Storia d’un Idea I–II, Florence 1958; J.-B. Duroselle, L’Idée d’Europe dans l’histoire, Paris 1965; H. Foerster, Europa: Geschichte einer politischen Idee, Munich 1967.

10  G. Colli, M. Montinari, eds, Fr. Nietzsche: Kritische Gesamtausgabe der Werke, III/2, Berlin 1973 [=Fr. Nietzsche, Nachgelassene Schriften, 1870–1873: Ueber Wahrheit und Lüge im aussermoralischen Sinne I], 378.

11  For example, his Capitalism and Material Life, 1400–1800, London 1973, with his Afterthoughts, Baltimore 1977, and then elaborated as Civilization and Capitalism. Also, his Grammaire des Civilisations, Paris 1987. However, there is, I find, little of a really unifying concept behind Braudel’s often rambling writings.

12  One may think of his The Civilizing Process, I–II, Oxford 1978, 1982, though these two volumes do seem to follow two different strands of thought.

13  Obviously, this is not to say that such theories cannot be fruitful. Yet I find, for example, G. Arrighi, The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power and the Origins of Our Times, London 1994, not entirely convincing.

14  For a spirited defence of the historian’s craft against some of the sillier post-modernist claims, see R. Evans, In Defense of History, London 1994.

15  The dangers of such an approach are evident in the recent and surely ridiculous effort by H. Bloom, The Western Canon, New York 1994; of the 26 authors included, about three-quarters are Anglo-Saxon.

16  B. Geremek, The Common Roots of Europe, London 1996, gives an interesting, short survey of the genesis of the concept of Europe; he also argues that, at the end of the twentieth century, the notion of European civilization is felt rather more strongly in central than in western Europe. Ph. Longworth, The Making of Eastern Europe, London 1992, goes into the long history of the diverging paths of east and west. Ernest Gellner, Conditions of Liberty, London 1994, seems to view the ancient German lands as the frontier region between east and west.

17  See also P. Burke, ‘Did Europe exist before 1700?’, History of European Ideas 1 (1980), 21–9.

18  For example, A. Corbin, Time, Desire and Horror, Oxford 1995, viii–ix.

1  Before ‘Europe’: towards an agricultural and sedentary society

1  M.F. Ashley-Montagu, Edward Tyson, 1650–1708, and the Rise of Human and Comparative Anatomy in England, London 1943.

2  D.J. Boorstin, The Discoverers, II, New York 1991, 888–90.

3  For a stimulating, though debated view: D. and A. Premack, Original Intelligence. Unlocking the Mystery of Who We Are, New York 2004.

4  For this and the following paragraphs: G. Bosinski, Homo Sapiens, Paris 1990; P. Mellar, C. Stringer, eds, The Human Revolution, Edinburgh 1989; R. Klein, The Human Career, Chicago 1989; C. Gamble, The Paleolithic Settlement of Europe, Cambridge 1986.

5  P. Mellar, The Neanderthal Legacy: An Archaeological Perspective from Western Europe, Princeton 1996. See also R. Foley, Humans before Humanity, London 1995.

6  See S. Oppenheimer, Out of Africa’s Eden: The Peopling of the World, Jeppestown 2003.

7  See P. Bahn, J. Vertut, Images of the Ice Age, London 1988. The sexual interpretations of A. Leroi-Gourhan, The Art of Prehistoric Man in Western Europe, London 1968, are now being widely debated.

8  See the interpretations of J. Clottes, D. Lewis-Williams, Les Chamans de la préhistoire: transe et magie dans les grottes ornées, Paris 1996.

9  For a survey: Ph. Lieberman, Uniquely Human: The Evolution of Speech, Thought and Selfless Behaviour, Cambridge, Mass., 1991; J. Wind et al. eds, Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach, Dordrecht 1992.

10  T.D. Price, A.B. Gebauer, eds, Last Hunter, First Farmer, Santa Fé 1995.

11  A valuable survey: A. Sherratt, Economy and Society in Prehistoric Europe, Edinburgh 1997.

12  D.R. Harris, ed., Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, London 1996.

13  See for a survey A.B. Knapp, The History and Culture of Western Asia and Egypt, Chicago 1988; M. Silver, Economic Structures of the Ancient Near East, London 1986.

14  An impressive, comparative and long-term study of this region is J. Krejci, The Civilizations of Asia and the Middle East, London 1990.

15  See M. Beard, J. North, eds, Pagan Priests: Religion and Power in the Ancient World, New York 1990.

16  B.J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization, London 1991; J.N. Postgate, Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, London 1992.

17  J. Chadwick, The Mycenaean World, Cambridge 1976.

18  J.P. Mallory, In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth, London 1989. The Kurgan thesis has been most vociferously voiced by Maria Gimbutas, especially in the culmination of her life’s work: The Civilization of the Goddess: The World of Old Europe, San Francisco 1991.

19  C. Renfrew, Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins, London 1987.

20  N. Klengel, Hammurapi von Babylon und seine Zeit, Berlin 1977.

21  J.B. Pritchard, ed., Th.J. Meek, trans., The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts, Princeton 1958, 138–67, passim.

22  N.J.G. Pounds, An Historical Geography of Europe, 450 BC–AD 1330, Cambridge 1973, 1–16.

23  See C. Bailey, ed., Hunter-Gatherer Economy in Prehistory: A European Perspective, Cambridge 1983.

24  J. Hoddes, The Domestication of Europe, London 1990.

25  See J. Bintloff, ed., Europe’s Social Evolution: Archaeological Perspectives, Bradford 1984.

26  M. Gimbutas, The Civilization of the Goddess: The World of Old Europe, San Francisco 1991.

27  S. Piggott, The Earliest Wheeled Transport, from the Atlantic Coast to the Caspian Sea, London 1984.

28  E.M. Brumfiel, T.K. Earle, eds, Specialisation, Exchange and Complex Societies, Cambridge 1987.

29  See N.K. Sandars, The Sea Peoples, London 1978; A. Harding, The Myceneans and Europe, London 1984; J. Bouzek, The Aegean, Anatolia and Europe: Cultural Interrelations in the Second Millennium BC, Lund 1985.

30  See V.R.d’A. Desborough, The Last Mycenaeans and their Successors, Oxford 1964.

31  See P. Johnson, Civilization of the Holy Land, London 1979; J. Maier, Geschichte des Judentums im Altertum, Darmstadt 1989.

32  J.H. Hayes, J.M. Miller, eds, Israelite and Judaean History, London 1977.

33  S. Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians, London 1973.

34  P. Mathiae, Ebla: un impero ritrovato, Milan 1977.

35  Cf. G. Nisbit, Ancient Greece in Film and Popular Culture, Bristol 2004.

36  O. Murray, Early Greece, London 1980; A. Snodgrass, Archaic Greece: The Age of Experiment, London 1980.

37  J. Latacz, Troy and Homer, Oxford 2004.

38  W. Burkert, The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence in Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age, Cambridge 1992; orig. Munich 1984.

39  J. Bleicken, Die Athenische Demokratie, Paderborn 1986; C. Farrar, The Origins of Democratic Thinking: The Invention of Politics in Classical Athens, Cambridge 1988; J. Ober, Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens, Princeton 1989; D. Stockton, The Classical Athenian Democracy, Oxford 1990.

40  See the essay by Ch. Hedricks in R. Osborne, S. Hornblower, eds, Ritual, Finance, Politics: Athenian Democratic Accounts Presented to D. Lewis, Oxford 1993.

41  In a very interesting study, P. Vidal-Nacquet, Politics Ancient and Modern, London 1995, explores the ways in which widely diverse notions about Greek democracy have been formulated since the Renaissance, always to support contemporary ideas about politics.

42  From A. de Sélincourt, trans., Herodotus, The Histories, Harmondsworth 1972, III, 8–83, 238–40.

43  A fine survey: S. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, London 1995.

44  A.R. Hands, Charities and Social Aid in Greece and Rome, London 1968.

45  See A. Richlin, ed., Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome, Oxford 1992.

46  W. Burkert, Greek Religion, Cambridge, Mass., 1985.

47  D. Cohen, Law, Violence and Community in Classical Athens, Cambridge 1995.

48  R. Buxton, Imaginary Greece: The Contexts of Mythology, Cambridge 1994.

49  S. Goldhill, Love, Sex and Tragedy: How the Ancient World Shapes our Lives, London 2004.

50  Chr. Meier, The Political Art of Greek Tragedy, London 1993, focusing on Aeschylus, provides a very interesting discussion.

51  R. Meiggs, The Athenian Empire, Oxford 1972.

52  T.B.L. Webster, Athenian Culture and Society, London 1973.

53  J. Boardman, The Greeks Overseas, Harmondsworth 1973.

54  For these questions see, e.g., G. Lloyd, Magic, Reason and Experiment. Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek science, London 1999, and his The Ambition of Curiosity. Understanding the World in Ancient Greece and China, Cambridge 2002.

55  T. Champion, J.V. Megaw, eds, Settlement and Society: Aspects of West European Prehistory in the First Millennium BC, Leicester 1985.

56  B. Cunliffe, The Celtic World, London 1979.

57  N. Chadwick, The Celts, Harmondsworth 1984; N.N., Au temps des Celtes, Ve–Ie siècle avant J-C, Daoulas 1986.

58  J. Collis, The European Iron Age, London 1984.

59  See M.C. Fernandez Castro, Iberia in Prehistory, London 1995, which gives an excellent survey of the history of the peninsula in the first millennium BC.

60  J.-P. Mohen, A. Duval et al. eds, Les Princes Celtes et la Méditerranée, Paris 1988; B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction, London 1988.

61  A very readable survey: S. Moscati, ed., I Celti: la prima Europa, Venice 1991.

62  General surveys: W. Fritzemeyer, Christenheit und Europa: zur Geschichte des europäischen Gemeinschaftsgefühls von Dante bis Leibniz, Munich-Berlin 1931; P. Brezzi, Realtà e mito dell’Europa dall’antichità ai giorni nostri, Rome 1954.

63  The oldest known ‘map of the world’ shows the earth divided into two parts: Lexicon der Alten Welt, Zürich-Stuttgart, 1947.

64  De Sélincourt, Herodotus, IV, 37–45.

65  M. Führmann, Europa: zur Geschichte einer kulturellen und politischen Idee, Konstanz 1981, 7, n. 3.

66  F.M. Snowden, Jr, Before Color Prejudice: The Ancient View of Blacks, Cambridge, Mass., 1993.

67  J. Jüthner, Hellenen und Barbaren, Leipzig 1923; H. Diller, ‘Die Hellenen-Barbaren Antithese im Zeitalter der Perserkriege’, in Grecs et Barbares: entretiens sur l’antiquité classique, VIII, Geneva 1962, 37 sqq.

68  See D. Wood, The Power of Maps, London 1993.

69  P. Cartledge, Alexander the Great. The Hunt for a New Past, London 2004.

70  P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age, Berkeley 1990. The term ‘Hellenism’ was coined by the nineteenth-century German historian J.C. Droysen, in his famous study Hellenismus, 1836–43.

71  See also A. Bullock et al. eds, Images and Ideologies: Self-definition in the Hellenistic World, Berkeley 1995.

72  See R.S. Agarwal, Trade Centres and Routes in Northern India (c. 322 BC–AD 500), Delhi 1982.

73  E.S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome I–II, Berkeley 1984.

74  For this essay: K. Clark, The Nude: A Study of Ideal Art (London 1980); C. Hitchens, The Elgin Marbles. Should they be returned to Greece? (London 1987); T. Eagleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic (Oxford 1990); H. Bulle, Der schöne Mensch im Altertum. Eine Geschichte des Körperideals (Munich 1992); A. Stewart, Art, Desire and the Body in Ancient Greece (Cambridge 1997); W. St Clair, Lord Elgin and the Marbles (Oxford 1998); The Oxford Companion to the Body (Oxford 2003); The Model as Muse (New York 1909); M. Squire, The Art of the Body: Antiquity and its Legacy (London 2011).

2  Rome and its empire: the effects and limits of cultural integration

1  Cf, for example, M. Winkler, ‘Gladiator’: Film and History, Oxford 2004.

2  E. MacNamara, The Etruscans, London 1990, but also, because of its use of recent archaeological material: G. Barker, Th. Rasmussen, The Etruscans, London 1996.

3  See, for example, J. Wernicke, Die Kelten in Italien: Die Einwanderrungen und die frühen Handelsbeziehungen zu den Etruskern, Stuttgart 1989.

4  R.M. Ogilvie, Early Rome and the Etruscans, Glasgow 1979.

5  See R.P. Saller, Patriarchy, Property and Death in the Roman Family, Cambridge 1994.

6  A. Alföldy, Early Rome and the Latins, Ann Arbor 1965; A. Keaveney, Rome and the Unification of Italy, London 1987.

7  J. Bleicken, Die Verfassung der Römischen Republik, Paderborn 1978; L.R. Taylor, Roman Voting Assemblies, Ann Arbor 1990.

8  J. Heurgon, Rome et la Méditerrannée occidentale jusq’aux guerres puniques, Paris 1969.

9  Z. Yavetz, Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Rome, Oxford 1988.

10  G. Rickman, The Corn-Supply of Ancient Rome, Oxford 1980.

11  P. Veyne, Le Pain et le Cirque, Paris 1976.

12  K. Christ, Krise und Untergang der Römischen Republik, Darmstadt 1979.

13  A.H.M. Jones, Augustus, London 1977.

14  See F. Millar, The Roman Empire and its Neighbours, London 1967.

15  H.H. Scullard, Roman Britain: Outpost of the Empire, London 1979.

16  A survey: J.F. Drinkwater, Roman Gaul: The Three Provinces, 58 BC–AD 260, London 1983, 35–53, 143–60.

17  For a survey: R.M. Cimino, ed., Ancient Rome and India: Commercial and Cultural Contacts between the Roman World and India, New Delhi 1994.

18  See, for example, M. Benabou, La Résistance africaine à la romanisation, Paris 1975.

19  R. Chevallier, Les Voies romaines, Paris 1972.

20  For the following: F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, London 1977.

21  S.R.F. Price, Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor, Cambridge 1984.

22  C.G. Starr, The Roman Empire, 27 BC–AD 476: A Study in Survival, Oxford 1982.

23  An up-to-date and interesting survey: J.S. Richardson, The Romans in Spain, London 1996.

24  F. de Zuleta, ed., The Institutes of Gaius, Oxford 1946, I, i–xi, xlviii–xlix.

25  N. Lewis, M. Reinhold, eds, Roman Civilization: Selected Readings. II: The Empire, New York 1990, 500–5, 509.

26  J.F. Gardner, Women in Roman Law and Society, London 1986. See for a nuanced view of patriarchical authority Saller, Patriarchy.

27  See Suetonius, in his section on Augustus of De Vita Caesarum, 89; P. Harvey, The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, Oxford 1937, 451.

28  Horace, Odes, III, 6.

29  B. Severy, Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Roman Empire, London 2004; B. Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy, Oxford 2004.

30  B. Isaac, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity, Princeton 2004. See also: F.M. Snowden, Jr, Blocks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience, Cambridge, Mass., 1970.

31  S.F. Bonner, Education in Ancient Rome, London 1977; M. Beard et al. eds, Literacy in the Roman World, Ann Arbor 1991.

32  From J.A. Shelton, As the Romans Do: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History, New York 1988, 32–3, 106, 117.

33  J. Balsdon, Romans and Aliens, London 1979, still provides a very readable overview.

34  C.R. Whittaker, Rome and its Frontiers. The Dynamics of Empire, London 2004.

35  B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction, London 1988.

36  This and the following quotations from B. Cunliffe, ‘Iron Age societies in Western Europe and beyond, 800–140 BC’, in B. Cunliffe, ed., The Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of Europe, Oxford 1994, 361, 362, 363.

37  B. Kruger, ed., Die Germanen, I–II, Berlin 1976, 1986; R. Christlein, Die Alamannen, Stuttgart 1978; P. Perrin, L.-C. Feffer, Les Francs, I–II, Paris 1987; W. Menguin, Die Longobarden, Stuttgart 1986.

38  N. Downs, ed., Basic Documents in Medieval History, New York 1959, 9, 10.

39  A survey: M. Todd, The Early Germans, London 1992.

40  A discussion of the slow development of tribes into ‘proto’-states: L. Hedeager, Iron-Age Societies: From Tribe to State in Northern Europe, 500 BC to AD 700, London 1992.

41  As examples: W.A. van Es, Wijster: A Native Village beyond the Roman Frontier, Groningen 1967; M. Stenberger, Vallhagar, Stockholm 1955.

42  N. Downs, Basic Documents in Medieval History, 11.

43  A.A. Lund, Zum Germanenbild der Römer: Eine Einführung in die antike Ethnographie, Heidelberg 1990.

44  F. Dvornik, The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilisation, London 1956.

45  Ammianus Marcellinus, History (Loeb Classical Library), XXXI, ii.

46  Ammianus Marcellinus, History (Loeb Classical Library), XVI, iv.

47  For this essay: P. Koschaker, Europa und das römische Recht (Munich 1966); J.D. Harke, Römisches Recht. Von der klassischen Zeit bis zu den modernen Kodifikationen (Munich 2008); J. Johrendt, a.o.a., Rom und die Regionen (Berlin 2012).

3  An empire lost – an empire won? Christianity and the Roman Empire

1  M. Hengel, Juden, Griechen und Barbaren: Aspekte des Judentums in vorchristlicher Zeit, Stuttgart 1976.

2  J. Collins and G. Sterling, eds, Hellenism in the Land of Israel, Notre Dame 2000; L. Levine, Judaism and Hellenism in Antiquity: Conflict or Confluence? Berkeley 1999.

3  Obviously, biographies of Jesus abound, despite the dearth of reliable sources. A stimulating account is J.D. Crossan, The Historical Jesus. The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, New York 1991.

4  M. Jack Suggs et al. eds, The Oxford Study Bible, New York 1992, 1271 sqq.

5  See E.P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, New York 1993.

6  R.E. Brown, The Birth of the Messiah, London 1994.

7  Recently, an effort has been made by G. Vermes, The Authentic Gospel of Jesus, Oxford 2003.

8  Many have speculated about early contacts between Israel and India: e.g. H. Goodman, ed., Between Jerusalem and Benares, Albany 1994. Obviously, trade continued to be a medium for cultural transfer. Cf. J. Innes Miller, The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire, Oxford 1969.

9  A competent survey of Christian Mariology is M. Warner, Alone of All her Sex. The Myth and the Cult of the Virgin Mary, New York 1985.

10  R. Turcan, Mithra et le mithraicisme, Paris 1993; D. Ulansay, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries: Cosmology and Salvation in the Ancient World, New York 1985; M.J. Vermaseren, Die Orientalische Religionen im Römerreich, Leiden 1981. M. Clauss, Cultores Mithrai. Die Anhängerschaft des Mithras-Kultes, Stuttgart 1992, gives the archaeological sites.

11  Cfr. W. Sommerfeld, Der Aufstieg Marduks, Kevelaer 1982.

12  Warner, op. cit., is rather vague about this.

13  Cfr. F. Dunand, Isis: mère des dieux, Paris 2000; T.T. Tinh, Isis lactans, Leiden 1973.

14  For a survey, see A. Böhlig, Der Manichaeismus, Zürich 1980, and M. Tardieu, Le manichéisme, Paris 1981. Cf. A. Böhlig, ‘Der Synkretismus des Mani’, in A. Dietrich, ed., Synkretismus im Syrisch-Persischen Kulturgebiet, Göttingen 1975, 144–69.

15  J. van Oort, Jerusalem and Babylon: A Study into Augustine’s ‘City of God’ and the Sources of his Doctrine of the Two Cities, Leiden 1991.

16  R.M. Ogilvie, The Romans and their Gods, London 1979.

17  H.W. Obbink, Cybele, Isis en Mithras, Amsterdam 1965; M.J. Vermaseren, Die orientalischen Religionen im Römerreich, Leiden 1981.

18  For this and the following quotation: N. Lewis, M. Reinhold, eds, Roman Civilization: Selected Readings. II: The Empire, New York 1990, 542, 548–9.

19  R. MacMullen, Christianizing the Roman Empire, AD 100–400, New Haven 1984.

20  For a survey: W. den Boer, ed., Romanitas et Christianitas, Amsterdam 1973. Also R. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean World from the Second Century AD to the Conversion of Constantine, Harmondsworth 1986.

21  See P. Brown, The World of Late Antiquity, London 1971, 53.

22  Lewis, Reinhold, Roman Civilization, 553–4.

23  B. Knopf, Ausgewählte Märtyrerakten, Tübingen 1929, third edition, no. 6.

24  Lewis, Reinhold, Roman Civilization, 556–7.

25  N. Downs, ed., Basic Documents in Medieval History, Princeton 1959, 17.

26  Cl. Pharr, trans., The Theodosian Code, Princeton 1952, XVI, x, 12.

27  Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica, X, vii.

28  R. MacMullen, Constantine, London 1987.

29  See Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, but also J. Blecken, Constantin der Grosse und die Christen: Überlegungen zur konstantinischen Wende, Munich 1992, 64 sqq.

30  See the analysis in E. Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels, London 1982.

31  R. Lim, Public Disputation, Power and Social Order in Late Antiquity, Berkeley 1996.

32  Pharr, Theodosian Code, XVI, i, 2.

33  Cf. M.R. Salzman, The Making of a Christian Aristocracy, New Haven 2004.

34  Pharr, Theodosian Code, IX, xvi, 4.

35  Pharr, Theodosian Code, II, viii, 18.

36  Pharr, Theodosian Code, XVI, x, 12 and 19.

37  Pharr, Theodosian Code, XVI, v, 62.

38  See P. Heather, Goths and Romans, 332–489, Oxford 1994, who argues that the Goths entering the Empire were not yet a settled group.

39  P. Scardigli, Lingua e Storia dei Goti, Florence 1964 [translated as Die Goten: Sprache und Kultur, Munich 1973].

40  Scardigli, Lingua, 95–132.

41  See E.A. Thompson, Romans and Barbarians: The Decline of the Western Empire, Madison 1982.

42  For a survey of these two centuries: A. Cameron, The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity: AD 395–600, London 1993.

43  Cf. J. Liebeschuetz, Decline and Fall of the Roman City, Oxford 2001.

44  See R. van Dam, Leadership and Community in Late Antique Gaul, Berkeley 1985, esp. 141–52.

45  J. Lindsay, Byzantium into Europe: The Story of Byzantium as the First Europe (AD 326–1204), London 1952; J. Décarreaux, Byzance ou l’autre Rome, Paris 1982; M. Whittow, The Making of Orthodox Byzantium, 600–1025, London 1993.

46  J. Vogt, Kulturwelt und Barbaren: zum Menschheitsbild der spätantiken Gesellschaft, Wiesbaden 1976, 21. See also M. Pavan, La politica gotica di Teodosio nella publicistica del suo tempo, Rome 1964.

47  Vogt, Kulturwelt, 24.

48  Lewis, Reinhold, Roman Civilization, 627.

49  G. Cardona et al., Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans, Philadelphia 1970; W.B. Lockwood, A Panorama of Indo-European Languages, London 1972.

50  One among many vehement denials of any outside influence on India is P. Choudhury, The Aryans: A Modern Myth, New Delhi 1993.

4  Towards one religion for all

1  See J. Fischer, Oriëns-Occidens-Europa: Begriff und Gedanke ‘Europa’ im späten Antike und im frühen Mittelalter, Wiesbaden 1957.

2  G. Wijdeveld, trans., Augustinus: De Stad van God, Baarn-Amsterdam 1984, 760.

3  J.W. McCrindle, ed., Cosmas: The Christian Topography, London 1897.

4  See J.-G. Arentzen, Imago Mundi Cartographica: Studien zur Bildlichkeit mittelaltlicher Welt- und Ökumenekarten unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Zusammenhanges von Text und Bild, Munich 1980, which, on plates 1 and 1a, has the Kosmas map.

5  R.L. Wilken, The Christians as the Romans Saw Them, New Haven 1982, 79 sqq.

6  Some testimonies in M. Führmann, Europa: zur Geschichte einer kulturellen und politischen Idee, Konstanz 1981, 23, n. 10.

7  See N. Cohn, Noah’s Flood: The Genesis Story in Western Thought, Yale 1996.

8  Some testimonies in Führmann, Europa, 23, n. 10.

9  The text is in Th. Mommsen, ed., Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Auctores antiquissimi, XIII, Berlin 1898, 149 sqq.

10  J. Vogt, Kulturwelt und Barbaren: zum Menschheitsbild der spätantiken, Wiesbaden 1976, 39.

11  For the Merovingians see I. Wood, The Merovingian Kingdoms, 450–751, London 1993.

12  L. Duchesne, ed., Liber pontificalis, Paris 1886, 420.

13  B. Pullan, ed., Sources for the History of Medieval Europe, from the Mid-eighth to the Mid-thirteenth Century, Oxford 1966, 176–7.

14  P. de Letter, ed., St. Prosper of Acquitaine, The Call of All Nations, London 1950, 46.

15  See R. Fletcher, The Conversion of Europe: From Paganism to Christianity, AD 371–138, New York 1997.

16  P. Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism, London 1974.

17  The text is in R. Rau, ed., Briefe des Bonifatius: Willibalds Leben des Bonifatius, Darmstadt 1968, 483, 30; 41–2; 493, 19–23.

18  J. Haldon, The State and the Tributary Mode of Production, London 1993, provides a stimulating reappraisal of developments in the west, compared with, especially, the Ottoman Empire.

19  See R. McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751–987, London 1983, but also the excellent survey by P. Riché, Les Carolingiens: une famille qui fit l’Europe, Paris 1983.

20  See R. Hodges, D. Whitehouse, Muhammad, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe: Archaeology and the Pirenne Thesis, Ithaca 1983.

21  Bartholomew of Lucca, in the fourteenth century, quoted in J. van Laarhoven, Europa in de Bijbel: kanttekeningen bij een middeleeuws concept, Nijmegen 1991, 23.

22  J.W. Smit, ‘Karel en zijn Kring’, Lampas 18/2 (1985), 98–108.

23  See the discussion in Nascità dell’Europa ed Europa Carolingia: un’equazione da verificare, Spoleto 1981.

24  See a letter from Alcuin, AD 790, in E. Dümmler, ed., Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Epistolae, IV, Berlin 1895, 32.

25  See also A. Barbero, Charlemagne. Father of a Continent, Berkeley 2004.

26  W. Henze, ed., Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Epistolae, VII, Hanover 1928, 388, letter from Emperor Louis II to Emperor Basilius I.

27  Pullan, Sources, 27–8.

28  N. Downs, Documents in Medieval History, New York 1959, 33.

29  See B. Bischoff, Manuscripts and Libraries in the Age of Charlemagne, Cambridge 1994, 61.

30  See T. Stoianovich, ed., Balkan Civilization: The First and Last Europe, London 1992.

31  See R. Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350, Princeton 1993.

32  A. Hofmeister, ed., Ottonis Episcopi Frisingensis, Chronica, V, prologue, in Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum in usu Scholarum, Hanover 1912, 227.

33  For the background the important synthesis by P. Riché, Education et culture dans l’Occident barbare, VIe–VIIIe siècle, Paris 1995.

34  For an example: V.I.J. Flint, The Rise of Magic in Early Medieval Europe, Oxford 1991.

35  J.C. Russell, The Germanization of Early Medieval Christianity, Oxford 1994.

36  See P. Biller, A. Hudson, eds, Heresy and Literacy, 1000–1530, Cambridge 1996; R. Copeland, ed., Criticism and Dissent in the Middle Ages, Cambridge 1996.

37  For a survey: C.H. Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages, London 1984. A useful reconsideration: L. Milis, Angelic Monks and Earthly Men, Woodbridge 1992.

38  For an example: N. Metzer, Cultural Interplay in the Eighth Century: The Trier Gospels and the Making of a Scriptorium at Echternach, Cambridge 1994.

39  See P. Dronke, Intellectuals and Poets in Medieval Europe, Rome 1992.

40  See Bischoff, Manuscripts, 134 sqq. on the role of Benedictine monasteries.

41  E.M. Wischermann, Grundlagen einer Cluniacensische Bibliotheksgeschichte, Munich 1988, 8 sqq.

42  P. Dronke, Women Writers of the Middle Ages: A Critical Study of Texts from Perpetua (d. 203) to Marguerite Parete (d. 1310), Cambridge 1984.

43  See J.L. David, R.K. Ehrmann, eds, The Letters of Hildegard of Bingen, London 1994; J. Buehler, ed., trans., Schriften der Heiligen Hildegard von Bingen, Frankfurt 1980; P. Dronke, Poetic Individuality in the Middle Ages, Oxford 1970, 150–79.

44  For a later example: C.B. Bouchard, Holy Entrepreneurs: Cistercians, Knights and Economic Change in Twelfth-century Burgundy, Ithaca 1991.

45  For this essay: P. Rietbergen, Karel de Grote. Vader van Europa? (Amersfoort 2009); J. Fried, Karl der Grosse: Gewalt und Glaube. Eine Biographie (Munich 2014).

5  Three worlds around the Inner Sea: western Christendom, eastern Christendom and Islam

1  I have borrowed the idea from G. Fowder, Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Princeton 1992.

2  For a survey: A. Hourani, A History of the Arab Peoples, Cambridge, Mass., 1991, and P. Crone, Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, London 1988, who argues that the trade routes, although profitable, were not a source of great riches and of a specific culture based upon it which would account for the genesis of Islam.

3  For a vast survey of the relationship between the three monotheistic religions, see: F.J. Peters, The Monotheists. Jews, Christians and Muslims in Conflict and Competition, Princeton 2004.

4  A. Özek, ed., The Holy Qur’an with English Translation, Istanbul 1992.

5  See H. Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates, New York 1986.

6  For a survey: A. Dhanun Taha, The Muslim Conquest and Settlement of North Africa and Spain, London 1989.

7  See also the interesting survey by: H. Kennedy, The Court of the Caliphs, London 2004.

8  For the following: A.Y. al-Hassan, a.o. eds, Science and Technology in Islam, Paris 2001.

9  See Ph.K. Hitti, The Arabs: A Short History, Chicago 1964, 120.

10  R. Morris, Monks and Laymen in Byzantium, 843–1138, Cambridge 1995.

11  D. Baker, ed., Relations between East and West in the Middle Ages, Edinburgh 1973.

12  R. Byron, D. Talbot Rice, The Birth of Western Painting, New York 1968; see also J. Beckwith, Studies in Byzantine and Medieval Western Art, London 1989.

13  D.J. Geanakoplos, Interaction of the ‘Sibling’ Byzantine and Western Cultures in the Middle Ages and Italian Renaissance (330–1600), New Haven 1976, provides an extensive survey that yet shows the paucity of proof for really intense interaction.

14  A. Davids, ed., The Empress Theophano: Byzantium and the west at the Turn of the First Millennium, Cambridge 1996.

15  See R.P. Hughes, I. Piperno, eds, Christianity and the eastern Slavs II: Russian Culture in Medieval Times, Berkeley 1994.

16  For a survey: B. Gasparov, O. Raevsky-Hughes, eds, Christianity and the eastern Slavs I: Slavic Culture in the Middle Ages, Berkeley 1993; D. Obolensky, Byzantium and the Slavs, Crestwood 1994.

17  A. Papadakis, The Christian East and the Rise of the Papacy, Crestwood 1994.

18  For the background: W. Montgomery Watt, Muslim–Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions, London 1992.

19  For a balanced survey: C. Cahen, Orient et occident au temps des croisades, Paris 1983.

20  H. Hagenmeyer, ed., Fulcher von Chartres, Historia Hierosolymitana, Heidelberg 1913, 130–8, passim.

21  N. Downs, ed., Basic Documents in Medieval History, New York 1959, 75–6.

22  F. Gabrieli, trans., ed., Arab Historians of the Crusades, 1957; London 1964, 1984, 10–11, 79–80, 83–4, 82.

23  See S. Schein, Fideles Crucis: The Papacy, the West and the Recovery of the Holy Land, 1274–1314, Oxford 1991; N. Hously, The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar, Oxford 1992.

24  W. Stubbs, ed., Willelmi Malmesburiensis, De Gestis Regum Anglorum, London 1887, 394–8, passim.

25  B. Kedar, Crusade and Mission. European approaches toward the Muslims (Princeton 1984); W. Montgomery Watt, Muslim-Christian Encounters: perceptions and misperceptions (London 1991); N. Bonaparte, Campagnes d’Egypte et de Syrie (Paris 1998), 140 sqq; 275; J. Dodds, Architecture and Ideology in Early Medieval Spain(London 1990); M. Reeves, Muhammad in Europe. A thousand years of Western myth-making (New York 2003); P. Rietbergen, Cultuurwegen, cultuurwerelden: Europa en/in Eurazië (Nijmegen 2008), 59–75.

6  One world, many traditions: elite culture and popular cultures: cosmopolitan norms and regional variations

1  For the following: P. Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism, London 1978; G. Duby, The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century, London 1978.

2  See H. Clarke, B. Ambrosiani, Towns in the Viking Age, London 1995.

3  B. Pullan, ed., Sources for the History of Medieval Europe, from the Mid-eighth to the Mid-thirteenth Century, Oxford 1966, 237–8.

4  ‘Formulae Turonenses’, edited by K. Zeumer, Monumenta Germaniae historica: Formulae Merowingici et Karolingi Aevi, Hanover 1886, 158.

5  L. Vanderkindere, Ghislebert de Mons, Chronicon Hanoniense, Brussels 1904, 13–14.

6  Vanderkindere, Ghislebert, 119–20.

7  See the ‘iconoclastic’ vision proposed by Susan Reynolds in her magnificent study: Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted, Oxford 1994.

8  J. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State, Princeton 1970.

9  J.A. Hall, Powers and Liberties: The Causes and Consequences of the Rise of the West, Oxford 1985, 125 sqq., is highly illuminating on this and related issues.

10  The case defended by J. Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century, Chicago 1980, is definitely strong. It seems, however, that his argument for widespread acceptance of same-sex unions – in A Marriage of Likeness: Same-sex Unions in Pre-modern Europe, London 1995 – is less convincing.

11  J.B. Holloway et al. eds, Equally in God’s Image: Women in the Middle Ages, New York 1990; M. Williams, A. Echols, eds, Between Pit and Pedestal: Women in the Middle Ages, Princeton 1993.

12  See R.I. Moore, The Origins of European Dissent, Oxford 1985, 58.

13  For an example, see A. Classen, ed., Women as Protagonists and Poets in the German Middle Ages, Göttingen 1991; H. Solterer, The Master and Minerva: Disputing Women in French Medieval Culture, Berkeley 1995.

14  For a survey of the many aspects of the cult of Mary through the ages: N. Perry, L. Echevarria, Under the Heel of Mary, London 1989.

15  M. Halissy, Clean Maids, True Wives, Steadfast Widows: Chaucer’s Women and Medieval Codes of Conduct, Westport 1993.

16  Hall, Powers, 130–2.

17  For a survey: D. Sweeney, ed., Agriculture in the Middle Ages: Technology, Practice and Representation, Philadelphia 1996.

18  On indigenous developments in Europe: A. Pacey, The Maze of Ingenuity: Ideas and Idealism in the Development of Technology, Cambridge, Mass., 1976.

19  On the evolution of the water-mill since its early origins in the eastern parts of the Mediterranean: T.S. Reynolds, Stronger than a Hundred Men, Baltimore 1983.

20  J. Gimpel, The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages, London 1977.

21  J. Landes, The Field and the Forge. Population, production and power in the pre-industrial west, Oxford 2004.

22  G. Duby, The Early Growth of the European Economy, Ithaca 1977.

23  A.Y. al-Hassan, D.R. Hill, Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History, Cambridge 1986.

24  For the following: J. Needham, Science and Civilization in China, 7, Cambridge 1986, passim.

25  A.P. Smyth, King Alfred the Great, Oxford 1995.

26  J. Krynen, L’Empire du roi: idées et croyances politiques en France, XIIIe–XVe siècle, Paris 1993.

27  Cf. B. Reynolds, Kings and Communities in Western Europe, 900–1300, Oxford 1997, 34–5, 118–19.

28  Hall, Powers, 141 sqq.

29  For example, Krynen, L’Empire, for developments in France.

30  Ch. Tilly et al. eds, Cities and the Rise of States in Europe, AD 1000 to 1800, Oxford 1994, provides a sweeping interpretation. See also E. Pitz, Europaeisches Staedtewesen und Buergertum: von der Spaetantike bis zum hohen Mittelalter, Darmstadt 1991.

31  An interesting study is D. Harrison, The Early State and the Towns: Forms of Integration in Lombard Italy, AD 568–774, Lund 1993.

32  See the essays in R. Holt, ed., Houses and Households in Towns, 1000–1600, London 1998.

33  For a survey: D.C. North, The Rise of the Western World: A New Economic History, Cambridge 1976.

34  Pullan, Sources, 265–6.

35  For the importance of the towns for the growth of the European concept of freedom, see R.W. Davies, ed., The Origins of Modern Freedom in the West, Stanford 1995.

36  Ph. Dollinger, La Hanse, Paris 1962.

37  R.S. Lopez, I.W. Raymond, eds, Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World, New York 1955, 416–18, passim.

38  See Davies, The Origin of Modern Freedom, as well as G. Dilcher, ed., Respublica: Burgerschaft in Stadt und Staat, Berlin 1988.

39  W.-D. Heim, Romanen und Germanen in Charlemagnes Reich: Untersuchung zur Benennung Romanischer und Germanischer Völker, Sprachen und Länder in Französischen Dichtungen des Mittelalters, Munich 1984.

40  M.R. James, C.N.L. Brooke, R.A.B. Meyers, eds, Walter Map De Nugis Curialium: Courtiers’ Trifles, Oxford 1983, 73, 173, 169, 183.

41  L. Wieland, ed., Deutsche Chroniken. Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptorum qui vernacula lingua usi sunt, II, Hanover 1876; Zürich 1971, 115, 10; 116, 45; 133, 13–14; 139, 28–30; 150, 28–36.

42  See H.J. Graff, ed., Literacy and Social Development in the West, Cambridge 1982.

43  P. Strauch, ed., Jansen Enikels Werke. Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptorum qui vernacula lingua susi sunt III, Hanover 1900. For the passages quoted in this chapter: 55, 2,847–53; 382, 20,021; 484–5, 24,837, 24,843; 498, 25,524 sqq.; 499, 25,576; 536, 27,393; 549, 27,661.

44  Strauch, Jansen Enikel, 535, 27,509–11; 535, 27,501–4; 536, 27,523–5.

45  His ‘Noticia seculi’ have been published by H. Grundmann, H. Heimpel, eds, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Staatsschriften des späten Mittelalters I, 1, Stuttgart 1958; for this quote: 155–6.

46  See C. Beaune, Naissance de la nation française, Paris 1985, or its enlarged 2nd edition: The Birth of an Ideology: Myths and Symbols of Nation in Late Medieval France, Berkeley 1991.

47  F. Kempf, ‘Das Problem der Christianitas im 12. und 13. Jahrhundert’, Historisches Jahrbuch 79 (1960), 104 sqq.; P.E. Schramm, Kaiser, Rom und Renovatio, I, Darmstadt 1962, 3rd edition, 74 sqq.

48  R.F.M. Brouwer, trans., ed., Dante Alighieri, De Monarchia en andere politieke teksten, Baarn 1993, I, ch. 5; III, chs 13–15.

49  Ch.-V. Langlois, ed., P. Dubois, De Recuperatione Terrae Sanctae, Paris 1891, 1 sqq.

50  A. Gewirth, ed., trans., Marsiglio of Padua: The Defender of Peace, New York 1956.

51  See A. Erlande-Brandenburg, The Cathedral: The Social and Architectural Dynamics of Construction, Cambridge 1994.

52  L.J. Lekai, The Cistercians: Ideals and Reality, London 1977.

53  C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals, 939–1310, Philadelphia 1985.

54  A survey: A.S. Bernardi, S. Levin, eds, The Classics in the Middle Ages, Binghampton 1990.

55  An impressive case study: M.T. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record: England, 1066–1307, Oxford 1992.

56  See I.D. Reynolds, N.G. Wilson, Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature, Oxford 1991.

57  For Notker Balbulus: G.H. Pertz, ed., Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores, II, Hanover 1829, 330; his Gesta Karoli, in R. Rau, ed., Quellen zur Karolingischen Reichsgeschichte, III, Darmstadt 1964, 344, 366; for Nithard: Rau, I, Darmstadt 1962, 386, 448.

58  For the background of the concepts ‘little’ and ‘great’ tradition: P. Burke, Popular Culture in Europe, London 1978, 28.

59  For a still masterful survey: M. Bloch, La Société féodale, Paris 1968; orig. 1939–40.

60  B. Reynolds, trans., Dante Alighieri, la Vita Nuova, Harmondsworth 1980, 97.

61  Good reading is provided by J. Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Medieval Religion, London 1975; R. Stoppani, Le grandi vie di pellegrinaggio del medioevo: le Strade per Roma, Florence 1986.

62  A survey with many illustrations: N.N., Santiago. Camino de Europa: Culto y Cultura en la Peregrinación a Compostela, Santiago 1993.

63  D.G. Rossetti, trans., The New Life by Dante Alighieri, London 1904, sonnet 40.

64  N. Coghill, ed., trans., Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, Harmondsworth 1960, 20–1.

65  R. Lafont, La Geste de Roland, I–II, Paris 1991; W. van Emden, La Chanson de Roland, London 1995, gives the text of one of the many versions.

66  A good survey of the many elements that made up the ‘world of the knight’ is R. Barber, The Knight and Chivalry, London 1996.

67  M.E. Lacarra, El Poema de Mio Cid: realidad historica e ideologia, Madrid 1980. The text has been translated by P. Such, J. Hodgkinson, The Poem of my Cid, Warminster 1987.

68  S. Reynolds, Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted, Oxford 1995.

69  G. Duby, Les Trois ordres ou l’imaginaire du féodalisme, Paris 1978.

70  Ch. Potoin, ed., Oeuvres de Ghillebert de Lannoy, voyageur, diplomate et moraliste, Leuven 1878.

71  See Th. Bender, ed., The University and the City: From Medieval Origins to the Present, New York 1988.

72  A survey that is also a plea for the notion that this specific culture dominated Europe until the end of the eighteenth century is R.W. Southern, Scholastic Humanism and the Unification of Europe. I: Foundations, London 1995.

73  Pullan, Sources, 104.

74  Migne, Patrologia Latina, 178, cols 1339–49.

75  G. Makdisi, The Rise of Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West: With Special Reference to Scholasticism, Edinburgh 1990.

76  A. Lewis, The Islamic World and the West, AD 622–1492, New York 1970.

77  B. Reilly, The Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain, 1031–1157, London 1992.

78  A synthesis: S.K. Jayyusi, ed., The Legacy of Muslim Spain, Leiden 1992.

79  Cf. G. Andress, a.o. eds, Averroes and the Aristotelian Tradition, Leiden 1999.

80  Quoted in H.-J. Störig, Geschiedenis van de Filosofie, I, Utrecht 1972, 246–7.

81  N. Downs, ed., Documents in Medieval History, New York 1959, 134–5.

82  Pullan, Sources, 105–8.

83  For a history of the phenomenon of language as a constructor of identity: P. Burke, R. Porter, eds, Language, Self and Society, London 1991.

84  F.P. van Oostrom, Het Woord van Eer: Literatuur aan het Hollandse hof omstreeks 1400, Amsterdam 1987, 18–22.

85  S. Bertino, Le Strade della Civiltà: I grandi itinerari della Storia di ieri e di oggi, Milan 1984.

86  For this essay: J. Dunn, Democracy: the unfinished journey, 508 BC–1993 AD (Oxford 1994); A. Lijphart, Patterns of Democracy. Government forms and performance in thirty-six countries (New Haven 1999).

Interlude: the worlds of Europe, c.1400–1800

1  For a general survey of this ‘world’, which many would think of as the world of the Middle Ages, see A. Gurevich, Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages, Cambridge 1992. W. Rosener, The Peasantry of Europe, London 1994, provides a survey from the early Middle Ages to the present.

2  A. Cowan, Urban Europe, 1500–1700, London 1997, provides a very competent overview of life in Europe’s cities.

3  B. Lepetit, J. Hoock, eds, La Ville et l’innovation: relais et reseaux de diffusion en Europe, 14e–19e siècles, Paris 1987.

4  See P. Hohenberg, The Making of Urban Europe, 1000–1994, Cambridge, Mass., 1995; G. Huppert, After the Black Death: A Social History of Early Modern Europe, Bloomington 1986, esp. ch. 1, ‘The eternal village’.

5  The near all-importance of food has been sketched, albeit impressionistically, in two studies by P. Camporesi, Bread of Dreams: Food and Fantasy in Early Modern Europe, London 1989, and The Magic Harvest: Food, Folklore and Society, London 1993, as well as in his The Land of Hunger, London 1995.

6  W.H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, Oxford 1977.

7  Cf. R. Chartier, ‘De praktijk van het geschreven woord’, in Chartier, ed., Geschiedenis van het Persoonlijk Leven 3: Van de Renaissance tot de Verlichting, Amsterdam 1989, 95–139.

8  This, at least, is the outcome of the research by H. Roosenboom, De Dorpsschool in de Meijerij van’s-Hertogenbosch van 1648 tot 1795, Tilburg 1997.

9  See V. Fumagalli, Landscapes of Fear: Perceptions of Nature and the City in the Middle Ages, Cambridge 1993.

10  J. Riess, Luca Signorelli’s Orvieto Frescoes, Princeton 1995.

11  See: P. Stanford, Heaven: A Traveller’s Guide to the Undiscovered Country, London 2003.

12  See P. Burke, ‘The invention of leisure in Early Modern Europe’, Past and Present 146 (1995), 136–50.

13  See C. Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-century Miller, London 1980, who deals with the methodological problems involved.

14  The best survey to date of this complex way of writing cultural history is P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe, London 1978.

15  For a survey of this field, on which opinions between scholars continue to clash: G. Duby, ed., Amour et sexualité en Occident, Paris 1991.

16  J. Delumeau, Une histoire du paradis, Paris, 1992.

17  G. Klaniczay, The Uses of Supranatural Power: The Transformation of Popular Religion in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, Cambridge 1990.

18  See the position taken in L. Milis, ed., De heidense Middeleeuwen, Brussels 1991.

19  A. Murray, Reason and Society in the Middle Ages, Oxford 1978, provides a fine introduction to the phenomenon of the mathematization of European culture. It does so rather more satisfactorily than A. Crosby, The Measure of Reality: Quantification and Western Society, 1250–1600, Cambridge 1996.

20  For a survey: M.L. Bush, ed., Social Orders and Social Classes in Europe since 1500, Harlow 1992.

21  For example, J. Kaplow, The Names of Kings: The Parisian Labouring Poor in the Eighteenth Century, New York 1972.

22  A survey of the attitudes involved: M. Sommerville, Sex and Subjugation: Attitudes to Women in Early Modern Society, London 1995.

23  N. Davis, ed., Paston Letters and Papers of the Fifteenth Century, I–II, Oxford 1971, 1976.

24  See N. Armstrong, L. Tennenhouse, eds, The Ideology of Conduct, New York 1987.

25  An interesting case: A. Pardailhé-Galabrun, The Birth of Intimacy: Privacy and Domestic Life in Early Modern Paris, London 1991.

26  The problem of childhood is one of the most discussed topics in recent cultural history. It seems that the original thesis about the ‘invention’ of childhood in the seventeenth century, voiced by Ph. Ariès, L’Enfant et la vie familiale sous l’ancien régime, Paris 1960, should definitely be revised; see e.g. S. Shahar, Childhood in the Middle Ages, London 1990; B.A. Hanawalt, Growing Up in Medieval London: The Experience of Childhood in History, New York 1993.

27  From the vast literature: S. Brauner, Fearless Wives and Frightened Shrews: The Construction of the Witch in Early Modern Germany, Amherst 1996, as well as R. Briggs, Witches and Neighbours, London 1997.

28  For a survey that compares the European experience with that of other cultures: A. Burgière et al. eds, A History of the Family, II, London 1996.

29  L. Bogaers, ‘Geleund over de onderdeur: Doorkijkjes in het Utrechtse buurtleven van de vroege Middeleeuwen tot in de zeventiende eeuw’, Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden 112 (1997), 336–64.

30  Instances are given in P. Burke, The Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Italy: Essays in Perception and Communication, Cambridge 1987.

31  For example, E.M. Benabou, La Prostitution et la police des moeurs au XVIIIe siècle, Paris 1981.

32  Instances in M. Barberito, ed., Giacinto Gigli, Diario di Roma, 1608–1670, I–II, Rome 1994.

33  See R. van Dülmen, ‘Das Schauspiel des Todes’, in R. van Dülmen, N. Schindler, eds, Volkskultur: zur Wiederentdeckung des vergessenen Alltags, Frankfurt 1984, 203–45.

34  See A. Demandt, ed., Mit Fremden leben: eine Kulturgeschichte von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart, Munich 1995.

35  See: R. Briggs, Witches and Neighbours. The social and cultural context of European witchcraft, Oxford 2002, maps 1 and 2.

36  See: L. Roper, Witch Craze, New Haven 2004.

37  Cf. P. Burke, Languages and Communities in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge 2004.

38  R.A. Houston, Literacy in Early Modern Europe: Culture and Education, 1500–1800, London 1988, 207.

39  See L. Trenard, ‘L’enseignemant de la langue nationale’, in D.N. Burke, ed., The Making of Frenchmen: Current Directions in the History of Education in France, 1679–1979, Waterloo 1980, 95–114; R.A. Houston, Literacy in Early Modern Europe: Culture and Education, 1500–1800, London 1988, 40 sqq.

40  E. Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen, London 1976.

41  P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Beeld en zelfbeeld: “Nederlandse identiteit” in politieke structuur en politieke cultuur tijdens de Republiek’, Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden 107 (1992), 635–56.

7  A new society: Europe’s changing views of man

1  See R. Jacoff, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Dante, Cambridge 1993.

2  A very perceptive study of the thinkers of the Renaissance is L.M. Baktin, Gli Umanisti Italiani: Stile di Vita e di Pensiero, Rome 1990. E. Garin, ed., L’Uomo del Rinascimento, Rome 1988, provides an attractive series of portraits of various Renaissance ‘types’.

3  A masterly succinct survey is given by G. Nauert, Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe, Cambridge 1995.

4  An exhaustive survey: A. Rabil, ed., Renaissance Humanism: Foundations, Forms and Legacy, I–III, Philadelphia 1988.

5  Piccolomini’s treatise on Europe is in A.S. Piccolomini (Pius II), Opera, Basle 1551, 387 sqq.

6  W. Fritzemeyer, Christenheit und Europa, Munich-Berlin 1931, 18.

7  Fritzemeyer, Christenheit.

8  See Piccolomini’s Oratio de Constantinopolitana clade, in his Opera, 682.

9  See Piccolomini’s Bulla de profectione in Turcos, in his Opera, 923.

10  P.O. Kristeller, Il pensiero filosofico di Marsilio Ficino, Florence 1953; a German edition was published in 1972. Further: E. Garin, La cultura filosofica del Rinascimento italiano, Florence 1961; P.O. Kristeller, Marsilio Ficino and his work after five hundred years, Florence 1987.

11  D.J. Geanakoplos, Constantinople and the West, Madison 1989; J.J. Yiannias, ed., The Byzantine Tradition after the Fall of Constantinople, London 1991; D.M. Nicol, Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations, Cambridge 1992.

12  R. Sabbadini, Storia del Ciceronianismo, Turin 1885, 82.

13  G. Christianson, Th. Izbicki, eds, Nicholas of Cusa in Search of God and Wisdom, London 1991.

14  A.G. Weiler, Desiderius Erasmus: De spiritualiteit van een christen-humanist, Nijmegen 1997, provides an up-to-date evaluation of Erasmus’ spiritual significance. For a biography see L. Halkin, Erasme parmi nous, Paris 1987; trans. as Erasmus: A Critical Biography, Oxford 1993.

15  P.S. Allen, ed., Opus Epistolarum Des: Erasmi Roterodami, Oxford 1913, III, 587 sq., Erasmus to Cardinal Wolsey, 18 May 1519.

16  C. Nicholl, Leonardo da Vinci: Flights of the Mind, New York 2004.

17  G.L. Hersey, The Evolution of Allure: Sexual Selection from the Medici Venus to the Incredible Hulk, Cambridge, Mass., 1996.

18  R.J. Clements, ed., Michelangelo: A Self Portrait, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1963, 37, 44.

19  G. Bull, ed., trans., The Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini, Harmondsworth 1956, 15, 28, 29, 31, 37–8.

20  E. Garin, ed., La Disputa delle Arti nel Quattrocento, Florence 1947, 5–6.

21  Cf. P. Rietbergen, De Retoriek van de Eeuwige Stad: Rome gelezen, Nijmegen 2003.

22  The preceding is surveyed succinctly in G. Quazza, La Decadenza Italiana nella Storia Europea, Turin 1971.

23  P. Bange, ed., De doorwerking van de Moderne Devotie, Hilversum 1988; R.R. Post, The Modern Devotion: Confrontation with Reformation and Humanism, Leiden 1968.

24  M.M. Phillips, Erasmus and the Northern Renaissance, Woodbridge 1981.

25  For this essay: K. Levy, Gregorian Chant and the Carolingians (Princeton 1998); A. Atlas, Renaissance Music (New York 1998); C. Dahlhaus, Die Musik des 19. Jahrhunderts (1989); J. Warrack, The Oxford Dictionary of Opera (Oxford 1992). For some (early) musical examples: La Musique de l’Antiquité, on: Harmonia Mundi CD (2005), with, however, some highly debatable reconstructions.

8  A new society: Europe as a wider world

1  W.Ch. Jordan, The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century, Princeton 1996, is a good survey.

2  F. Chabod, ‘L’Idea di Europa’, Rassegna d’Italia II (1947), 7.

3  F.-M Arouet, Voltaire, Le Siècle de Louis XIV, Paris 1752.

4  E.J. Jones, The European Miracle: Environment, Economies and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia, Cambridge 1987.

5  Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, London 1620 or later editions, aphorism 129.

6  M. Devèze, R. Marx, trans., eds, Textes et documents d’histoire moderne, Paris 1967, 77–8.

7  An excellent introduction is provided by L. Avrin, Scribes, Script and Books: The Book Arts from Antiquity to the Renaissance, Chicago 1991; a beautifully illustrated survey of all aspects of medieval manuscript production is J. Glenisson, ed., Le Livre au moyen âge, Paris 1988.

8  See P. Gumbert, The Dutch and their Books in the Manuscript Age, London 1989.

9  C. Bozzolo, E. Ornato, Pour une histoire du livre manuscrit au moyen âge, Paris 1983, especially part I: ‘La production du livre manuscrit en France du Nord’, 15–121.

10  H. Bresc, Livre et société en Sicile (1299–1499), Palermo 1971, 187, table 2.

11  For the general background: Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin, Paper and Printing, Cambridge 1985 [= J. Needham, ed., Science and Civilisation in China, 1].

12  J. Moran, Printing Presses: History and Development from the Fifteenth Century to Modern Times, Berkeley 1973.

13  For the following: E.L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communication and Cultural Transformation in Early Modern Europe, I–II, Cambridge 1979.

14  The problem of economic and technological stagnation in the east in general, and in the Chinese Empire in particular has been much discussed, lately, with very interesting but largely non-conclusive and always contradictory interpretations being brought forward by various authors. See M. Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past, London 1973; C.A. Alvares, Homo Faber: Technology and Culture in India, China and the West from 1500 to the Present Day, The Hague 1980.

15  D.S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World, Cambridge, Mass., 1983.

16  W. Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Space and Time, New York 1986.

17  G.R. Elton, Renaissance and Reformation, 1300–1648, London 1963, 135–40.

18  For a splendid overview, see D. MacCulloch, Reformation. Europe’s House Divided, 1490–1700, London 2003.

19  A.R. Wentz, ed., Luther’s Works, Philadelphia 1959, XXXVI, 66–7.

20  J.I. Packer, O.R. Johnston, trans., eds, Martin Luther: On the Bondage of the Will, London 1957, 80–1, 313–14.

21  Cf. B. Erne, ed., De Gentse Spelen van 1539, The Hague 1982.

22  J. Black, Kings, Nobles and Commoners: States and Societies in Early Modern Europe, London 2004.

23  The problematic nature of the term ‘intellectual’ as used in European cultural history is best illustrated by the following three studies, each a valuable contribution in its own right: J. le Goff, Intellectuals in the Middle Ages, Oxford 1993, originally Paris 1957; D. Masseau, L’Invention de l’intellectuel dans l’Europe du XVIIIe siècle, Paris 1994; C. Charle, Naissance des intellectuels 1880–1900, Paris 1990. I take an intellectual to be a person who, from a certain background of erudition or perhaps even specialized scholarship, participates in the wider debate regarding the functioning and direction of his culture and society.

24  See among others: E. Kaeber, Die Idee des Europäischen Gleichgewichts in der publizistischen Literatur vom 16. bis zur Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts, Berlin 1907.

25  W. Schmale in his introduction to W. Schmale, N.L. Dodd, eds, Revolution des Wissens? Europa und seine Schulen im Zeitalter der Aufklärung, Bochum 1991.

26  R. O’Day, Education and Society, 1500–1800: The Social Foundations of Education in Early Modern Britain, London 1982, 13, 42.

27  D. Cressy, Literacy and the Social Order: Reading and Writing in Tudor and Stuart England, Cambridge 1980, 175–89.

28  F. Furet, J. Ozouf, Lire et ecrire: l’alphabétisation des français de Calvin à Jules Ferry, Paris 1977, 59–68.

29  K.P. Luria, Territories of Grace: Cultural Change in the Seventeenth-Century Diocese of Grenoble, Berkeley 1991.

30  J.M. Lloyd Thomas, ed., The Autobiography of Richard Baxter, London 1931, 3–4.

31  See R. Gawthrop, G. Strauss, ‘Protestantism and literacy in early modern Germany’, Past and Present 104 (1984), 31–55; G. Strauss, ‘Lutheranism and literacy: a reassessment’, in K. von Greyerz, ed., Religion and Society in Early Modern Europe, 1500–1800, London 1984, 109–23; R.A. Crofts, ‘Printing, reform and the Catholic Reformation in Germany’, The Sixteenth Century Journal 16 (1985), 369–81; R.B. Bottigheimer, ‘Bible reading, “bibles” and the Bible for children in early modern Germany’, Past and Present 139 (1993), 66–89.

32  For example, T. Watt, Cheap Print and Popular Piety, 1550–1640, Cambridge 1991.

33  See also P.E. Grendler, Schooling in Renaissance Italy: Literacy and Learning, 1300–1600, Baltimore 1989, 111 sqq.

34  H. Chisich, The Limits of Reform in the Enlightenment: Attitudes toward the Education of the Lower Classes in Eighteenth-century France, Princeton 1981.

35  This argument has been raised by A. Grafton, L. Jardine, From Humanism to the Humanities: Education and the Liberal Arts in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Europe, Cambridge, Mass., 1986, 17; see also G. Strauss, ‘Liberal or illiberal arts?’, Journal of Social History (1981), 361–7.

36  N. Kolowski, J.B. Lasek, eds, Internationales Comenius-Kolloquium, Bayreuth 1991; G. Michel, Die Welt als Schule, Hanover 1978.

37  R.A. Houston, Literacy in Early Modern Euope: Culture and Education, 1500–1800, London 1988, 83 sqq.

38  See, for example, R. Kagan, Students and Society in Early Modern Spain, London 1974; L. Brockliss, French Higher Education in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, Oxford 1987.

39  See also: W. Frijhoff, ‘Grandeur des nombres et misères des réalités: la courbe de Franz Eulenburg et le débat sur le nombre des intellectuels en Allemagne, 1576–1815’, in D. Julia et al. eds, Histoire sociale des populations étudiantes I, Paris 1986, 23–64.

40  See also: H. Blumenberg, ‘Der Prozess der theoretischen Neugierde’, in his Die Legitimität der Neuzeit, Frankfurt 1966, 201–433.

41  N.G. Wilson, From Byzantium to Italy: Greek Studies in the Italian Renaissance, London 1992.

42  D. Baggioni, Langues et Nations en Europe, Paris 1997.

43  R. Myers, M. Harris, Censorship and the Control of Printing in England and France, 1600–1910, Winchester 1992.

44  For the following: M.U. Edwards, Printing, Propaganda and Martin Luther, Berkeley 1994.

45  R.W. Scribner, For the Sake of Simple Folk: Popular Propaganda for the German Reformation, Oxford 1994.

46  J.L. Koerner, The Reformation of the Image, Chicago 2004.

47  See T. Watt, Cheap Print and Popular Piety, 1550–1640, Cambridge 1991.

48  For an overview of, often conflicting, interpretations, see M. Luebke, ed., The Counter-Reformation, London 1990.

49  See also: L. Chatellier, The Europe of the Devout. The Catholic Reformation and the Formation of a New Society, Cambridge 1989.

50  M. Novak, The Catholic Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism, New York 1993.

51  See for an illuminating example S. Anglo, ed., Chivalry in the Renaissance, Woodbridge 1990, 1–12, for Anglo’s essay ‘How to kill a man at your ease: fencing books and the duelling ethic’.

52  Especially by the great historian of the process, Norbert Elias, in his The Civilizing Process. I: The History of Manners, New York 1978.

53  E.C. Riley, Don Quijote, Winchester, Mass., 1986.

54  See A. Flores, M.J. Bernadete, Cervantes across the Centuries, New York 1947.

55  R. Palmer, The Sound of History, Oxford 1988, 1–29.

56  C. Kruyskamp, ed., Mariken van Nieumeghen, Antwerp 1982, vs. 227–30.

57  See L. Smith, Reason’s Disciples: Seventeenth-Century English Feminists, Urbana 1982.

58  E.L. Eisenstein, ‘Revolution and the printed word’, in R. Porter, M. Teich, eds, Revolution in History, Cambridge 1986, 190–2.

59  On the problem of the frontiers of Europe: R. Bartlett, A. Mackay, eds, Medieval Frontier Societies, Oxford 1994.

60  See J.-Cl. Margolin, ed., L’Humanisme portugais et l’Europe, Paris 1984; M. Simões, ‘Camões e a Identidade Nacional’, Peregrinação 5 (1984), 3–8; J. Kaye, ‘Islamic imperialism and the creation of some ideas of Europe’, in F. Barker, et al. eds, Europe and its Others, Colchester 1985, 59–71.

61  R. Beaton, Folk Poetry of Modern Greece, Cambridge 1980; R. Beaton, D. Ricks, eds, ‘Digenes Akrites’: New Approaches to Byzantine Heroic Poetry, Aldershot 1995.

62  H.R. Cooper, Judith, Boulder 1991.

63  C. Barbolani, ed., Juan de Valdes, Diálogo de la Lengua, Madrid 1992, 132.

64  For this essay, besides Weber’s text on the Protestant ethic: F. Braudel, La Dynamique du Capitalisme (Paris 1985); M. Albert, Capitalisme contre Capitalisme (Paris 1991); D. Cantoni, ‘The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation’ (10 November 2009): http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~cantoni/cantoni_jmp_2_7_1.pdf; H. Steinert, Max Webers unwiderlegbare Fehlkonstuktionen(Frankfurt 2010); J. Kocka, Geschichte des Kapitalismus (Munich 2013); L. Neal, ed., The Cambridge History of Capitalism, I–II (Cambridge 2014), is a collection of though very competent also very disparate essays.

9  A new society: Europe and the wider world since the fifteenth century

1  I.M. Franck, D.M. Brownstone, The Silk Road: A History, New York 1986.

2  For a brilliant survey of this world: K.N. Chaudhuri, Asia before Europe: The Economy and Civilization of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750, Cambridge 1990.

3  The most recent in a long line of authors who have doubted Polo’s presence in China, F. Wood, Did Marco Polo Go to China?, London 1995, cannot really substantiate her claim.

4  J. Needham, Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West: Lectures and Addresses on the History of Science and Technology, Cambridge 1970, 239 sqq.

5  N. Perrin, Giving Up the Gun: Japan’s Reversion to the Sword, 1543–1879, Boston 1979.

6  C.G. Ekeborg, Kort Berättelser om den chineska Landthusholdningen, Stockholm 1757. A German translation followed in 1765; English and French ones in 1771.

7  A fundamental study is J.H. Elliott, The Old World and the New, 1492–1650, Cambridge 1992.

8  The most recent documentation can be found in Amerika 1492–1992. Neue Welten, Neue Wirklichkeiten. Eine Dokumentation, Berlin 1992, and Amerika 1492–1992. Neue Welten, Neue Wirklichkeiten. Geschichte – Gegenwart – Perspektive, Berlin 1992. Besides these, H.J. König, Die Entdeckung und Eroberung Amerikas, Berlin 1992, is fascinating as well for the visual material of the time presented in it.

9  The already substantial amount of literature on the ‘discoverer’ greatly swelled in 1992. One of the useful titles is W.D. Phillips, C.R. Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus, Cambridge 1992.

10  W. Uitterhoeve, H. Werner, eds, Christoffel Columbus: De Ontdekking van Amerika. Scheepsjournaal 1492–1493, Nijmegen 1992, 48, 55, 65, 79, 80, 81, 84, 88, 114, etc., for mentions concerning Cipangu and Cathay.

11  Uitterhoeve, Werner, Columbus, e.g. 66, 71, 73, 78, 83 etc., on the beauty of the islands; 90, 100, on the beauty of language; 96, 97 on the absence of evil; 65, 97–8 on the natural belief in God; 93 on the absence of weapons and laws. For the quote: 116.

12  Quoted in D. Divine, Ontdekkers van een Nieuwe Wereld, Bussum 1973, 249.

13  Quoted in Divine, Ontdekkers, 245.

14  Quoted in Divine, Ontdekkers, 246.

15  For an overview of the influence of tobacco on different cultures of the world see J. Goodman, Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence, London 1993.

16  R.N. Salaman, The History and Social Influence of the Potato, Cambridge 1949.

17  E. Forster and R. Forster, eds, European Diet from Preindustrial to Modern Times, New York 1975; R. Forster, O. Ranum, eds, Food and Drink in History, Baltimore 1979.

18  S.W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power, New York 1985.

19  A very informed case study: S. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico: The Incorporation of Indian Societies into the western World, sixteenth–eighteenth Centuries, London 1993.

20  A. Crosby, Jr, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, Westport 1972.

21  Crosby, The Columbian Exchange, 158–60.

22  For the following: H. Kellenbenz, ed., Precious Metals in the Age of Expansion, Stuttgart 1981; J.F. Richards, ed., Precious Metals in the Later Medieval and Early Modern Worlds, Durham 1983, especially 397–496.

23  H. Pohl, ed., The European Discovery of the New World and its Economic Effects on Pre-Industrial Society, 1500–1800, Stuttgart 1990.

24  See R. Pieper, Die Preisrevolution in Spanien (1500–1640), Stuttgart 1985.

25  R. Ehrenberg, Capital and Finance in the Age of the Renaissance: A Study of the Fuggers and their Connections, New York 1963, 80.

26  H. Rowen, C.I. Ekberg, eds, Early Modern Europe: A Book of Source Readings, Ithaca 1973, 74–5.

27  Rowen, Ekberg, Early Modern Europe, 77.

28  On the problem: E. Zerubavel, Terra Cognita: The Mental Discovery of America, New Brunswick 1992.

29  See also J.B. Russel, Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians, New York 1910.

30  Two recent surveys: J. Brotton, Trading Territories: Mapping the Early Modern World, London 1997; J. Black, Maps and Politics, London 1997.

31  L. Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellan’s Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe, London 2004.

32  J. Fischer, F. von Wieser, eds, trans., Martin Waldseemüller: Cosmographiae Introductio, Ann Arbor 1966, 68–70.

33  A. Taylor, The World of Gerard Mercator, London 2004.

34  See Bodin’s Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem, in P. Mesnard, ed., Jean Bodin, Oeuvres Philosophiques, Paris 1951, 223 sqq.

35  The following studies deal with this problem: S. Greenblatt, Marvellous Possessions: The Wonders of the New World, Oxford 1991; A. Grafton, A. Shelford, N. Siraisi, New Worlds, Old Texts: The Power of Tradition and the Shock of Discovery, Cambridge, Mass., 1992.

36  L.E. Huddleston, Origins of the American Indians: European Concepts, 1492–1729, Austin 1967.

37  K. Crossley-Holland, ed., The Oxford Book of Travel Verse, Oxford 1986, 364–5.

38  Crossley-Holland, Travel Verse, 365–6.

39  J.A. Levenson, ed., Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration, Washington, DC, 1991.

40  Shakespeare, The Tempest, Act I, Scene II, 407–14.

41  Shakespeare, The Tempest, Act II, Scene II, 163–4, 166–8.

42  For the psychological background: O. Manoni, Prospéro et Caliban: psychologie de la colonisation, Paris 1984.

43  P.N. Carroll, Puritanism and the Wilderness: The Intellectual Significance of the New England Frontier, 1629–1700, New York 1969, 72, 112, 134.

44  R.H. Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind, Berkeley 1988, 23.

45  L.B. Wright, ed., Robert Beverly: History of the Present State of Virginia, Chapel Hill, NC, 1947, 235.

46  Lawson’s History of North Carolina, Richmond 1937, 251–2.

47  A short but excellent survey of the process is U. Bitterli, Cultures in Conflict: Encounters between European and Non-European Cultures, 1492–1800, London 1993.

48  D. Heikamp, Mexico and the Medici, Florence 1972.

49  G.Th.M. Lemmens, ‘Die Schenkung an Ludwig XIV. und die Auflösung der brasilianischen Sammlung des Johann Moritz 1652–1679’, in G. de Werd, ed., Soweit der Erdkreis reicht: Johann Moritz von Nassau-Siegen, 1604–1679, Cleves 1979, 265–93.

50  P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Zover de aarde rijkt. De werken van Johan Nieuhof (1618–1672) als illustratie van het probleem der cultuur- en mentaliteits geschiedenis tussen specialisatie en integratie’, De Zeventiende Eeuw 2–1 (1986), 17–40.

51  J.-M. Apostolides, Le Roi-machine: spectacle et politique au temps de Louis XIV, Paris 1981.

52  Th. Hetzer, Die Fresken Tiepolos in der Würzburger Residenz, Frankfurt 1943; see also C. le Corbeiller, ‘Miss America and her sisters: personifications of the four parts of the world’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, April 1961.

53  Federschmuck und Kaiserkrone: Das barocke Amerikabild in den Habsburgischen Ländern, Schlosshof im Marchfeld 1992.

54  S. Münster, Cosmographia Universalis, Basle 1559, 40–1.

55  See also U. Nef, Cultural Foundations of Industrial Civilization, Cambridge 1958.

56  S. Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes, New York 1965 [originally Works of the Hakluyt Society, Extra Series I, London 1905], 248, 249, 250, 251.

57  Purchas, Pilgrimes, 251.

58  M. Eliav-Feldon, Realistic Utopias: The Ideal Imaginary Societies of the Renaissance, 1516–1630, Oxford 1982; J.C. Davis, Utopia and the Ideal Society: A Study of English Utopian Writing, 1516–1700, Cambridge 1981, 299.

59  Pearce, Savagism, 86.

60  This essay largely is based on my thorough inspection of the sites and buildings mentioned. Cfr. also: M. Duval, A la découverte du Portugal manuélin (Verviers 1975). G. Kollert, Der Gesang des Meeres. Die portugiesischen Entdeckungsfahrten als Mythos der Neuzeit (Ostfildern 1997); S. Subrahmanyan, The career and legend of Vasco da Gama (Cambridge 1997); A. de Oliveira Marques,Histoire du Portugal et de son empire colonial (Paris 1998).

10  A new society: migration, travel and the diffusion and integration of culture in Europe

1  Much has been written on the development of the travel story, which became a literary genre in the course of time, and on the use of such stories as historical sources. I mention only B.I. Krasnobaev et al. eds, Reisen und Reisebeschreibungen im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert als Quellen der Kulturbeziehungsforschung, Berlin 1980, and A. Maczak, H.J. Teuteberg, eds, Reiseberichte als Quellen Europäischer Kulturgeschichte. Aufgaben und Möglichkeiten der historischen Reiseforschung, Wolfenbüttel 1982.

2  D. Brewer, Chaucer and his World, London 1978.

3  A.W. Pollard et al. eds, The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, London 1923, 1.

4  J. Brouwer, ed., Spaansche reis- en krijgsjournalen uit de Gouden Eeuw, Groningen 1932; Brouwer, Kronieken van Spaansche soldaten uit het begin van de tachtigjarige oorlog, Zutphen 1933.

5  J. van Bakel, P. Rolf, eds, Vlaamse soldatenbrieven uit de Napoleontische tijd, Bruges 1977.

6  For an impression, see A. Kopecny, Fahrenden und Vagabunden: Ihre Geschichte, Ueberlebenskunste, Zeichen und Strassen, Berlin 1980, and C. Kother, Menschen auf der Strasse: Vagierende Unterschichten in Bayern, Franken und Schwaben in der zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts, Göttingen 1983.

7  J. Edwards, The Jews in Christian Europe, 1400–1700, London 1988; J.I. Israel, European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750, Oxford 1985.

8  See M.A. Shulvass, The Jews in the World of the Renaissance, Leiden 1973; B.D. Cooperman, ed., Jewish Thought in the Sixteenth Century, Cambridge, Mass., 1983; D.B. Ruderman, Jewish Thought and Scientific Discovery in Early Modern Europe, New York 1995.

9  For an overview see M. Yardeni, Le Refuge protestant, Paris 1985, especially 129–54, 179 sqq. and 201 sqq.

10  For example S. Jersch-Wendel, Juden und ‘Franzosen’ in der Wirtschaft des Raumes Berlin/Brandenburg zur Zeit des Merkantilismus, Berlin 1978, especially 182 sqq.

11  P. Jeannin, ‘Guides de voyage et manuels pour marchands’, in J. Céard, J.-Cl. Margolin, eds, Voyager à la Renaissance, Paris 1987, 160.

12  See, for example, G. Miselli, Il Burattino veridico … per chi viaggia, Rome 1682.

13  V. von Klarwill, Fugger-Zeitungen: Ungedruckte Briefe an das Haus Fugger aus die Jahre 1568–1605, Vienna 1933.

14  K. Pisa, Schopenhauer: Kronzeuge einer unheilen Welt, Vienna 1977.

15  R.L. Latham, The Illustrated Pepys, London 1983, passim; in this splendidly illustrated work, in which Latham summarizes his monumental 11-volume edition of the diary, there are many passages which illuminate this statement in more detail.

16  Julius Bellus, Justinopolitani Hermes Politicus sive de Peregrinatoria Prudentia Libri tres, Frankfurt 1608; S. Von Birker, HochFürstlicher Brandenburgischer Ulysses, Bayreuth 1669.

17  P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Prince Eckembergh comes to dinner: food and political propaganda in the seventeenth century’, Petit Propos Culinaires: A Journal of Culinary History VI (1983), 45–54. See also S. Bertelli et al. eds, Rituale. Cerimoniale. Etichetta, Milan 1985; M. Jeanneret, A Feast of Words: Banquets and Table Talk in the Renaissance, Oxford 1991 (originally Paris 1987).

18  See for the following paragraphs: N. Elias, Die höfische Gesellschaft, Darmstadt 1969; translated as The Court Society, Oxford 1983; R. von Krüdener, Die Rolle des Hofes im Absolutismus, Stuttgart 1973.

19  For a survey: G. Walton, Louis XIV’s Versailles, Harmondsworth 1986.

20  See L. Norton, Saint-Simon at Versailles, Hamilton 1985.

21  See Ph. Beaussait, Lully, ou le musicien du soleil, Paris 1992.

22  An entertaining and informative study is B. Ketcham Wheaton, Savouring the Past, Baltimore 1983, esp. ch. 7 and following.

23  P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Den Haag, 20 april 1660: de bruiloft van Susanna Huygens’, De Zeventiende Eeuw III–2 (1987), 181–9.

24  E.B. Johnson, ed., The Letters of the Right Honourable Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, 1709–1762, London 1906, passim.

25  For example, H. Bots et al. eds, Noordbrabantse Studenten, 1550–1750, Tilburg 1979, passim.

26  J. Pesek, D. Sanan, ‘Les étudiants de Bohême dans les universités et les académies d’Europe centrale et occidentale entre 1596 et 1620’, in D. Julia et al. eds, Histoire sociale des populations étudiantes, I, Paris 1986, 89–112.

27  R.A. Houston, Literacy in Early Modern Europe: Culture and Education, 1500–1800, London 1988, 85.

28  W.Th.M. Frijhoff, La Société neerlandaise et ses graduées, 1575–1814: une recherche sérielle sur le statut des intellectuels, Amsterdam 1981, 83 sqq., 102, 106.

29  For example, J.G. Klinger, Commentario de promotionibus studiosorum iuris ad iter iuridicum pertinentibus, Leipzig 1744; Th. Bartholinus, De peregrinatio medica, Copenhagen 1674.

30  See H. Zimmer, Die Dientzenhofer: Ein bayerisches Baumeistergeschlecht in der Zeit des Barock, Munich 1976.

31  P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Magnaten en Maecenassen in Zwedens Stormakstid: Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie (1622–1686) and Carl-Gustaf Wrangel (1613–1676)’, Artilleri III–3 (1986), 67–80; IV–1 (1986), 35–50.

32  We are well informed about the experiences of all these sorts of trips by the travellers from at least one country, England, during the seventeenth century: J.W. Stoye, English Travellers Abroad, 1604–1667: Their Influence in English Society and Politics, London 1993; J. Lough, France Observed in the Seventeenth Century by British Travellers, Stocksfield 1984.

33  One example among many is P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Papal policy and mediation at the Peace of Nijmegen’, Acta. International Congress of the Tercentenary of the Peace of Nijmegen, 1678–1978, Amsterdam 1980, 29–96.

34  A. Frank-Van Westrienen, De Groote Tour: Tekening van de educatiereis der Nederlanders in de 17e eeuw, Amsterdam 1983; J. Black, The British and the Grand Tour, London 1985.

35  N.N., Het Italië-gevoel: Nederlandse schrijvers over Italië, Amsterdam 1989.

36  H. Harder, Le Président de Brosses et le voyage en Italie au dix-huitième siècle, Geneva 1981.

37  The expression is derived from a fascinating study by J. Pemble, The Mediterranean Passion: Victorians and Edwardians in the South, London 1988. He mainly describes the motives for and experiences of nineteenth-century English travellers, yet also exposes structures which already determined the southerly tendencies of northerners during the ancien régime.

38  As an example: G.J. Hoogerwerff, ed., De twee reizen van Cosimo de Medici, prins van Toscane, door de Nederlanden (1667–1669), Amsterdam 1919.

39  W. Bray, ed., The Diary of John Evelyn, I–II, London 1950, I, 101, 102, 107–8, 128, 136, 139, 140, 161–2.

40  An excellent survey: A. Maczak, Travel in Early Modern Europe, London 1995.

41  Such lists can be found in: Carpentras, Bibliothèque Ingouimbertine, Mss. 1821, folios 494, 496 and 497.

42  P. Charbon, Au temps des malles-postes et des diligences: histoire des transports publics et de poste du XVIIe au XIXe siècle, Strasbourg 1979.

43  L.E. Halkin, ed., Desiderius Erasmus, Colloquia, Louvain 1972, 333–8.

44  One such professional guide was the seventeenth-century Englishman Richard Lassels, who recorded his experiences: R. Lassels, Description of Italy, With Instructions for Travellers, London 1660.

45  Pitcher, Bacon, Essays, 113.

46  Pitcher, Bacon, Essays, 114.

47  Pitcher, Bacon, Essays, 113.

48  M. Rassem, J. Steigl, Apodemiken: eine räsonnierte Bibliographie der reisetheoretische Literatur des 16., 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts, Paderborn 1983.

49  J. Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, London 1693, 189–201.

50  W. Blunt, Linnaeus: the Complete Naturalist, London 2004.

51  Carl von Linné, Oratio, qua peregrinationum intra patriam asseritur necessitas, Uppsala 1741.

52  P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘The Library of a Guelders country squire: Thomas Walraven van Arkel van Ammerzoden (1630–1684): a contribution to the history of Dutch aristocratic culture in the seventeenth century’, LIAS IX-2 (1983), 271–84.

53  See H. Peres, L’Espagne vue par les voyageurs musulmans de 1610 à 1930, Paris 1937.

54  W. Bray, ed., The Diary of John Evelyn I–II, London 1907; for this passage, see I, 118.

55  For this essay: P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘A Vision come True. Alexander VII, Gianlorenzo Bernini and the Colonnades of St. Peter’s’, in: Mededelingen van het Nederlands Instituut te Rome, XLVI, new series, XI (1983), 111–163; 237–241.

11  A new society: the ‘Republic of Letters’ as a virtual and virtuous world against a divided world

1  For a short introduction: F. Wacquet, H. Bots, La République des Lettres, s.l. 1997.

2  A.B. Grosart, ed., The Complete Works in Verse and Prose of S. Daniel, I, London 1885, 106.

3  Michel de Montaigne, Essais, Paris 1580.

4  Most of these plans were published and commented on in German translation by K. von Raumer, Ewiger Friede: Friedensrufe und Friedenspläne seit der Renaissance, Munich 1953.

5  Von Raumer, Ewiger Friede, 321.

6  Von Raumer, Ewiger Friede, 89 sqq.

7  See: G. Kanthak, Der Akademiegedanke zwischen utopischem Entwurf und barocker Projektmacherei, Berlin 1987, especially 64 sqq. An example is R. Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666–1803, Berkeley 1971.

8  O. Ranum, ed., National Consciousness, History and Political Culture in Early Modern Europe, Baltimore 1975, 54 sqq., 73 sqq.

9  Juan de Mariana, Historia de España, Book 26, ch. 1.

10  M. Warnke, Hofkünstler: zur Vorgeschichte des modernen Künstlers, Cologne 1985, 314.

11  M. Cherniavsky, ‘Russia’, in Ranum, National Consciousness, 118–43.

12  P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Onderwijs en Wetenschap als instrumenten van cultuurpolitiek: Rusland in de tweede helft van de zeventiende en in de achttiende eeuw’, Ex Tempore 11 (1992), 147–59.

13  See W.F. Reddaway, ed., Documents of Catharina the Great, Cambridge 1931, the nakaz of 1767, ch. 1, sec. 6.

14  See A. Dietz, Zur Geschichte der Frankfurter Büchermesse, 1462–1792, Frankfurt 1921.

15  See H. Kiesel, P. Münch, Gesellschaft und Literatur im 18. Jahrhundert, Munich 1977.

16  Pitcher, Bacon, Essays, 114.

17  See the map in R. Mandrou, Des humanistes aux hommes de science, Paris 1973.

18  M. Lowry, The World of Aldus Manutius: Business and Scholarship in Renaissance Venice, Oxford 1979.

19  For a case see H.-J. Martin, Livre, pouvoirs et société à Paris au XVIIe siècle (1598–1701), I–II, Geneva 1969, 1064, 1073.

20  See C. Berkvens-Stevelinck et al. eds, Le Magasin de l’Univers. The Dutch Republic as the Centre of the European Book Trade, Leiden 1992.

21  G.C. Gibbs, ‘The role of the Dutch Republic as the intellectual entrepot of Europe’, Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden 86 (1971), 323–49; Gibbs, ‘Some intellectual and political influences of the Huguenot émigrés’, Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden 90 (1975), 255–87.

22  J. Marx, ‘La Bibliothèque impartiale’, in M. Couperus, ed., L’Etude des periodiques anciens, Paris 1972, 89–108.

23  See, too, for background information: E.L. Eisenstein, ‘The cosmopolitan enlightenment’, in her Grub Street Abroad, Oxford 1992, 101–30.

24  H.H.M. van Lieshout, Van Boek tot Bibliotheek: de Wordinggeschiedenis van de ‘Dictionnaire Historique et Critique’ van Pierre Bayle (1689–1706), Grave 1992.

25  P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Light from the North: Christian Constantijn Rumph, Gisbert Cuper and cultural relations between Sweden and the Dutch Republic during the last quarter of the seventeenth century’, in J.A. van Koningsbrugge et al. eds, The Netherlands and the Balticum, 1524–1814, Nijmegen 1991, 315–42.

26  For the following, see P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Witsen’s world: Nicolaas Witsen (1642–1717) between the Dutch East India Company and the Republic of Letters’, Itinerario IX–2 (1985), 121–34.

27  J. Bouchard, ‘Les relations épistolaires de Nicolas Mavrocordatos avec Jean Le Clerc et William Wake’, O Eranistis 1 (1974), 67–92; Bouchard, ed., N. Mavrocordatos, les loisirs de philothée, Athens 1989.

28  For the following, see P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Dutch and Spanish “Enlightenments”? The case of Gerard Meerman (1722–1777) and Gregorio Mayans y Siscar (1691–1781)’, in Rietbergen, ed., Tussen Twee Culturen: Nederland en de Iberische wereld, 1500–1800, Nijmegen 1988, 105–34.

12  A new society: from Humanism to the Enlightenment

1  See on this subject A. Grafton, Defenders of the Text: The Traditions of Scholarship in an Age of Science, 1450–1800, Cambridge, Mass., 1993.

2  A French translation was made in 1934 by A. Koyré, a German one in 1939 by Cl. Menzer.

3  M. Devèze, R. Marx, eds, Textes et documents d’histoire moderne, Paris 1967, 119–20.

4  On Galilei: P. Redondi, Galilei eretico, Turin 1983, which, although not accepted by all scholars in the field, is a stimulating study.

5  See Redondi, Galilei.

6  Cited from G. de Santillana, ed., The Age of Adventure: The Renaissance Philosophers, New York 1956, 159.

7  See Bax, ed., trans., The Signature of All Things, with Other Writings by Jacob Boehme, London 1926, 14, II, no. 8.

8  Bax, Boehme, 268.

9  For an interesting analysis: R. Barthes, Sade, Fourier, Loyola, Paris 1971.

10  Though I date the phenomenon a century earlier, one should also consult: J. Seigel, The Idea of Self. Thought and Experience in Western Europe since the seventeenth Century, Cambridge 2004.

11  R. Porter, Flesh in the Age of Reason, London 2004.

12  J. Peakman, Lascivious Bodies. A Sexual history of the Eighteenth Century, London 2004.

13  Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, London 1620.

14  R. Descartes, Discours sur la méthode, Paris 1637.

15  C. Wilson, The Invisible World, Oxford 1995.

16  A good background study: M.F. Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Enquiry, Chicago 1995.

17  R.S. Westfall, Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton, London 1981.

18  I. Newton, Foreword to Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica, London 1687.

19  Cf. e.g. M. White, Isaac Newton: the Last Sorcerer, Addison 1997.

20  A.J. Krailsheimer, trans., Blaise Pascal, Pensées, Baltimore 1966, 48, 95.

21  Cf. B. Gert, ed., Thomas Hobbes, ‘de Homine’ and ‘de Cive’ – Man and the Citizen, Boston 1972, 110–11; J. Watkins, Hobbes’ System of Ideas, London 1973, 23–4, 89 sq., and 47 for the quote.

22  For a survey of developments in science: R. Olson, Science Deified and Science Defied: The Historical Significance of Science in Western Culture. II: From the Early Modern Age Through the Early Romantic Era, ca. 1640 to ca. 1820, Berkeley 1990.

23  A. Thomson, ed., La Mettrie: Machine Man and Other Writings, Cambridge 1996.

24  Cf. L. Roper, Witch Craze. Terror and Fantasy in Baroque Germany, New York 2004.

25  R.M. Adams, Leibniz: Determinist, Theist, Idealist, Oxford 1994.

26  For a short introduction to this highly complex thinker: R. Popkin, Spinoza, Oxford 2004.

27  For an introduction, see H.E. Allison, Benedict de Spinoza, London 1987.

28  J.H. Spalding, F. Bayley, eds, trans., Heaven and its Wonders, and Hell: From Things Heard and Seen: by Emmanuel Swedenborg, London 1920, nos 318, 328.

29  See: A. Schopenhauer, Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, I, 125 ff, and II, 366, in A. Hübscher, ed., A. Schopenhauer, Sämtliche Werke I–VII, Wiesbaden 1972.

30  For a survey: D. Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment, Ithaca 1994.

31  A very inspiring analysis is D. Roche, La France des lumières, Paris 1994.

32  H.C. Payne, The Philosophes and the People, New Haven 1976.

33  R. Porter, M. Teich, eds, The Enlightenment in National Context, Cambridge 1981.

34  For example, R.B. Sher, Church and University in the Scottish Enlightenment: The Moderate Literati of Edinburgh, Princeton 1985.

35  Th.J. Schlereth, The Cosmopolitan Ideal in Enlightenment Thought, Notre Dame 1977.

36  H. Vyverberg, Human Nature, Cultural Diversity and the French Enlightenment, New York 1987.

37  For a brief overview: Ph.N. Furbank, The Encyclopédie, Milton Keynes 1980; P. Swiggers, ‘Pre-histoire et histoire de l’encyclopédie’, Revue Historique 549 (1984), 83–93; J. Lough, The Encylopédie, London 1971, Geneva 1989.

38  U. im Hof, Das gesellige Jahrhundert: Gesellschaft und Gesellschaften im Zeitalter der Aufklärung, Munich 1982; R. von Dülmen, The Society of the Enlightenment: The Rise of the Middle Class and Enlightenment Culture in Germany, Cambridge 1992 (originally Frankfurt 1986).

39  O. Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: ein europäischer Vergleich, Munich 1981.

40  See J. Bernal, Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization, London 1987.

41  F.M. Turner, ‘Why the Greeks and not the Romans in Victorian Britain’, in G.W. Clarke, ed., Rediscovering Hellenism: The Hellenic Inheritance and the English Imagination, Cambridge 1989, 61–81. For Germany, see B. Näf, Von Perikles zu Hitler? Die athenische Demokratie und die deutsche Althistorie bis 1945, Berne 1986.

42  See P. Kitromilides, The Enlightenment as Social Criticism: Iosipos Moisiodax and Greek Culture in the Eighteenth Century, Princeton 1992.

43  See D. Ringrose, Spain, Europe and the ‘Spanish Miracle’, 1700–1900, Cambridge 1996.

44  E. Sisman, ed., Haydn and his World, Princeton 1997.

45  A. Harrington, Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler, Princeton 1996.

46  A. Faivre, Mystiques, theosophes et illuminés au siècle des lumières, Hildesheim 1976.

47  For this essay: D. King-Hele, Doctor of Revolution: the life and genius of Erasmus Darwin (London 1977); K. Drexler, Nanosystems: molecular machinery, manufacturing, and computation (New York 1992); J. Uglow, The Lunar Men: The Friends who made the Future 1730–1810 (London 2002); R. Falk, Genetic anlysis: a history of genetic thinking (Cambridge 2009); M. Ruse, ed., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Darwin and Evolutionary Thought (Cambridge 2012).

13  Europe’s revolutions: freedom and consumption for all?

1  Quoted in G. Wurzbacher, R. Pflaum, Das Dorf im Spannungsfelde industrieller Entwicklung, Stuttgart 1961, 13.

2  F.A. Pottle, ed., Boswell’s London Journal, 1762–1763, London 1982, 159.

3  See M.C. Moine, Les Fêtes à la cour du Roi Soleil, 1665–1715, Paris 1984.

4  A. Chéruel, ed., Mémoires de Saint-Simon, XII, Paris 1857, 461 sqq.

5  For a case study: J.H. Plumb et al. eds, The Birth of Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England, Bloomington 1982.

6  See D. Roche, The Culture of Clothing: Dress and Fashion in the Ancien Régime, Cambridge 1995.

7  See F.B. Kaye, ed., Bernard Mandeville: The Fable of the Bees, Oxford 1924.

8  For a survey: B. Gottlieb, The Family in the Western World from the Black Death to the Industrial Age, Oxford 1987.

9  See B.W. Robinson, R.F. Hall, The Aldrich Book of Catches, London 1989, 79, no. 56.

10  A survey: H. Cunningham, Children and Childhood in Western Society since 1500, London 1995.

11  N. Elias, The Civilizing Process. I: The History of Manners. II: State Formation and Civilization, Oxford 1982.

12  See J. Barry, C. Brooks, eds, The Middling Sort of People: Culture, Society and Politics in England, 1550–1800, Basingstoke 1994, esp. 1–27; D. Blackbourn, R.J. Evans, eds, The German Bourgeoisie, London 1991; P.M. Pilbeam, The Middle Classes in Europe, 1789–1914: France, Germany, Italy and Russia, Basingstoke 1990.

13  See D. Roche, Les Republicains des lettres: gens de culture et lumières au XVIIIe siècle, Paris 1988. An important case: C. Lougee, Le Paradis des Femmes: Women, Salons and Social Stratification in Seventeenth-Century France, Princeton 1976.

14  F. Chabod, ‘L’Idea di Europa’, Rassegna d’Italia II (1947), 3.

15  See H. Bots, ed., Henri Basnage de Beauval en de histoire des ouvrages des savans, 1687–1709, I–II, Amsterdam 1976.

16  P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Pieter Rabus en de “Boekzaal van Europe”, 1692–1702’, in H. Bots, ed., Pieter Rabus en de Boekzaal van Europe, Amsterdam 1974, 1–102.

17  See on the moralizing nature of many weeklies: W. Martens, Die Botschaft der Tugend, Stuttgart 1968.

18  P.J. Buijnsters, ‘Sociologie van de Spectator’, Spiegel der Letteren 15/1 (1973), 1–17.

19  P. Clark, Sociability and Urbanity: Clubs and Societies in the Eighteenth-Century City, Leicester 1986.

20  M.C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe, Oxford 1992.

21  R. Stadelman, Preussens Könige in ihrer Tätigkeit für die Landeskultur. II: Friedrich der Grosse, Leipzig 1882, 333.

22  G. Schmoller, ed., Acta Borussica, I/2, Berlin 1892, 8.

23  Stadelman, Preussens Könige, 287.

24  R. Chartier, Les Origines culturelles de la revolution française, Paris 1991.

25  Among the numerous introductions, for background information one might read Ph. Deane, The First Industrial Revolution, Cambridge 1979, and J. Goodman, K. Honeyman, Gainful Pursuits: The Making of Industrial Europe, 1600–1914, London 1988. An illuminating case study is D. Sabean, Property, Production and Family in Neckarshausen, 1700–1870, Cambridge 1990.

26  H. Ch. Mettin, ed., Fürst Pückler reist nach England: aus den Briefen eines Verstorbenen, Stuttgart 1958, 107 sqq.

27  For a non-English case study: R. Sandgruber, Die Anfänge der Konsumgesellfschaft, Vienna 1982, which deals with Austria in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

28  O. Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray, London 1891, chs 8 and 6.

29  A. Joubin, ed., Eugène Delacroix, Journal. 1822–1863, Paris 1981, 346–7.

30  See R. von Dülmen et al. eds, Volkskultur: zur Wiederentdeckung des vergessenen Alltags, 16.–20. Jahrhundert, Frankfurt 1984.

31  For a survey: R. Wendorff, Zeit und Kultur: Geschichte des Zeitbewusstseins in Europa, Opladen 1980.

32  K. Jantke, D. Hiler, eds, Die Eigentumslosen, Freiburg-Munich 1965, 178.

33  Journal des Débats, 18 April 1832.

34  See the fine study by J.M. Meriman, The Margins of City Life: Explorations on the French Urban Frontier, 1815–1851, New York 1991.

35  Quoted in P. McPhee, A Social History of France, 1780–1880, London 1993, 203.

36  For this essay: A. Usher, A History of Mechanical Inventions (New York 1988); J. Lin, ‘The Needham Puzzle: Why the Industrial Revolution Did Not Originate in China’, in: Economic Development and Cultural Change, 43, 269–292; K. Drexler, Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation (New York 1992); R. Thurston, A history of the growth of the steam engine(New York 1996), 12, 15–16, 21–22; K. Drexler, Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation (New York 1992); R. Finlay, ‘China, the West, and World History in Joseph Needham’s Science and Civilisation in China’, in: Journal of World History, 11, 265–303; D. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: technological change and industrial development in Western Europe from 1750 to the present (Cambridge 2003); R. Krebs, Groundbreaking Experiments, Inventions and Discoveries (Westport 2004).

14  Progress and its discontents: nationalism, economic growth and the question of cultural certainties

1  For a very perceptive study of similarities and continuities in this field, see R. Wuthenow, Communities of Discourse: Ideology and Social Structure in the Reformation, the Enlightenment and European Socialism, Cambridge, Mass., 1989.

2  A comparative survey of the sociopolitical consequences: G.A. Ritter, Der Sozialstaat: Entstehung und Entwicklung im internationalen Vergleich, Munich 1989; as well as S. Padgett, W.E. Patterson, A History of Social Democracy in Europe, London 1991.

3  Henri de Saint-Simon, Le Système industriel, Paris 1821, 19.

4  For further arguments: S. Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration of Europe, London 1991.

5  B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London 1983.

6  For a general survey: B. Tobia, Una patria per gli Italiani: spazi, itinerari, monumenti nell’Italia unita (1870–1900), Rome 1991.

7  For the concept: P. Nora, ed., Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past, I, New York 1996.

8  See S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850–1930, Oxford 1991.

9  For the background see P. Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions and World Fairs, 1851–1939, Manchester 1988.

10  P.E. Schramm, Neun Generationen: Dreihundert Jahre deutscher ‘Kulturgeschichte’ im Lichte des Schicksals einer Hamburger Bürgerfamilie, 1648–1948, Göttingen 1963, I, 295.

11  For example, D. Blackburn, R.J. Evans, eds, The German Bourgeoisie: Essays on the Social History of the German Middle Class from the Late Eighteenth to the Early Twentieth Century, London 1991; see also the essays in J. Kocka, A. Mitchell, eds, Bourgeois Society in Nineteenth-Century Europe, Oxford 1993 (originally Munich 1988).Pamela Pilbeam, in her wide-ranging The Middle Classes in Europe, 1789–1914, Basingstoke 1990, has raised the question of the continuity of the pre-revolutionary urban patriciate and the new industrial elite.

12  For example, E. Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen, London 1976.

13  See, too, H.J. Graff, The Legacies of Literacy: Continuities and Contradictions in Western Culture and Society, Bloomington 1987.

14  Kocka, Mitchell, Bourgeois Society, 430, table 16.3.

15  See S. Collini, Matthew Arnold: A Critical Portrait, Oxford 1994.

16  M. Arnold, Popular Education and the State, London 1861; Arnold, Schools and Universities on the Continent, London 1868.

17  J. Dover Wilson, ed., M. Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, Cambridge 1971, 129 sq.; M. Arnold, Essays in Criticism I, London 1865, 18.

18  G.W.E. Russell, ed., M. Arnold, Letters I, London 1895, 4.

19  Culture and Anarchy, 138.

20  Culture and Anarchy, 195.

21  quoted by J. Dover Wilson in his introduction to Culture and Anarchy, XXXV.

22  P. Anderson, The Printed Image and the Transformation of Popular Culture, 1790–1860, Oxford 1994.

23  See O. Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: ein europäischer Vergleich, Munich 1981, 22, 159 sqq.

24  See the details in F. Parent-Lardeur, Lire à Paris au temps de Balzac: les cabinets de lecture à Paris, 1815–1830, Paris 1981, 171, 172, 178.

25  G. Jäger, J. Schönert, eds, Die Leihbibliothek als Institution des literarischen Lebens im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert. Organisation, Bestände, Publikum, Hamburg 1980, 11 sqq.

26  Quoted in H. Nicolson, Tennyson: Aspects of his Life, Character and Poetry, London 1923, 1960, 235.

27  La Regenta, written by L. Alas (1852–1901), whose pen-name was Clarín, was translated into English in 1984.

28  See L. Sauer, ‘Romantic automata’, in: G. Hoffmeister, ed., European Romanticism: Literary Cross-Currents, Modes and Models, Detroit 1990, 287–306.

29  S. Butler, Erewhon, London (Everyman’s Library) 1951, 144, 145, 147.

30  See M. Schneider, Geschichte als Gestalt: Gustav Freytag’s Roman ‘Soll und Haben’, Stuttgart 1980.

31  This is the drift of most of the essays in M.I. Finley, ed., The Legacy of Greece: A New Appraisal, Oxford 1981, and R. Jenkyns, ed., The Legacy of Rome: A New Appraisal, Oxford 1992, even if the limitation of culture to art and literature in the latter volume is debatable.

32  See P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Een Europeaan droomt: Novalis tussen Europa, Christendom en Wereld’, in his Dromen van Europa: een cultuurgeschiedenis, Amersfoort 1993, 255–81.

33  From Alexander Dru, ed., The Letters of Jakob Burckhardt, London 1955, 97; 107–8, 145–8, 150–1, 219–20.

34  A. Corbin, Time, Desire and Horror: Towards a History of the Senses, Oxford 1995.

35  H. Kaeble, Auf dem Weg zu einer europäischen Gesellschaft: eine Sozialgeschichte Westeuropas, 1880–1980, Munich 1987.

36  See K. Tenfelde, ed., Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung im Vergleich, Munich 1986, which compares developments in Britain and Germany.

37  For the background: A. Corbin, Le Territoire du vide, Paris 1988; translated as The Lure of the Sea: The Discovery of the Seaside in the Western World, 1750–1840, Oxford 1994.

38  For the complexity of Europe’s attitude towards nature: K. Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England, 1500–1800, Harmondsworth 1982.

39  For a survey: A. Daumard, Oisiveté et loisirs dans les sociétés occidentales au XIX siècle, Amiens 1983.

40  See S. Easton et al., Disorder and Discipline: Popular Culture from 1550 to the Present, Aldershot 1988.

41  Quoted in J.M. Merriman, The Margins of City Life: Explorations on the French Urban Frontier, 1815–1851, New York 1991, 67.

42  An important introduction to the problems involved is W. Kaschuba, Volkskultur zwischen feudaler und bürgerlicher Gesellschaft: zur Geschichte eines Begriffes und seinen gesellschaftlichen Wirklichkeit, Frankfurt 1988, as well as Van Dülmen, Schindler, eds, Volkskultur, passim.

43  Quoted in G. Schönbrunn, ed., Das bürgerliche Zeitalter, 1815–1914, Munich 1980, 826.

44  See V. Lidtke, ‘Recent literature on workers’ culture in Germany and England’, in Tenfelde, Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung, 337–62.

45  A good biography: M. Marnot, Joseph Haydn: la mesure de son siècle, Paris 1996.

46  See W. Weber, The Rise of Musical Classics in Eighteenth-Century Orchestral Concerts: A Study in Canon, Ritual and Ideology, London 1992; J.H. Johnson, Listening in Paris: A Cultural History, Berkeley 1995.

47  One of the best analyses of, especially, Schubert’s solo songs still remains the one written by the singer who was probably their most convincing performer in the twentieth century: D. Fischer-Dieskau, Auf den Spuren der Schubertlieder, Munich 1976. A good biography: P. Guelke, Franz Schubert und seine Zeit, Laaber 1991.

48  See S. Finkelstein, Composer and Nation: The Folk Heritage in Music, New York 1960.

49  Quoted in P. McPhee, A Social History of France, 1780–1880, London 1993, 125.

50  See A. Briggs, Victorian Things, London 1988.

51  M. Miller, The ‘Bon Marché’: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869–1920, Princeton 1981.

52  See G. Vickert, ‘The theory of conspicuous consumption in the eighteenth century’, in P. Hughes, D. Williams, eds, The Varied Pattern: Studies in the Eighteenth Century, Toronto 1971, 253–67.

53  See the English translation: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The First and Second Discourses, New York 1986, 4–5, 175, 180–1.

54  D. Hume, Treatise on Human Nature, Oxford 1978.

55  J.S. Mill, Principles of Political Economy, originally London 1848; Toronto 1965, 753–96.

56  For this essay, besides the text of War and Peace itself: G. Hegel, Reason in History (New York 1953), 43–45, and his Philosophy of History (New York 1956), 451. See also: I. Berlin, The Hedgehog and the Fox (London 1953), 10–11 and passim. For the general background: A. Wilson, Tolstoy (London 1988); A. Knowles, Leo Tolstoy(London 1997); A. Briggs, ‘Introduction’ to the Penguin edition of War and Peace (London 2005).

15  Europe and the other worlds

1  For a survey, albeit a not always balanced one: A. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900, Cambridge 1986.

2  G. Lantzeff, R. Pierce, Eastward to Empire: Exploration and Conquest on the Russian Open Frontier to 1750, Montreal 1973; M. Rywkin, Russian Colonial Expansion to 1917, London 1987; G. Diment, Y. Slezkine, eds, Between Heaven and Hell: The Myth of Siberia in Russian Culture, New York 1993.

3  D. Arnold, Environment, Culture and European Expansion, Oxford 1997.

4  See D. Gregory, Brute New World: The Rediscovery of Latin America in the Early Nineteenth Century, London 1992.

5  See P.J.A.N. Rietbergen, ‘Aan de vooravond van “het Groote Missie-uur”: een onderzoek naar de Nederlandse missiebeweging gedurende de eerste helft van de negentiende eeuw en de rol van “missietijdschriften” daarin’, Nederlands Archief voor Kerkgeschiedenis 70 (1990), 75–108.

6  R.H. Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind, Berkeley 1988, 69.

7  J. Hector St John de Crevecoeur, Letters from an American Farmer, London 1782. Here quoted from the Everyman’s Library, London, edition, 5.

8  The following quotations are from Letters, 11, 24–5, 13, 41, 41–2, 43–4.

9  W. Cather, O Pioneers!, New York 1913; Harmondsworth 1989, 301.

10  See W.C. Davis, The American Frontier: Pioneers, Settlers and Cowboys, 1800–1890, New York 1992; J.D. Unruh, The Plains Across: Emigrants, Wagon Trains and the American West, New York 1992; and the illustrative volume of eyewitness accounts in Westward Expansion, New York 1992.

11  For a general overview see D. Baines, Emigration from Europe, 1815–1930, London 1991.

12  The novels appeared between 1949 and 1959; G. Eidevall, Vilhelm Mobergs emigrantepos: studien i verkets tillkomsthistoria, dokumentära bakgrund och konstnärliga gestaltning, Stockholm 1974.

13  Upton Sinclair, The Jungle, New York 1965, 29.

14  The following quotations are from The Jungle, 32, 59, 64.

15  H. Croly, The Promise of American Life, New York 1909, 17–25, passim; 452.

16  W. Irving, The Sketch Book, London, 2.

17  P.E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa, Cambridge 1983.

18  For a case study: H. Gruender, Christliche Mission und deutscher Imperialismus, Paderborn 1982.

19  For a survey of British attitudes: R. Robinson, J. Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism, London 1981.

20  F.J. McLynn, Hearts of Darkness, London 1992; S. Lindquist, Exterminate All the Brutes, London 1997.

21  D. Massarela, A World Elsewhere: European Encounters with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, New Haven 1990.

22  P. Rietbergen, Nihon door Nederlandse Ogen: the VOC en Japan, c. 1600 – c. 1800, Amsterdam 2003.

23  G.K. Goodman, Japan: The Dutch Experience, London 1986.

24  For a survey: N. Cameron, Barbarians and Mandarins: Thirteen Centuries of Western Travellers in China, Oxford 1989.

25  See D.E. Mungella, Curious Land: Jesuit Accommodation and the Origins of Sinology, Honolulu 1985.

26  See E. Evett, The Critical Reception of Japanese Art in Late Nineteenth-Century Europe, Ann Arbor 1982.

27  S. Wichmann, Japonismus: Ostasien-Europa. Begegnungen in der Kunst des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts, Herrsching 1980.

28  See N.A. Silberman, Digging for God and Country: Exploration, Archaeology and the Secret Struggle for the Holy Land, 1799–1917, New York 1982.

29  S. Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women’s Travel Writing and Colonialism, London 1991.

30  This, of course, has been the central, though debatable, argument of E. Said, Orientalism, London 1978, which he repeated in his Culture and Imperialism, London 1993.

31  A survey: M. Jacobs, The Painted Voyage: Art, Travel and Exploration, 1564–1875, London 1995. See also D. Mackay, In the Wake of Cook: Exploration, Science and Empire, 1780–1801, London 1985.

32  A. Olearius, Neue Beschreibung der Moskovitischen und Persischen Reiche, Leipzig 1656, 184.

33  See W. Leitsch, ‘Westeuropäische Reiseberichte über den Moskauer Staat’, in A. Maczak, H.J. Teuteberg, eds, Reiseberichte als Quellen Europäischer Kulturgeschichte, Wolfenbüttel 1988, 153–76.

34  Basic reading is the fine study by L. Wolf, Inventing Eastern Europe, Stanford 1994; for this: 7–8.

35  See D. Chirot, ed., The Origins of Backwardness in Eastern Europe: Economics and Politics from the Middle Ages until the Early Twentieth Century, Berkeley 1989.

36  D. Groh, Rusland und das Selbstverständnis Europas, Neuwied 1961, 65 sqq.

37  For this essay: A. Bettex, L’invention du monde (Paris 1960); P. Braunlein, Martin Behaim. Legende und Wirklichkeit eines berühmten Nürnbergers (Nuremberg 1992); P. Rietbergen, Dromen van Europa (Amersfoort 1994); B. Stuchtey, ed., Writing world history, 1800–2000 (London 2003); P. Rietbergen, Europa en zijn werelden (Nijmegen 2011); C. Stringer, The Origin of Our Species(London 2011).

16  The ‘Decline of the Occident’ – the loss of a dream? From the nineteenth to the twentieth century

1  J. Scott, Siemens Brothers, 1858–1958, London 1958.

2  W. Lautemann, M. Schlenke, gen. eds, Geschichte in Quellen, Munich 1980, 825.

3  C. Harding, S. Popple, In the Kingdom of Shadows: A Companion to Early Cinema, London 1997.

4  A good introduction to the period is J. Barzun, Darwin, Marx, Wagner: Critique of a Heritage, New York 1958, esp. 38–55: ‘The evolution of evolution’. See also R. Olson, Evolution: The History of an Idea, Berkeley 1989.

5  The study of Darwin has become a veritable industry. There is an avalanche of recent biographies. Instructive is L.S. Bergmann, ‘Reshaping the roles of Man, God and Nature: Darwin’s rhetoric in On the Origin of Species’, in J.W. Lee, J. Yaross, eds, Beyond the Two Cultures: Essays on Science, Technology and Literature, Ames 1990.Proteus: A Journal of Ideas VI/2 (1989) is entirely devoted to the various aspects of Darwin’s life and works.

6  See the very perceptive study by S.E. Hyman, The Tangled Bank: Darwin, Marx, Frazer and Freud as Imaginative Writers, New York 1962, which has not received the attention it deserves.

7  For example: G. Levine, Darwin and the Novelists: Patterns of Science in Victorian Fiction, London 1988.

8  Ch. Fox et al., eds, Inventing Human Science, Berkeley 1995.

9  D. Knight, The Age of Science: The Scientific World View in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford 1986, provides an excellent introduction.

10  P. Costello, Jules Verne, Inventor of Science Fiction, London 1978; G. Proteau, Le Grand Roman de Jules Verne: sa vie, Paris 1979.

11  B. Holm, Selma Lagerlöfs litterära profil, Stockholm 1986.

12  See Barzun, Darwin, passim.

13  E. Förster-Nietzsche, ed., Nietzsche’s Werke XVI, Leipzig 1912, 402. It has to be said that a text titled Der Wille zur Macht: Versuch einer Umwerthung aller Werthe, as presented by Elisabeth Nietzsche as Nietzsche’s chief work, does not exist. What exists is a collection of ‘aphorisms’, very difficult to interpret. See M. Montinari, ‘Vorwort’, in G. Colli, M. Montinari, eds, Friedrich Nietzsche: Sämtliche Werke. Kritische Studienausgabe, 14, Berlin 1980, 1–12.

14  See Colli, Montinari, eds, Fr. Nietzsche: Kritische Gesamtausgabe der Werke, VI/2, Berlin 1968) [= Fr. Nietzsche, Also sprach Zarathustra: ein Buch für Alle und Keine], 33, 8–1.

15  See B. Reardon, ‘Ernest Renan and the religion of science’, in D. Jasper, T. Wright, eds, Critical Spirit and the Will to Believe, New York 1989, 199–205.

16  For example, W. Loth, ed., Deutscher Katholizismus im Umbruch zur Moderne, Stuttgart 1991.

17  M. Artola, Antiguo Régimen y revolucíon liberal, Barcelona 1978; L.G. San Miguel, De la Sociedad Aristocrática a la Sociedad Industrial en la España del siglo XIX, Madrid 1973.

18  See the texts in Foerster, Die Idee, as well as H. Wehberg, Ideen und Projekte betreffende die Vereinigten Staaten von Europa in den letzten 100 Jahren, Bremen 1984.

19  See G. Colli, M. Montinari, eds, Fr. Nietzsche: Kritische Gesamtausgabe der Werke, VI/2, Berlin 1968 [= Fr. Nietzsche, Jenseits von Gut und Böse], 209, no. 256.

20  See J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition, Princeton 1975.

21  See M. Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past, London 1973.

22  W. Lautemann, M. Schlenke, gen. eds, Geschichte in Quellen, Munich 1980, 825.

23  A. Tennyson, ‘Locksley Hall’, in Poetical Works of Alfred Lord Tennyson, London 1917, 103.

24  For the case of Britain, which is the best researched: J.M. Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture, Manchester 1896.

25  M. Lowsky, Karl May, Stuttgart 1987.

26  R.D. Gray, Goethe the Alchemist, Cambridge 1952.

27  A very readable biography has been written by P. Gay, Freud: A Life for our Time, New York 1988.

28  A balanced, up-to-date analysis is given by F. Forrester, Dispatches from the Freud Wars, Cambridge, Mass., 1997.

29  See L.B. Litvo, Darwin’s Influence on Freud, New Haven 1991.

30  H.D. Cater, ed., Henry Adams and his Friends: A Collection of Unpublished Letters, New York 1970, 499–500.

31  H. Adams, The Education of Henry Adams: An Autobiography, Boston 1918, 379, 380, 381–2, 383.

32  See the study by H.A. Klomp, De relativiteitstheorie in Nederland, Groningen 1997.

33  See H. Hartmann, Max Planck als Mensch und Denker, Frankfurt 1953.

34  Chr. Butler, Early Modernism: Literature, Music and Painting in Europe, 1900–1916, Oxford 1994.

35  A. Stassinopoulos Huffington, Picasso, Creator and Destroyer, New York 1988, ch. 4.

36  See D. Roberts, Benedetto Croce and the Uses of Historicity, Berkeley 1987.

37  Quoted in R. Wohl, The Generation of 1914, London 1980, 240, n. 1.

38  H. Pirenne, Mahomet et Charlemagne, Paris 1937.

39  For example, P. Barker et al., eds, After Einstein, Memphis 1981; D.P. Ryan et al., eds, Einstein and the Humanities, Westport 1987.

40  G. Blasberg, Krise und Utopie der Intellektuellen: kulturkritische Aspekte in Robert Musils Roman ‘Der Man ohne Eigenschaften’, Stuttgart 1984; G.M. Moore, Proust and Musil: The Novel as Research Instrument, New York 1985.

41  M. Brod, ed., Franz Kafka, Amerika, Frankfurt 1953, 38.

42  For the background: E. Timms, ed., Unreal City: Urban Experience in Modern European Literature and Art, New York 1985.

43  The very negative interpretation of Lang’s film by Siegfried Kracauer in his Von Caligari zu Hitler: eine psychologische Geschichte des deutschen Films, Frankfurt 1979, originally 1949, seems unfounded, induced by Kracauer’s wish to detect a growing glorification of totalitarianism in every movie made in these years. Rather, I think Lang’s vision to be a generally pessimistic one.

44  For the background Revue du Dix-Neuvième Siècle 13, 1983, and Cahiers Victoriens et Edwardiens 31, 1990. Also Th.P. Dunn et al., eds, The Mechanical God: Machines in Science Fiction, Westport 1982.

45  J.B. Kerman, ed., Retrofitting Blade Runner, Bowling Green 1991, especially in 110–23, as well as the illuminating analyses by J. Douchet, ‘La Ville Tentaculaire’, N.N., Cités-Cinés, La Villette 1987, 61–71; F. Chaslin, ‘Dans les villes crépusculaires’, ibid., 103–9. See also: Y. Birle Profane Mythology: The Savage Mind of the Cinema, Bloomington 1982, 57–62.

46  For Huizinga’s reactions: W.E. Krul, ‘Moderne beschavingsgeschiedenis: Johan Huizinga over de Verenigde Staten’, in K. van Berkel, ed., Amerika in Europese ogen: Facetten van de Europese beeldvorming van het moderne Amerika, ‘s-Gravenhage 1990, 86–108.

47  K. Harpprecht, Thomas Mann: Eine Biographie, Reinbek 1995.

48  Cf. S. Baranowski, Strength Through Joy: Consumerism and Mass Tourism in the Third Reich, Cambridge 2004.

49  See R. Wohl, A Passion for Wings: Aviation and the western Imagination, 1908–1918, New Haven 1995.

50  H.J. Fügen, Max Weber, Hamburg 1991; D. Käsler, Max Weber: An Introduction to his Life and Work, Munich 1988.

51  E. Jennings, ‘Re-inventing Jeanne. The iconology of Joan of Arc in Vichy schoolbooks, 1940–1944’, Journal of Contemporary History, 29/4, 1994, 711–34.

52  For the above, mostly B. Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, New York 1966.

53  For a survey of the historiography of this very complex problem see P. Lambert, The Weimar Republic and the Rise of Hitler, London 1997.

54  Cf. S. Evans, Forgotten Crimes: the Holocaust and People with Disabilities, London 2004; also D. Bloxham, T. Kushner, The Holocaust: Critical Approaches, Manchester 2004.

55  See R.I. Moore, The Formation of a Persecuting Society, Oxford 1987.

56  Z. Baumann, Modernity and the Holocaust, London 1989.

57  S. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914–1945, London 1995, and M. Mann, Fascism, Cambridge 2004, put the phenomenon in a comparative perspective.

58  For this essay: M. Foucault, Les Mots et les Choses (Paris 1966), and L’Archeologie du Savoir (Paris 1969); C. Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism (New York 1969); H. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious (New York 1970); P. Gay, Freud: A Life for Our Time (New York 1988); E. Waters, a.o., Therapy’s Delusions (New York 1999); M. Solms, a.o.a., Clinical Studies in Neuro-psychoanalysis (London 2000); R. Webster, Why Freud was Wrong: Sin, science and psychoanalysis (Oxford 2005); G. Makari, The Revolution of the Mind. The creation of psychoanalysis (New York 2008).

17  Towards a new Europe?

1  In Brecht’s final version of 1930, the title was changed into Das Badener Lehrstück vom Einverständnis, which better indicated the central theme: man’s basic need to accept death.

2  G. Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, New York 1995.

3  See M.J. Nye, From Chemical Philosophy to Theoretical Chemistry: Dynamics of Matter and Dynamics of Disciplines, Berkeley 1993.

4  Watson himself wrote a highly readable first-hand account: J. Watson, The Double Helix, London 1968.

5  See C.P. Snow, The Two Cultures and A Second Look: An Expanded Version of The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution, Cambridge 1964, as well as J.S. de la Mothe, C.P. Snow and the Struggle for Modernity, Austin 1992. Significantly, Snow’s text was translated into German as: Die Zwei Kulturen: literarische und naturwissenschaftliche Intelligenz, Stuttgart 1967. Also F. Leavis,Cultures: The Significance of C.P. Snow, Cambridge 1964, as well as D. Thompson, ed., The Leavises, Cambridge 1984.

6  See Unesco Statistical Yearbook, 1991.

7  See A.P. French, P.J. Kennedy, eds, Nils Bohr: A Centenary Volume, Cambridge, Mass., 1985; G. Holton, Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought, Cambridge, Mass., 1988.

8  For a very lucid survey: S. Greenfield, The Human Brain, London 1997.

9  See A.H. Guth, The Inflationary Universe, London 1997.

10  A layman’s – c.500 pages long – guide through the complexities of the issue is provided by S. Singh, Big Bang: The Most Important Scientific Discovery of All Time and Why You Need to Know about It, London 2004.

11  A survey: D.W. Urwin, The Community of Europe: A History of European Integration since 1945, London 1995.

12  See the important, ‘demythologizing’ study by A.S. Milward (with G. Brenner, F. Romero), The European Rescue of the Nation-State, London 1993, as well as A.S. Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1951, London 1984.

13  See A. Milward, V. Sorensen, ‘Interdependence or integration? A national choice’, in A.S. Milward et al., eds, The Frontier of National Sovereignty: History and Theory, 1945–1992, London 1993, 1–32.

14  E.J. Hobsbawm, T. Ranger, eds, The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge 1983; E.J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality, Cambridge 1990.

15  This has already been argued by L. Kohr, The Breakdown of Nations, London 1957; more recently: Chr. Harvie, The Rise of European Regionalism, London 1993.

16  For the following see R. Kroes, De Leegte van Amerika, Amsterdam 1992.

17  For example, R.F. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization, New York 1993. For a parallel study: R. Willett, The Americanization of Germany: Post-War Culture, 1945–1949, London 1989.

18  S. Harding, D. Phillips, Contrasting Values in Western Europe: Unity, Diversity and Change, Basingstoke 1986; S. Ashford, N. Timms, What Europe Thinks: A Study of Western European Values, Aldershot 1992; and the reports of the European Values Studies Project, published in Tilburg, the Netherlands, from 1993 onwards.

19  For a survey: R. Williams, Dream Worlds, Berkeley 1982, 298–384, passim.

20  E. Durkheim, Formes élémentaires de la vie réligieuse, Paris 1912.

21  See M. Birman, All that is Solid Melts into Air, London 1982; A. Ross, No Respect: Intellectuals and Popular Culture, London 1989.

22  See M.A. Bienefeld, Working Hours in British Industry: An Economic History, London 1972.

23  J.M. Keynes, Essays in the Art of Persuasion, London 1931, 365 sqq.

24  For a general survey: R. Williams, Culture and Society, 1780–1950, London 1961.

25  G. Poujol, R. Labourie, Les Cultures populaires, Toulouse 1979.

26  W.W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth, Cambridge 1961.

27  See P. Yonnet, Modes et masses: la société française et le moderne, 1945–1985, Paris 1985.

28  See P. Brantlinger, Bread and Circuses: Theories of Mass Culture as Social Decay, New York 1983.

29  J.K. Galbraith, The Affluent Society, New York 1958, 139 sqq.

30  See R. Butsch, ed., For Time and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption, Philadelphia 1990.

31  From G. Cross, Time and Money: The Making of a Consumer Culture, London 1993, 193 sqq. This perceptive study has been of great value in the writing of this section.

32  V. Packard, The Status Seekers, New York 1959; W. Whyte, The Organization Man, New York 1956.

33  See R. Inglehart, Cultural Shift, Princeton 1990.

34  See P. Blyton, Changes in Working Time: An International Review, New York 1985.

35  W. Gossin, Le Temps de la vie quotidienne, Paris 1974.

36  A. Veal, Sport and Recreation in England and Wales, London 1979; J. Bishop, P. Higgett, eds, Organizing around Enthusiasm: Mutual Aid in Leisure, London 1986.

37  J. Dumazedien, La Révolution culturelle du temps libre, 1968–1988, Paris 1988.

38  Report of the Dutch Bureau for Social and Cultural Planning (The Hague), May 1995.

39  This is the argument persuasively sustained by Cross, Time and Money, passim.

40  For the background: L. Tilly, J.W. Scott, Women, Work and Family, London 1987.

41  U. Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning, States, Markets, Movements, New York 1992.

42  A penetrating survey: H.J. Gans, Popular Culture and High Culture: An Analysis and Evaluation of Taste, New York 1974.

43  See ILO Yearbook of Labour Statistics: Retrospective Edition on Population Censuses 1945–1989, Geneva 1990.

44  E.J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1870–1914, London 1987, esp. ch. 5.

45  P. Bairoch, Two Major Shifts in Western European Labour Force: The Decline of the Manufacturing Industries and of the Working Class, Geneva 1988.

46  See J. Rifkin, The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-market Era, New York 1995.

47  F. Ewald, L’Etat-providence, Paris 1986.

48  A. Gray, J. McGuigan, eds, Studying Culture: An Introductory Reader, London 1993.

49  The point is much discussed; see, e.g. F. Zweig,, London 1961, as opposed to J. Goldthorpe et al., The Affluent Worker in the Class Structure, London 1971, although both rely heavily on the somewhat atypical case of Britain.

50  On Guardini: H. Kuhn, R. Guardini, der Mensch und das Werk, Darmstadt 1961. In 1962, Guardini was awarded the Erasmus Prize.

51  See Hannerz, Cultural Complexity, passim. The Polity Reader in Cultural Theory, Cambridge 1994, significantly starts with mass communication.

52  Cf. J. Carrette, R. King, The Selling of Spirituality, London 2004.

53  See P. Berger, ‘Social sources of secularization’, in J.C. Alexander, S. Seidman, eds, Culture and Society: Contemporary Debates, Cambridge 1992, 239–49.

54  R. Wilson, W. Dissanayake, eds, Global/Local: Cultural Production and the Transnational Imaginary, London 1996.

55  R. Shields, ed., Cultures of Internet, London 1996.

56  For a survey of various opinions: F. Webster, Theories of the Information Society, London 1996.

57  S. Dillon, ‘Office workers fall short when building a sentence’, International Herald Tribune, December, 8, 2004, 1, 10.

58  J. Ellis, Visible Fictions: Cinema, Television, Video, London 1992, esp. 109 sqq., 270 sqq.

59  Chr. Jenks, ed., Visual Culture, London 1995.

60  Ph. Drummond, R. Patterson, eds, Television and its Audience: International Research Perspectives, London 1988.

61  R.C. Allen, Speaking of Soap Opera, Chapel Hill, NC, 1985.

62  For a survey: M. Mitterauer, Sozialgeschichte der Jugend, Frankfurt 1986.

63  R. Floud et al., Height, Health and History, Cambridge 1990.

64  From the Financial Times, 11 April 1991, quoted in Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, 326.

65  E.J. Hobsbawm, The Jazz Scene, New York 1993.

66  Stravinsky, though presenting himself as a ‘cosmopolitan’, was far more influenced by Russia’s musical past than he cared to admit: R. Taruskin, Stravinsky and the Russian Tradition, Oxford 1996.

67  With thanks to my colleague, Dr Remco Ensel.

68  For the role of television in the public domain: M. Price, Television, the Public Sphere and National Identity, Oxford 1996.

69  O. Marquard, ‘Moratorium des Alltags: Eine Kleine Philosophie des Festes’, in W. Haug, H. Warnung, eds, Das Fest, Munich 1989, 684–91.

70  See P. Manent, An Intellectual History of Liberalism, London 1994.

71  For this essay: Y. Samand, ed., Islam in the European Union: transnationalism, youth and the war on terror (Oxford 2007); P. Hainsworth, The Extreme Right in Western Europe (London 2008); B. Wasserstein, Barbarism and Civilization. A history of Europe in our time (Oxford 2009); I. Berend, Europe since 1980 (London 2010); M. Conway, ed, Europeanization in the Twentieth Century(London 2010); J. Cesari, Why the West fears Islam: an exploration of Muslims in liberal democracies (London 2013). Also for the Turkey question: European Commission Eurobarometer, 66, September–October 2006, 223. For regular surveys about all kinds of topics, including religious feelings: www.gesis.org/eurobarometer-data-service/topics-trends/eb-special-topics/select.

Epilogue: Europe – a present with a future

1  G. Erler, ed., J.W. Goethe, Werke, VIII, Berlin 1984, 77.

2  Quoted in W.C. Bark, Origins of the Medieval World, Stanford 1958, VII.

3  P. Rietbergen. De Retoriek van de Eeuwige Stad. Rome gelezen, Nijmegen 2003.

4  Most articulate is J. Rifkin, The European Dream. How Europe’s vision of the future is quietly eclipsing the American dream, Cambridge 2004.

5  This vision was defended by A. Finkielkraut, L’Humanité perdue, Paris 1997.

6  F. Fernandez-Armesto, Millennium, London 1995.

7  An elegant though limited survey written by Josep Fontana, Europa ante el espejo, Barcelona 1994, has been translated in several European languages; however, he omits the important north–south and east–west oppositions.

8  G. Nonneman et al., eds, Muslim Communities in the New Europe, Reading 1996.

9  Z. Bauman, Modernity and Ambivalence, London 1990.

10  E. Levinas, Totalité et infini, The Hague 1961.

11  P. Brezzi, Realtà e mito nell’Europa dall’ antichità ai giorni nostri, Rome 1954, 22.

12  M. Beloff, Europe and the Europeans: An International Discussion, London 1957.

13  A. Lemaire, Twijfel aan Europa: Zijn de intellectuelen de vijanden van de Europese cultuur?, Baarn 1990. The contribution by C. Nooteboom, De ontvoering van Europa, Amsterdam 1993, as the reflection of someone who calls himself a ‘European’ traveller and thinker, is a disappointment.

14  M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, Oxford 1926, 486–7.

15  R. Barnett et al., eds, The End of Knowledge in Higher Education, London 1997.

16  See C.W. Bynum, ‘The last Eurocentric generation’, Perspectives 34/2 (1996), 3 sqq.