Utilitarianism is the philosophy famously elucidated in the writings of the English lawyer Jeremy Bentham in the late 18th century. In his Principles of Morals and Legislation (completed in 1780 and published in 1789), he laid out the central tenet of utilitarianism: an action may be considered good if it promotes ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number.’
Utilitarianism emerged as a counterpoint to the ideas expressed in the US Declaration of Independence of 1776. Indeed, the Declaration prompted Bentham to write a blistering critique, entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress, in which he dismissed the very idea of those ‘natural’ and ‘inalienable’ individual rights enshrined in the Declaration – including the pursuit of happiness ‘wherever a man thinks he can see it, and by whatever means he thinks he can attain it.’
Rather than the pursuit of individual happiness, utilitarianism is based on the idea that every decision is either more or less efficient than any other in terms of ‘utility’ (that is to say, the most efficient generation of happiness and pleasure, which in turn is related to the absence of pain). According to Bentham, an action that conforms to the positive principles of utility is, therefore, a ‘good’ action and ought to be undertaken. Alternatively, an action that increases pain and unhappiness should be rejected. As he put it: ‘Nature has placed mankind under the governance of . . . pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do.’ Logically, an action that brings happiness to a single individual is less good than an action that brings happiness to many.
It was Bentham’s hope that the adoption of utilitarianism would bring about simpler and fairer government, where the good of the many is always prioritized, so cutting back the risk of injustice and personal grievance. He also believed that privileging the greater number over the few would bring about more social equality. Moreover, since he considered all sources of pleasure to be of equal value (from attending the opera to drinking a cup of tea to doing charitable works), he believed neither gender, nor social status, nor ability would act as a bar to accessing happiness.
Bentham’s ideas were taken up and adapted in the early 19th century by John Stuart Mill. While Mill concurred with the idea of ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’, he argued for a qualitative distinction between ‘higher pleasures’ (e.g. intellectual and moral pursuits) and ‘lower pleasures’ (e.g. sensual pleasure). The ‘lower pleasures’, Mill said, were often more greatly enjoyed only because people had limited experience of the ‘higher pleasures’. Furthermore, he suggested, those who aspire to the higher pleasures ultimately bring greater benefit to society – by most valuing the higher pleasures, he believed, we would move closer still to a society that truly achieves ‘the greatest amount of happiness altogether.’