INTRODUCTION
1. Armitage, “Through Women’s Eyes,” 11.
2. Engel, Women in Russia; Pushkareva, Women.
A SKETCH OF THE HISTORIOGRAPHY
1. Mikhnevich, “Russkaia zhenshchina”; Kollontai, Sotsial’nye osnovy.
2. Kudelli, Rabotnitsa; Igumnova, Zhenshchiny Moskvy.
3. Stites, Women’s Liberation Movement; Engel, Mothers and Daughters.
4. Worobec, Peasant Russia; Glickman, Russian Factory Women; Clements, Engel, and Worobec, Russia’s Women; Marrese, A Woman’s Kingdom; Jaworski and Pietrow-Ennker, Women; Forsyth, A History.
5. Website of the Moskovskii tsentr gendernykh issledovani; Gapova, Zhenshchiny; Pushkareva, Gendernaia teoriia; Uspenskaia, Aleksandra Kollontai.
1. THE WOMEN OF THE RUS, 900–1462
1. Martin, Medieval Russia, 61.
2. Pushkareva, Women, 53–60.
3. Cross and Sherbowitz-Wetzor, The Russian Primary Chronicle, 191, 193.
4. Ibid., 191–92.
5. Butler, “A Woman,” 781–87; Butler, “Ol’ga’s Conversion,” 238–40.
6. Cross and Sherbowitz-Wetzor, The Russian Primary Chronicle, 84.
7. Heppell, The Paterik, 117.
8. Levin, Sex, 80.
9. Veder, The Edificatory Prose, 51.
10. Ibid., 51, 71.
11. Roesdahl, The Vikings, 60–61; Weickhardt, “Legal Rights,” 4–7; Shahar, The Fourth Estate, 176–79.
12. R. Frank, “Marriage,” 477–84.
13. Shahar, The Fourth Estate, 82, 94.
14. Zenkovsky, Medieval Russia’s Epics, 247.
15. Kollmann, Kinship, 29.
16. Martin, Medieval Russia, 201; Langer, “The Black Death,” 53–67.
17. Levin, “The Role,” 7, 70, 72.
18. Kaiser and Marker, Reinterpreting, 87, 90.
19. Kollmann, Kinship, 131–35; Thyrêt, Between God and Tsar, 19, 20; Woodworth, “Sophia,” 190–96.
20. Woodworth, “Sophia,” 197.
21. Levin, “The Role,” 10–42; Weickhardt, “Legal Rights,” 10; Kleimola, “’In Accordance,’” 206–14; Kaiser and Marker, Reinterpreting, 89.
22. Levin, “The Role,” 82.
23. Russian family names are gendered, that is, women’s names end in “a,” men’s in “i” or “v.” Marfa Boretskaia’s husband and her sons, therefore, were named Boretskii.
24. Kaiser and Marker, Reinterpreting, 91.
25. Lenhoff and Martin, “Marfa Boretskaia,” 343–68.
2. THE AGE OF THE DOMOSTROI, 1462–1695
1. Crummey, The Formation, 87; Blum, Lord, 120.
2. Kollmann, Kinship, 5.
3. The Cossacks were the descendants of runaway peasants. In the sixteenth century, they established independent communities in southern Russia and Ukraine and supported themselves through farming and mercenary soldiering.
4. All the proverbs quoted here come from Watson, Russian Proverbs.
5. Hellie, Slavery, 15.
6. Hellie, “Women,” 15, 213.
7. One data set lists 71 percent of slave women as married and living with their husbands; another set gives a figure of 87 percent. These numbers are suggestive, but only that, because they do not distinguish between women who married before becoming slaves and those who married after. (Hellie, Slavery, 414, 459.)
8. Ibid., 108–14; Hellie, “Women,” 218.
9. Hellie, Slavery, 442–59.
10. The definitive edition in English is Pouncy, “The Domostroi.” The title of the book literally means “house-building.” What follows here relies heavily on Pouncy’s analysis in her introduction, 1–53.
11. Shahar, The Fourth Estate, 98–106.
12. Houlbrooke, The English Family, 30–31.
13. “Medieval Sourcebook”; Kollmann, “The Seclusion,” 176.
14. Dmytryshyn, Medieval Russia, 411.
15. Levin, Sex, 245–46; Kaiser, “’He Said,’” 197–216; Kollmann, “Self,” 366.
16. Thyrêt, Between God and Tsar, 50; Thyrêt, “Women,” 166.
17. Thyrêt, Between God and Tsar, 81.
18. Kremlins were heavily fortified compounds first built by the princes in the Appanage period. The Moscow Kremlin contained palaces, churches, gardens, and service buildings.
19. Thyrêt, Between God and Tsar, 122–23.
20. Kleimola, “’In Accordance,’” 215–16.
21. Weickhardt, “The Pre-Petrine Law,” 672–73.
22. Kleimola, “’In Accordance,’” 227–29; Kivelson, “The Effects,” 207–11; Mc-Vay, Envisioning, 57–59; Anderson and Zinsser, A History, 2:33.
23. Hellie, Slavery, 611; Kollmann, “Self,” 361.
24. Zenkovsky, Medieval Russia’s Epics, 395.
25. Thomas, “Muscovite Convents,” 232.
26. Kivelson, “Through the Prism,” 75, 83.
27. Kivelson, “Sexuality.”
28. The above paragraphs are based on Kivelson, “Through the Prism,” 74–94; Zguta, “Witchcraft Trials,” 1187–1207; Kivelson, “Political Sorcery,” 270–71; Kivelson, “Male Witches,” 607–608, 618–21; Kivelson, “Patrolling,” 312–23.
29. Worobec, Possessed; Kivelson, “Through the Prism,” 91–93. Katerinka’s story is told by Kivelson in “Patrolling,” 309–16.
30. Kivelson, “Patrolling,” 310.
31. Kivelson, “Coerced Confessions.” Many thanks to the author for sharing this article and her thoughts on Katerinka’s case with me.
32. Forsyth, A History, 75, 10.
33. Ibid., 67.
34. Woodworth-Ney, Women, 144.
35. Zenkovsky, Medieval Russia’s Epics, 364; Pushkareva, Women, 82–83; Avrich, Russian Rebels, 92.
36. Massa, A Short History, 111.
37. Ibid., 150, 160.
38. See also Thyrêt, Between God and Tsar, 108–16.
39. Michels, “Muscovite Elite Women,” 428, 448.
40. Ziolkowski, Tale, 6; Michels, “Muscovite Elite Women,” 432.
41. Ziolkowski, Tale, 52. Italics in the original.
42. Ibid., 59, 53.
43. Michels, “Muscovite Elite Women,” 440.
44. Ziolkowski, Tale, 79, 82.
45. Levin, “The Christian Sources,” 131–40, 132.
46. Michels, “Muscovite Elite Women,” 433.
47. These are the six that survived to adulthood. Two others did not.
48. Thyrêt, Between God and Tsar, 134–35.
49. Hughes, Sophia, 37, 40.
50. Ibid., 116–94.
51. Ibid., 224.
3. EMPRESSES AND SERFS, 1695–1855
1. Kollmann, “‘What’s Love,’” 15–32.
2. Hughes, Russia, 191, 190.
3. Ibid., 193.
4. Peter took the title “emperor” in 1721, relegating “tsar” to a secondary position among his titles. His successors followed his precedent.
5. Cruse and Hoogenboom, Memoirs, 15–18.
6. Ibid., 13.
7. Ibid., 152.
8. Wortman, Scenarios, 1:110–46.
9. Madariaga, Russia, 498.
10. Kuxhausen, “Ideal Citizens.”
11. Black, Citizens, 262.
12. Kuxhausen, “Ideal Citizens,” 32–33; Nash, “Educating.”
13. Dashkova, The Memoirs, 34, 36. The titles tsaritsa and tsarevna had fallen out of use in the eighteenth century, having been replaced by empress, velikii kniaz (son of an emperor), and velikaia kniagina (wife of a velikii kniaz or daughter of an emperor). These terms are anglicized as “grand duke” and “grand duchess.”
14. Ibid., 124, 14.
15. Glagoleva, Dream, 36–66.
16. This discussion of property rights is based on Marrese, A Woman’s Kingdom.
17. Blackstone’s Commentaries, book 1, chapter 15.
18. Marrese, A Woman’s Kingdom, 113, 116; Marrese, “From Maintenance,” 209–26.
19. Marrese, A Woman’s Kingdom, 5.
20. Dolgorukaia, “Svoeruchnye zapiski,” 271, 261.
21. Glagoleva, Dream, 16–17; Cavender, “Kind Angel,” 391.
22. Dolgorukaia, “Svoeruchnye zapiski,” 259, 278–79.
23. Labzina, Days, 16.
24. Dolgorukaia, “Svoeruchnaia zapiski,” 266; Labzina, Days, 48–49, 99.
25. Kaiser and Marker, Reinterpreting, 295.
26. Cruse and Hoogenboom, Memoirs, 15, 30–31.
27. Wortman, Scenarios, 1:264; Lincoln, Nicholas I, 157. The portraits described here are those done by Scottish artist Christina Robertson in 1840–41.
28. Wortman, Scenarios, 1:253–69, 333–78.
29. Cavender, “Kind Angel,” 393, 404; Schrader, “Unruly Felons,” 240.
30. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 28.
31. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, 357–96.
32. Friedman, Masculinity, 2–4, 28–36.
33. Wagner, Marriage, 62, 64.
34. Ibid., 62.
35. Freeze, “Bringing Order,” 711–12.
36. The preceding section is based on Wagner, Marriage, 62–81.
37. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 163, 181.
38. Clyman and Vowles, Russia, 78.
39. Ibid., 49.
40. Lindenmeyr, Poverty, 116.
41. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 30.
42. Heldt, Terrible Perfection, 62.
43. Kelly, A History, 105.
44. Moon, The Russian Peasantry, 20–21; Blum, Lord and Peasant, 420. That other category of bondage in Russia, slavery, was abolished in 1723.
45. Until 1762–64, the church also owned serfs; thereafter the church serfs became state peasants.
46. Mikhnevich, “Russkaia zhenshchina,” 236; Marrese, A Woman’s Kingdom, 191; Turgenev, The Hunting Sketches, 157–75.
47. Worobec, “Masculinity,” 76–93.
48. Bohac, “Widows,” 109.
49. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 266.
50. Kaiser and Marker, Reinterpreting, 293.
51. Moon, The Russian Peasantry, 165.
52. Labzina, Days, 7–26; Clyman and Vowles, Russia, 244–46, 282–310. Many thanks to Steven Grant for his comments on this paragraph.
53. Ryan, The Bathhouse, 177.
54. Kaiser, “The Poor,” 138–42.
55. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 33–34, 35.
4. INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATION, 1855–1914
1. R. Johnson, Peasant, 28, 31; Wirtschafter, Social Identity, 135.
2. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 42.
3. Turgenev, On the Eve, 69.
4. Lebedev and Solodovnikov, Vladimir Vasil’evich, 12.
5. Johanson, Women’s Struggle, 29.
6. Ibid., 32; Anderson and Zinsser, A History, 1:186, 188.
7. Johanson, Women’s Struggle, 72.
8. Ibid., 69.
9. Anderson and Zinsser, A History, 1:188.
10. Johanson, Women’s Struggle, 5.
11. Clyman and Vowles, Russia, 167.
12. Ibid., 184.
13. McVay, Envisioning, 128; Bolt, Feminist Ferment, 77–78.
14. Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, 15–16.
15. McNeal, “Women,” 144.
16. Stites, Women’s Liberation Movement, 142.
17. Engel, Mothers and Daughters; Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, 69.
18. Subtelny, Ukraine, 265.
19. Worobec, Peasant Russia, 62–70.
20. Ibid., 69–70; Farnsworth, “The Litigious Daughter-in-Law,” 91, 94–98; Freeze, “Profane Narratives,” 149.
21. Farnsworth, “The Litigious Daughter-in-Law,” 91; Wagner, Marriage, 61; Semyonova Tian-Shanskaia, Village Life, 163.
22. Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools, 279, 312.
23. Ramer, “Childbirth,” 107–15; Ransel, “Infant-Care Cultures,” 117–18, 123–31.
24. Ramer, “Childbirth,” 107.
25. Pallot, “Women’s Domestic Industries,” 179; McDermid and Hillyar, Women, 61–67.
26. Ransel, Mothers of Misery, 3.
27. The foregoing paragraphs are based on Ransel, Mothers of Misery.
28. Blobaum, “The ‘Woman Question’”; McDermid and Hillyar, Women, 37.
29. Pallot, “Women’s Domestic Industries,” 168.
30. Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools, 379.
31. Calculated from data in Engel, Between the Fields and the City, 67. Warsaw statistics from Nietyksza, “The Vocational Activities,” 145.
32. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 60; Ransel, Mothers of Misery, 164; McDermid and Hillyar, Women, 91.
33. Lapteva, “Domashnaia rabotnitsa,” 43.
34. S. Frank, “Narratives,” 560; Ransel, Mothers of Misery, 167–71.
35. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 74–75, 76, 80, 83; Kessler-Harris, Out to Work, 152; Franzoi, At the Very Least, 22; McDermid and Hillyar, Women, 86.
36. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 86–87; Wirtschafter, Social Identity, 143.
37. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 145.
38. Ibid., 70.
39. Kessler-Harris, Out to Work, 152.
40. Seamstresses did finishing work; dressmakers made entire garments; tailors catered mostly to men.
41. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 66–67, 115.
42. P. Novikova, “Tri sestry,” 43–44.
43. Engel, Between the Fields and the City, 203.
44. Ibid., 211, 222; Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 121, 90.
45. Engel, Between the Fields and the City, 227; Gorky, Autobiography, 68.
46. S. Frank, “Narratives,” 541–66.
47. Il’iukhov, Prostitutsiia, 552. This paragraph and those that follow summarize the findings of Bernstein in Sonia’s Daughters.
48. Il’iukhov, Prostitutsiia, 550.
49. Tsentral’noe statisticheskoe upravlenie, Zhenshchiny, 55; Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools, 311.
50. Ruane, The Empire’s New Clothes, 131–32.
51. Bradley, Muzhik, appendix A; Nietyksza, “The Vocational Activities,” 159; Kelly, “Teacups,” 55–77; Newman, “The Gals,” 6.
52. Johanson, Women’s Struggle, 100.
53. Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools, 183, 186; Bradley, Muzhik, appendix A.
54. Ruane, Gender, 192, 117, 204.
55. Johanson, Women’s Struggle, 100; Frieden, Russian Physicians, tables 9.7 and 9.8; Ramer, “Childbirth,” 108.
56. Calculated from figures in Bradley, Muzhik, appendix A; Ramer, “Childbirth,” 108, 112; Frieden, Russian Physicians, table IV.B.1.
57. Calculated from figures in Bradley, Muzhik, appendix A.
58. Ibid.
59. Ibid.
60. Clyman and Vowles, Russia, 226.
61. Ibid., 225.
62. Ruane, The Empire’s New Clothes, 87–113, 134–38; Von Geldern and McReynolds, Entertaining, 98.
63. S. Smith, “Masculinity,” 94–112.
64. Engel, Breaking, 6; Wagner, Marriage, 96; Freeze, “Profane Narratives,” 149; Crews, “Empire,” 76.
65. Freeze, “Profane Narratives,” 168, 160, 158–62; Engel, Breaking, 171–78, 6–7.
66. Iashchenko, “Zametky,” 89–104.
67. Hyman, Gender, 51–80.
68. Nietyksza, “The Vocational Activities,” 152; Abrams, The Making, 61.
69. Kebalo, “Exploring Continuities,” 41–44; Bohachevsky-Chomiak, Feminists.
70. Forsyth, A History, 192; Dolidovich and Fedorova, Zhenshchiny, 58, 196; Goncharov, “Zhenshchiny frontira,” 326, 339.
71. Dolidovich and Fedorova, Zhenshchiny, 184–89.
5. ACTIVIST WOMEN AND REVOLUTIONARY CHANGE, 1890–1930
1. Meehan-Waters, “To Save Oneself,” 121–33; Wagner, “The Transformation,” 806–10, 824–25; Wagner, “Paradoxes of Piety,” 211, 215, 217–19, 222, 236; Wagner, “’Orthodox Domesticity,’” 134, 136. Many thanks to William Wagner for sharing his work with me.
2. Wagner, “The Transformation,” 806–807, 813–18.
3. Meehan-Waters, “To Save Oneself,” 121–33; Wagner, “The Transformation,” 808–10, 824–25; Wagner, “Paradoxes of Piety,” 215, 217–19, 222; Wagner, “’Orthodox Domesticity,’” 134, 136.
4. Blobaum, “The ‘Woman Question.’”
5. Lindenmeyr, Poverty, 142–226.
6. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 366; Steinberg, Proletarian Imagination, 40.
7. Lindenmeyr, “The Elusive Life.” Many thanks to Adele Lindenmeyr for sharing this paper with me.
8. Norton and Gheith, An Improper Profession, 283–310.
9. McReynolds, “‘The Incomparable,’” 273–94.
10. Schuler, “Actresses,” 107–21.
11. Bek, The Life, 93; Dolidovich and Fedorova, Zhenshchiny, 167–79.
12. Koblitz, A Convergence, 113–268.
13. Matveeva, “V 1905,” 33, 35.
14. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 189–95; Kudelli, “Rabotnitsy,” 11–13; Clements, Bolshevik Women, 102.
15. Ruthchild, “Soiuz ravnopraviia,” 79; Ruthchild, “Women’s Suffrage,” 8.
16. Ruthchild, “Soiuz ravnopraviia,” 38.
17. Ruthchild, Equality, 71.
18. Tyrrell, Woman’s World, 63.
19. Herlihy, The Alcoholic Empire, 8, 98–107.
20. Ibid, 98–107.
21. Ruthchild, Equality, 126–35.
22. Kollontai, Sotsial’nye osnovy.
23. Clements, Bolshevik Women, 30; Edmondson, Feminism, 133–34.
24. Offen, European Feminisms, 216.
25. Ruthchild, Equality, 83–87.
26. Karciauskaite, “For Women’s Rights,” 131–37; Edmondson, Feminism, 84; Henriksson, “Minority Nationalism.”
27. Blobaum, “The ‘Woman Question.’”
28. Rorlich, “Intersecting Discourses,” 154. Molla Nasreddin was a legendary trickster.
29. Suyumbike was the queen of Kazan when it fell to Ivan IV in 1552. The foregoing is based on ibid., 143–61; and Tohidi, “Gender,” 249–92.
30. Ruthchild, Equality, 193.
31. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 195–215; Clements, Bolshevik Women, 32.
32. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 213.
33. Clements, Daughters, 29; Stoff, They Fought, 25–26.
34. Stoff, They Fought, 23–52; Stockdale, “’My Death,’” 85; Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky, xiii–xiv.
35. MacKenzie and Curran, A History, 521.
36. Engel, “Not by Bread,” 706.
37. Ibid., 710–17.
38. St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd in 1915 because that name was more Russian than the Germanic “Petersburg.”
39. Igumnova, Zhenshchiny Moskvy, 11.
40. Ruthchild, Equality, 226–30. The Constituent Assembly met in January 1918 and was immediately prorogued by the Bolshevik government.
41. The phrase is Stoff’s, from They Fought, 90–91.
42. The preceding paragraphs are based on ibid., 53–162; Stockdale, “‘My Death,’” 88–116.
43. Stoff, They Fought, 163–95. The phrase “saintly blood” is from a newspaper article in Sinii zhurnal, quoted in ibid., 169.
44. Ibid., 69–89, 211–13; Stockdale, “’My Death,’” 113.
45. Clements, Bolshevik Women, 134–35.
46. Boniece, “The Spiridonova Case,” 586–606; Rabinowitch, “Spiridonova,” 182–83.
47. Clements, Bolshevik Women, 32, 44–45.
48. Kommunistka, no. 1 (1922): 13.
49. Koenker, “Urbanization and Deurbanization,” 81.
50. Goldman, Women at the Gates, 1.
51. Clements, “Working-Class and Peasant Women,” 225; Clements, Daughters, 47; Clements, Bolshevik Women, 162.
52. Kaluzhskie bol’shevichki, 141.
53. Matveeva, “V 1905,” 37.
54. Wood, The Baba, 209; Goldman, Women at the Gates, 111.
55. Wolf, Revolution, 15–21; Geisler, Women, 24; Clements, “Communism.”
56. The Bolsheviks moved the capital from Petrograd to Moscow in 1918.
57. Rizel’, “Sostav,” 27.
58. Clements, Bolshevik Women, 267–71.
59. Ruthchild, Equality, 252–53.
60. Edgar, “Emancipation,” 145–47; Northrop, Veiled Empire, 131.
61. Sultan-Zade, “Oil Commander”; Kamp, The New Woman, 186–88.
62. Northrop, Veiled Empire, 83–101.
63. Kamp, The New Woman, 212–14, 220–22; Edgar, “Bolshevism,” 266–67.
64. Farnsworth, “Rural Women,” 167–88.
65. Krest’ianka, nos. 1–2 (1922).
66. Alexopoulos, Stalin’s Outcasts, 3, 20–31, 49–51.
67. Ibid., 27, 62–69.
68. Ibid., 37–39, 99, 118–22, 130–35, 141.
69. Goldman, Women, the State, and Revolution, 270–75, 107; Clements, “The Effects,” 115.
70. Lunacharskii, O byte, 202.
71. Rabotnitsa, no. 15 (1926): 16.
72. Clements, “The Birth,” 231.
6. TOIL, TERROR, AND TRIUMPHS, 1930–53
1. Goldman, Women at the Gates, 1, 26–27; Tsentral’noe statisticheskoe up-ravlenie, Zhenshchiny, 35; Weiner, From Working Girl, 4; Boxer and Quataert, Connecting Spheres, 222.
2. Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv, Vsesoiuznaia perepis’, 177–79; Goldman, Women at the Gates, 26–27; Opdycke, Routledge Atlas, 90.
3. Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv, Vsesoiuznaia perepis’, 163–96.
4. Hoffman, The Littlest Enemies, 37–38.
5. Viola, “Bab’i Bunty,” 189–205; Olcott, The Kazaks, 181; Forsyth, A History, 291–93; Northrop, Veiled Empire, 320.
6. Viola, “Bab’i Bunty,” 199.
7. Hoffman, The Littlest Enemies, 47.
8. Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, In the Shadow, 229–30.
9. Viola, The Unknown Gulag, 32; Applebaum, Gulag, 47.
10. Ransel, Village Mothers, 108–109, 88.
11. Manning, “Women,” 211; Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv, Vsesoiuznaia perepis’, 163–64.
12. Ransel, Village Mothers, 236; Manning, “Women,” 236; Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv, Vsesoiuznaia perepis’, 82, 135.
13. Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, In the Shadow, 308, 312.
14. Ilic, “Traktoristka,” 114.
15. Goldman, Women at the Gates, 80, 104–105.
16. Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, In the Shadow, 253.
17. Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv, Vsesoiuznaia perepis’, 135.
18. Garros, Korenevskaya, and Lahusen, Intimacy, 209; Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, In the Shadow, 326.
19. Chatterjee, “Soviet Heroines,” 52; Krylova, Soviet Women, 41–43.
20. Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, In the Shadow, 362, 363.
21. Randall, Soviet Dream World, 124; Buckley, Mobilizing, 275–78.
22. Neary, “Mothering”; Schrand, “Soviet ‘Civic-Minded’ Women,” 127.
23. Krylova, Soviet Women, 41–43, 49–51.
24. Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky, 47; Krylova, Soviet Women, 14, 41–43.
25. Shulman, Stalinism, 119–48.
26. Ibid., 187–221.
27. Davies, Popular Opinion, 67; Goldman, Women at the Gates, 292–93; Krylova, Soviet Women, 72–73.
28. Sultan-Zade, “Oil Commander.”
29. Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv, Vsesoiuznaia perepis’, 88–89, 152; Forsyth, A History, 287.
30. Getty and Naumov, The Road, 588; Applebaum, Gulag, 580.
31. Clements, Bolshevik Women, 286–87.
32. Getty, Rittersporn, and Zemskov, “Victims,” 1025; Mason, “Women,” 132; Applebaum, Gulag, 311; Rossman, “A Workers’ Strike,” 78; Clements, Bolshevik Women, 279–80.
33. Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, In the Shadow, 390.
34. Ibid., 327–30.
35. “Gulag” stands for Glavnoe upravlenie ispravitel’ no-trudovikh lagerei I kolonii: in English, Main Administration of Corrective Labor Camps and Colonies.
36. Vilensky, Till My Tale, 255.
37. Healey, “Lesbian Lives.”
38. Vilensky, Till My Tale, 157, 225.
39. Applebaum, Gulag, 260.
40. Hoffman, The Littlest Enemies, 109.
41. Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky, 49–55; Hoffman, The Littlest Enemies, 110, 52–71, 153–55, 167, 180–81, 185.
42. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, 417–18, 423.
43. Overy, Russia’s War, 288; Merridale, Ivan’s War, 363.
44. Overy, Russia’s War, 193; Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 180.
45. Opdycke, Routledge Atlas, 101; Krylova, Soviet Women, 3, 115–16.
46. Krylova, Soviet Women, 89, 94–97.
47. Pennington, Wings, 22; Krylova, Soviet Women, 124.
48. Krylova, Soviet Women, 40; Engel and Posadskaya-Vanderbeck, A Revolution, 189.
49. Clements, Daughters, 82–83; Krylova, Soviet Women, 10, 155.
50. Slepyan, Stalin’s Guerrillas, 197–206.
51. Krylova, Soviet Women, 40–41, 90, 163; Cottam, Women, 197–201.
52. Pennington, Wings, 79.
53. Ibid., 72–89; Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky, 71.
54. Pennington, Wings, 72, 90, 136–40; Krylova, Soviet Women, 247–49.
55. Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky, 55.
56. Ibid., 210, 212. The foregoing is based on the memoir.
57. Alexiyevich, War’s Unwomanly Face, 63. The author does not provide this man’s last name, only his first name and patronymic. See also Krylova, Soviet Women, 189, 194–96.
58. Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky, 105; Beevor and Vinogradova, A Writer, 184; Krylova, Soviet Women, 233.
59. Tek, “U partisan,” 183; Pennington, Wings, 98; Alexiyevich, War’s Unwomanly Face, 79.
60. Simmons and Perlina, Writing, 29; G. Smith, “The Impact,” 79.
61. Bridger, “The Heirs,” 200; G. Smith, “The Impact,” 73, 77; Harrison and Barber, The Soviet Home Front, 216–17.
62. Simmons and Perlina, Writing, 137–38.
63. Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 217.
64. Overy, Russia’s War, 134; Hoffman, The Littlest Enemies, 167, 157.
65. Simmons and Perlina, Writing, ix; Berkhoff, Harvest, 182; Overy, Russia’s War, 134; Merridale, Ivan’s War, 305–28.
66. Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 226.
67. Alexiyevich, War’s Unwomanly Face, 122, 245, 123–24.
68. Ibid., 123–24, 122, 245; Merridale, Ivan’s War, 337–38; G. Smith, “The Impact,” 282.
69. Alexiyevich, War’s Unwomanly Face, 244; Stoff, They Fought, 170–71; Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky, 208.
70. Bucher, Women, 65.
71. Bridger, “The Heirs,” 200; Bucher, Women, 65–71.
72. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, 356.
73. Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, In the Shadow, 316.
7. MAKING BETTER LIVES, 1953–91
1. Ilic, “Women,” 12–17; Attwood, “Celebrating,” 165.
2. Browning, Women.
3. Taubman, Khrushchev, 60, 59–61.
4. Tereshkova, “The ‘First Lady,’” 13.
5. Ibid., 16.
6. Clements, “Tereshkova.”
7. Tsentral’noe statisticheskoe upravlenie, Zhenshchiny, 62–63; Katz, Gender,104.
8. Z. Novikova, Zhenshchina, 144.
9. Kharchev, Brak, 222; Lapidus, Women, 174; Clements, “Communism”; Sperling, Organizing Women, 223–24; Hemment, Empowering, 29–30; Valentina Uspenskaia, personal communication.
10. Tsentral’noe statisticheskoe upravlenie, Zhenshchiny, 61–62.
11. Filtzer, Soviet Workers, 180, 185, 192.
12. Clements, Daughters, 99–100.
13. Katz, Gender, 74, 110–11; Chapman, “Equal Pay,” 225–26; Opdycke, Routledge Atlas, 113.
14. Clements, Daughters, 100–101.
15. Kabakov, Na kommunal’noi kukhne, 28.
16. Ibid., 40, 110.
17. Ibid., 107.
18. Ibid., 38, 177.
19. The statistics in the last two paragraphs derive from Tsentral’noe statisticheskoe upravlenie, Zhenshchiny, 68–69; UN Department of International and Social Affairs, The World’s Women, 82; Seager and Olson, Women, chart 13; Boxer and Quataert, Connecting Spheres, 253.
20. Katz, Gender, 78.
21. Hansson and Linden, Moscow Women, 110.
22. Baranskaya, “A Week,” 661.
23. Clements, Daughters, 106.
24. Bridger, Women, 78, 81.
25. Wegren, Land Reform, 23; Katz, Gender, 99; Bridger, Women, 211.
26. Bridger, Women, 140–53; Ransel, Village Mothers, 116–18, 146–47.
27. Clements, Daughters, 110.
28. Moghadam, “Gender,” 30.
29. Forsyth, A History, 361, xv, 402; Vitebsky, “Withdrawing,” 182–83.
30. Bastug and Hostacsu, “The Price,” 128–35.
31. Crate, “Walking,” 119.
32. Tohidi, “Gender,” 249.
33. Field, “Mothers,” 102; Gilmour and Clements, “’If You Want,’” 210–22; Attwood, “Celebrating,” 167–68.
34. Friedman and Healey, “Conclusions,” 232–33.
35. Marody and Giza-Poleszczuk, “Changing Images,” 163; Ries, Russian Talk, 73–75.
36. Ries, Russian Talk, 74–75; Kay, Men, 11–14.
37. Alexeyeva and Goldberg, The Thaw Generation, 246; Penn, Solidarity’s Secret.
38. Mamonova, Women, 32.
39. Dowd, “Evolution.”
40. Rosenthal, “A Soviet Voice.”
41. S. White, Gorbachev, 53, 79, 143; Dzieciolowski, “Tatyana Zaslavskaya’s Moment”; Stankovic, “Soviet Academician”; Zaslavskaya, “Correlation.”
42. Zaslavskaya, “Correlation”; Zaslavskaya, The Second Socialist Revolution; Dzieciolowski, “Tatyana Zaslavskaya’s Moment.”
43. Clements, Daughters, 132–33.
44. Adelman, The Children, 74; Cerf and Albee, Small Fires, 115.
45. Belayeva, “Feminism,” 18.
46. Ibid., 19.
47. Sperling, Organizing Women, 108–11.
48. Kononenko, “Folk Orthodoxy,” 47–49; Davis, A Long Walk, 154–58; Crate, “Walking,” 122.
8. GAINS AND LOSSES, 1991–2010
1. Ashwin and Bowers, “Do Russian Women,” 23–25; A. White, Small-Town Russia, 82; Phillips, Women’s Social Activism, 47.
2. Shevchenko, Crisis, 11, 173; A. White, Small-Town Russia, 111–16; Bridger, “Rural Women,” 42, 52; Crate, “The Gendered Nature,” 132, 141; Gapova, “On ‘Writing.’”
3. Werner, “Feminizing,” 111–12; Crate, “Walking,” 118; U.S. Department of Agriculture, “Russia.”
4. Pilkington, “’For the Sake,’” 127–30.
5. Irina Sondak, interview; A. White, Small-Town Russia, 18; Taraban, “Birthday Girls,” 107.
6. Irina Sondak, interview.
7. Bridger, “Rural Women,” 39; Bruno, “Women,” 57.
8. Website of “Russian Women”; Oushakine, “The Fatal Splitting,” 6; Pasternak, Chto vizhu; Taraban, “Birthday Girls,” 105–27.
9. Il’iukhov, Prostitutsiia, 5–6.
10. Rivkin-Fish, Women’s Health, 1; UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Abortion Policies 2007.
11. Popkova, “Women’s Political Activism,” 173; Starovoitova, “Being.” Many women avoided the term “feminist,” which had pejorative connotations. I will use it in the same sense as earlier, to refer to social activists who work for women’s emancipation from patriarchal institutions and customs.
12. Iacheistova, Zhenshchiny, 25; Sperling, Organizing Women, 87.
13. Posadskaya, “Women,” 11.
14. Kukhterin, “Fathers,” 78.
15. Tohidi, “Gender,” 284; Zhurzhenko, “Strong Women,” 28.
16. Harris, “The Changing Identity,” 213–14; Tohidi, “Gender,” 250; Abramson, “Engendering,” 72–77.
17. Kay, “Meeting,” 244.
18. Bridger, “Rural Women,” 51; Tatiana Khainovskaia, interview.
19. Oushakine, “The Fatal Splitting,” 11; Bridger, “Rural Women,” 51; A. White, Small-Town Russia, 41; Kay, Men, 5–28; Tohidi, “Gender,” 257.
20. Website of Vladimir Putin; “Singing PM,” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IV4IjHz2yIo.
21. Salmenniemi, Democratization, 85; Mereu, “What Women Want”; Gorshkov and Tikhonova, Zhenshchina, 88; Shevchenko, Crisis, 152–61, 165–71.
22. N. White, “Women in Changing Societies,” 207–208; Philipov et al., “Induced Abortion,” 95–117; UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Ukraine”; UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Abortion Policies 2007; Mirovalev, “Uzbek Women.”
23. Saktanber and Ozatas-Baykal, “Homeland,” 234–35; Buckley, “Adaptation,” 161; N. White, “Women in Changing Societies,” 209; Gorshkov and Tikhonova, Zhenshchina, 88; A. White, Small-Town Russia, 149.
24. Sperling, Organizing Women, 121; Buckley, “Adaptation,” 167–70.
25. Nechemias, “The Women of Russia,” 356–59; Sperling, Organizing Women, 119, 124.
26. Saktanber and Ozatas-Baykal, “Homeland,” 234–39; Popkova, “Women’s Political Activism,” 182; A. White, Small-Town Russia, 183.
27. Website of Kazimiera Prunskiene; website of the Lietuvos valstieciu liaudininku sajunga; Girdzijauskas, “Special Lithuanian Presidential Election”; D. Smith et al., The Baltic States, 121–22.
28. The foregoing paragraphs are based on Wolczuk and Wolczuk, “Julia Tymoshenko”; “Profile: Yulia Tymoshenko”; website of Yulia Tymoshenko.
29. Website of Mariia Arbatova; Rotkirch, “Arbatova,” 202–204.
30. “Marry Indian.”
31. Politkovskaya, Putin’s Russia, 242.
32. Holley, “Russian Journalist.”
33. Baker and Glasser, Kremlin, 19, 22, 161, 177; “Teen Widow.”
34. “Teen Widow.”
35. Salmenniemi, Democratization, 33, 40, 57; Sperling, Organizing Women, 34–37; Buckley, “Adaptation,” 166; Rivkin-Fish, Women’s Health, 221; Ishkanian, “Working,” 269; Hemment, Empowering, 54.
36. Sperling, Organizing Women, 19, 135; Rivkin-Fish, Women’s Health, 221; Pavlychko, “Feminism,” 308; Kebalo, “Exploring Continuities,” 52–54; N. White, “Women in Changing Societies,” 210–11; Dudwick, “Out of the Kitchen,” 244–45.
37. Pavlychko, “Progress,” 230; Hemment, Empowering, 30; Phillips, Women’s Social Activism, 33; Dudwick, “Out of the Kitchen,” 245.
38. Website of the Moskovskii tsentr gendernykh issledovani; website of Informatsionnyi portal; Sperling, Organizing Women, 26–27; website of Tverskaia tsentr; website of Universitetskaia set’; Uspenskaia, Aleksandra Kollontai; Pushkareva, Gendernaia teoriia.
39. J. Johnson, “Sisterhood,” 221–24.
40. Caiazza, “Committees,” 218–20; website of Soiuz komitetov; “’Materi Beslana.’”
41. Azhgikhina, Kto zashchishchaet, 3; Holley, “Russian Journalist”; Danilova, “Lyudmila Alexeyeva”; Feifer, “Russia’s New Dissidents.”
42. Barry, “Russian Dissident’s Passion.”
43. Sperling, Organizing Women, 55–57, 220; N. White, “Women in Changing Societies,” 211–12.
44. Rivkin-Fish, Women’s Health, 35–65; Sperling, Organizing Women, 232–39; Hemment, Empowering, 49–54; J. Johnson, Gender Violence, 2–3; Phillips, Women’s Social Activism, 80; Funk, “Fifteen Years,” 212.
45. Pavlychko, “Progress,” 229; Sperling, Organizing Women, 134–35, 202–203; Kuehnast and Nechemias, “Introduction,” 2, 13; Tohidi, “Women,” 167; Popkova, “Women’s Political Activism,” 189.
46. Gorshkov and Tikhonova, Zhenshchina, 94–99; Hemment, Empowering, 5; Salmenniemi, Democratization, 223.
47. Salmenniemi, Democratization, 5.
48. Ekaterina Sondak and Elena Khainovskaia, interviews; Shevchenko, Crisis, 40.
49. Shevchenko, Crisis, 41–43; Tatiana Khainovskaia, interview.
50. Gorshkov and Tikhonova, Zhenshchina, 102.
51. Ibid., 102, 114; Malysheva et al., Marriages, 86; Kay, Men; A. White, Small-Town Russia, 125–26.
52. Malysheva et al., Marriages, 114–15; A. White, Small-Town Russia, 142; Gorshkov and Tikhonova, Zhenshchina, 102–104, 33, 40; Akiner, “Between Tradition and Modernity,” 289; Harris, “The Changing Identity,” 217; Shevchenko, Crisis, 47.
53. Liudmila Buloichik, interview; Iacheistova, Zhenshchiny, 31.
54. Irina Sondak, interview; Gorshkov and Tikhonova, Zhenshchina, 13, 116, 29, 75–76; Malysheva et al., Marriages, 55, 79; A. White, Small-Town Russia, 133; Lyon, “Housewife Fantasies,” 31–32.
55. Gorshkov and Tikhonova, Zhenshchina, 100, 104; Liudmila Yushko, interview.
56. Gorshkov and Tikhonova, Zhenshchina, 102; Ekaterina Sondak and Elena Khainovskaia, interviews.
57. Tatiana Khainovskaia and Irina Sondak, interviews.