Notes

PART I

1. The presence of these conditions, or more generally of market forces, as underlying the practice of forgery seems to be assumed by many commentators. Art historian Alexander Nagel clearly states that the movement from a copy culture to one in which art forgery occurs involves artistic individuality, collectors, and the art market. However, he believes these conditions, and the resultant appearance of forgery, did not occur until the Renaissance. See Alexander Nagel, “The Copy and Its Evil Twin: Thirteen Notes on Forgery,” Cabinet 14 (2004). Anthropologist Ross Bowden contrasts tribal societies, where art forgery does not exist, with modern Western societies, where the presence of forgery is linked to a commercial market for art, objects that have the status of collectibles, and a demand for collectibles that outstrips supply. See Ross Bowden, “What Is Wrong with an Art Forgery?: An Anthropological Perspective,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 57, no. 3 (Summer 1999): 333. Among others a bit further back in time who have made statements about the presence of an art market as necessary for the rise of forgery are art critic Peter Fuller in “Forgeries,” Art Monthly (October 1976): 8, and Theodore Rousseau, Chairman of European Paintings at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, in “The Stylistic Detection of Forgeries,” Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 26, no. 2 (1968): 247.

2. Thomas Hoving, False Impressions: The Hunt for Big-Time Art Fakes (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 17.

3. Thierry Lenain, Art Forgery: The History of a Modern Obsession (London: Reaktion, 2011), 19.

4. This point is fundamental among anthropologists. See, for instance, Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 10.

5. For a discussion of the absence of art forgery in Kwoma society, see Bowden, “What Is Wrong with an Art Forgery?” See also Bowden’s book Creative Spirits: Bark Painting in the Washkuk Hills of North New Guinea (Melbourne: Oceanic Art, 2006), chapter 7. Bowden confirmed in an email exchange with this author (February 18, 2017) that his recent trips to New Guinea revealed Kwoma attitudes toward artistic creativity remain the same as in his 1999 study.

6. Herschel B. Chipp, “Formal and Symbolic Factors in the Art Styles of Primitive Cultures,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 29 (Winter 1960).

7. Chipp, “Formal and Symbolic Factors,” 162.

8. Chipp, “Formal and Symbolic Factors,” 164.

9. For instance, see Hoving, False Impressions, 24–29; Sepp Schüller, Forgers, Dealers, Experts: Strange Chapters in the History of Art (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1959), 1.

10. Pliny’s Natural History (33.53, 35.40) notes that Lucius Crassus paid 100,000 sesterces for two cups, while Caesar paid eighty talents for two paintings by Timomaches (35.40).

11. On Roman collections and the art market, see Joseph Alsop, The Rare Art Traditions: The History of Art Collection and Its Linked Phenomena Wherever They Have Appeared (New York: HarperCollins, 1982), 194–208. Also Jerome J. Pollitt, “The Impact of Greek Art on Rome,” Transactions of the American Philological Association 108 (1978): 155–74.

12. For a general account of the tradition of ekphrasis, see Ruth Webb, Ekphrasis, Imagination, and Persuasion in Ancient Rhetorical Theory and Practice (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2009). For a condensed discussion, with two specific examples, see Carolyn MacDonald, “Greek and Roman Eyes: The Cultural Politics of Ekphrastic Epigram in Imperial Rome,” American Philological Association, Chicago, 2014.

13. The Comedies of Terence and the Fables of Phaedrus, prologue to the Fables, trans. Henry Thomas Riley (London: George Bell & Sons, 1887).

14. Martial, Epigrams, 4.39, Bohn’s Classical Library (London: George Bell & Sons, 1897).

15. Petronius, The Satyricon, 83, trans. W. C. Firebaugh (New York: Boni & Liveright, 1922).

16. Alison Burford, Craftsmen in Greek and Roman Society (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972), 210–11.

17. Peter Stewart, The Social History of Roman Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 22.

18. Michaela Fuchs, In Hoc Etiam Genere Graeciae Nihil Cedamus. Studien zur Romanisierung der Späthellenistischen Kunst im 1. Jh. v. Chr. (Mainz: von Zabern, 1999), 49–50.

19. Fuchs, In Hoc Etiam Genere Graeciae Nihil Cedamus, 50–51.

20. Gisela Richter, Engraved Gems of the Greeks and Etruscans: A History of Greek Art in Miniature (London: Phaidon, 1968), 139–40.

21. Lenain, Art Forgery, 65.

22. Michael Squire, “Ars in Their I’s: Authority and Authorship in Graeco-Roman Visual Culture,” in The Author’s Voice in Classical and Late Antiquity, ed. Anna Marmodoro and Jonathan Hill (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 379.

23. Lenain, Art Forgery, 72.

24. Duncan Chappell and Kenneth Polk, “Fakers and Forgers, Deception and Dishonesty: An Exploration of the Murky World of Art Fraud,” Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 30, no. 3 (2009), 7–8; Saskia Hufnagel, “Art Fraud in Germany: Lessons Learned or the Fast Falling into Oblivion,” in Cultural Property Crime, ed. Joris Kila and Marc Balcells (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 112.

25. For a discussion of the conventional and skeptical views on Roman art forgery, see William Casement, “Were the Ancient Romans Art Forgers?” Journal of Art Historiography 15, no. 2 (December 2016): 1–27.

26. Pliny, Natural History, 35.36.

27. Dale Kinney, “Spolia, Damnatio and Renovatio Memoriae,” Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 42 (1997): 137.

28. Joseph Alchemeres, “Spolia in Roman Cities of the Late Empire: Legislative Rationales and Architectural Reuse,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 48 (1994).

29. Cicero, Letter to Atticus 6.1.

30. Pliny, Natural History, 35.36.

31. D. C. Zoli, “L’Uoma di Pietra. Vicende e problemi di una statua romana a Milano,” Classe di scienze morali 30 (1975).

32. Lanfranco Franzoni, Verona: Testimonianze archeologiche (Verona: Edizioni di Vita Veronese, 1965).

33. C. R. Dodwell, Painting in Europe 800–1200 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971), 103–5. See also Willibald Sauerländer, Gothic Sculptures in France 1140–1270, trans. Janet Sondheimer (New York: H. N. Abrams, 1972), 24.

34. E. H. Gombrich, The Story of Art (London: Phaidon, 1950), 113–14.

35. John of Salisbury, Memoirs of the Papal Court, trans. Marjorie Chibnall (London: Nelson, 1956), 80.

36. Ernst Kantorowicz, Frederick the Second 1194–1250, trans. E. D. Lorimer (London: Constable, 1957), 322.

37. Francis H. Taylor, The Taste of Angels: A History of Art Collecting from Ramses to Napoleon (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948), 43.

38. For a listing of the Duc de Berry’s holdings, see Inventaires de Jean Duc de Berry, ed. Jules Juiffrey (Paris: Leroux, 1894).

39. Otto Demus, “A Renascence of Early Christian Art in Thirteenth Century Venice,” in Late Classical and Medieval Studies in Honor of Albert Mathias Friend Jr., ed. Kurt Weitzmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1955). See also Patricia Fortini Brown, Venice and Antiquity: The Venetian Sense of the Past (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), chapter 1.

40. Demus, “A Renascence of Early Christian Art,” 353.

41. Lawrence Nees, “Forging Monumental Memories in the Early Twelfth Century,” Memory and Oblivion: Proceedings of the XXIXth International Congress of the History of Art (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996).

42. Nees, “Forging Monumental Memories,” 773.

43. Alsop, The Rare Art Traditions, 402.

44. Lorne Campbell, “The Art Market in the Southern Netherlands in the Fifteenth Century,” Burlington Magazine 118 (1976): 188–98.

45. Alsop, The Rare Art Traditions, 444–45.

46. Neil De Marchi and Hans J. Van Miegroet, “Rules Versus Play in Early Modern Art Markets,” Louvain Economic Review 66, no. 2 (2000). For further analysis, see Neil De Marchi and Hans J. Miegroet, “The History of Art Markets,” in Handbook of the Economics of Art and Culture, ed. Victor A. Ginsburgh and David Throsby (Amsterdam: North Holland, 2006), 1:69–122.

47. Otto Kurz, Fakes: A Handbook for Collectors and Students (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1948), 56.

48. Roger Jones and Nicholas Penny, Raphael (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983), 146–47, 196–97.

49. Information on copies and their sales is found in Louisa Wood Ruby, “Drawings, Connoisseurship and the Problems of Multiple Originals,” Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art Journal 52, no. 2 (2013).

50. Alessandro Conti, History of the Restoration and Conservation of Works of Art, trans. Helen Glanville (Oxford: Elsevier, 2002), 12.

51. Conti, History of the Restoration and Conservation of Works of Art, 32–33.

52. Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny, Taste and the Antique: The Lure of Classical Sculpture (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982), 103.

53. Leonard Barkin, Unearthing the Past: Archaeology and Aesthetics in the Making of Renaissance Culture (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), 189.

54. Kurz, Fakes, 32.

55. Frank Arnau, The Art of the Faker: 3,000 Years of Deception (Boston: Little Brown, 1961), 99.

56. Hoving, False Impressions, 54.

57. Kurz, Fakes, 182–83.

58. Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, trans. Gaston du C. De Vere (London: Macmillan, 1972), 9:7.

59. Vasari, Lives, 9:12–13.

60. Vasari, Lives, 5: 107–9.

61. Vasari, Lives, 9:238.

62. Otto Kurz, “Early Art Forgeries: From the Renaissance to the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 121, no. 5198 (January 1973): 79.

63. Richard Hoe Lawrence, Medals by Giovanni Cavino, the Paduan (New York: Privately published, 1883), 5–6, https://archive.org/details/medalsbygiovanni00lawriala/page/n3/mode/2up.

64. Lenain, Art Forgery, 209.

65. For a brief biography of Bol, see “Hans Bol,” Museum Boijmans, https://www.boijmans.nl/index.php/en/collection/artists/2919/hans-bol. The original account of Bol’s professional life appeared in Karel van Mander’s Schilder-boeck, published in Haarlem in 1604.

66. Adrian Darmon, “Forgeries, A Long History,” http://www.artcult.fr/EN/_Forgeries/Fiche/art-0-1011646.htm?lang=EN.

67. Kurz, “Early Art Forgeries,” 85.

68. Vasari, Lives, 6:95–96. See also Schüller, Forgers, Dealers, Experts, 14–15.

69. For details about Dürer’s legal cases and forgery of his work in general, see Lisa Pon, Raphael, Dürer, and Marcantonio Raimondi (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004). See also Fritz Mendax, Art Fakes and Forgeries, trans. H. S. Whitman (London: Werner Laurie, 1955), 115–23.

70. Don Felipe de Guevara, Comentarios de la pintura (Barcelona: Selecciones Bibliófilas, 1948), 126.

71. Kurz, Fakes, 108.

72. Alsop, The Rare Art Traditions, 149–50.

73. Edmond Bonnaffé, Dictionnaire des amateurs français au XVIIe siècle (Paris: A. Quantin, 1884), 204.

74. Ricardo Nobili, The Gentle Art of Faking: History of the Methods of Producing Imitations and Spurious Works of Art from the Earliest Times Up to the Present Day (London: Forgotten Books, 2015), 120. This is a reprint of the 1921 edition by William Brendon & Son. Also available as free download from several sources.

75. Alsop, The Rare Art Traditions, 427.

76. Alsop, The Rare Art Traditions, 465.

77. The Diary of John Evelyn, ed. William Bray (London: M. Walter Dunne, 1901), 19.

78. Jaap van der Veen, “The Art Market in Delft in the Age of Vermeer,” in Dutch Society in the Age of Vermeer, ed. Donald Haks and Marie Christine van der Sman (The Hague: Waanders, 1996), 130.

79. Hoving, False Impressions, 61.

80. See, for instance, Josua Bruyn, “Rembrandt’s Workshop: Its Function and Production,” in Rembrandt: The Master and His Workshop, ed. Christopher Brown, Jan Kelch, and Pieter van Thiel (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 70–71.

81. Mendax, Art Fakes and Forgeries, 154.

82. Kurz, Fakes, 36.

83. Kurz, Fakes, 37.

84. Mendax, Art Fakes and Forgeries, 132.

85. Kurz, Fakes, 45–46.

86. Wilhelm R. Valentiner, “An Early Forger,” Art in America, 1 (1913): 195.

87. Arnold Houbraken, De Groote schouburgh der nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen (Amsterdam: B. M. Israel, 1976), 293–303.

88. See Philip Hooks, Rogue’s Gallery: A History of Art and Its Dealers (London: Profile Books, 2017), chapter 1.

89. Mark Jones, ed., Fake? The Art of Deception (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 139.

90. For details on Cavaceppi and his work, see Seymour Howard, “Bartolomeo Cavaceppi and the Origins of Neoclassical Sculpture,” in Antiquity Restored: Essays on the Afterlife of the Antique (Vienna: Institute for Art Historical Research, 1990), and Howard’s “Ancient Busts and the Cavaceppi and Albacine Casts,” Journal of the History of Collections 3, no. 2 (1991): 199–217.

91. J. Fleming and H. Honour, “Francis Harwood: An English Sculptor in XVIIIth Century Florence,” Festschrift Ulrich Middeldorf, ed. Antje Kosegarten and Peter Tilger (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1968).

92. Jones, Fake? The Art of Deception, 151–52.

93. Tamara Griggs, “Ancient Art and the Antiquarian: The Forgery of Giuseppe Guerra,” Huntington Library Quarterly 74, no. 3 (September 2011): 471–503.

94. Mendax, Art Fakes and Forgeries, 154.

95. Moritz Thausing, Albert Dürer: His Life and Works, trans. Fred A. Eaton (London: John Murray, 1882), 2:95. For alternative versions of what happened to the painting, see Hufnagel, “Art Fraud in Germany,” 113.

96. David Goodrich, Art Fakes in America (New York: Viking, 1973), 11.

97. Treasures on Trial: The Art and Science of Detecting Fakes, exhibition at the Winterthur Museum, April 2017–January 2018, treasuresontrial.winterthur.org.

98. Giulio Mancini, Alcune considerazione appartamenti alla pittura come di diletto di un gentilhuomo nobile e come introduttione a quello si deve dire (c. 1621); Abraham Bosse, Sentiments sur la distinction des diverses manières de peintre, dessein et gravures, et des originaux d’avec leurs copies; Emsemble du choix des sujets des chemins pour arriver facilement et promptement a bien pourtraire (1649); Giovanni Baglione, Le vite de pittori, scultori et architetti, dal pontificato di Gregorio XII del 1572: In fine a’ tempi di Papa Urbano Ottavo nel 1642 (Rome, 1642). For a summary of Mancini, Bosse, and Baglione, see Lenain, Art Forgery, chapter 3.

99. Francisco Pacheco, Arte de la pintura, F. J. Sánchez Cantón 1638 (Madrid, 1956), 2:168. Roger de Piles, L’Ideé du peintre parfait, pour servir de règle aux jugemens que l’on doit porter sur les ouvrages des peintres (1699); Jean-Baptiste Du Bos, Réflexions critiques sur la poésie et la peinture (1719); Jonathan Richardson, A Discourse on the Dignity, Certainty, Pleasure and Advantages of the Science of a Connoisseur (1719), and Two Discourses. I. An Essay on the Whole Art of Criticism as It Relates to Painting II. An Argument in Behalf of the Science of a Connoisseur (1725).

100. Roger de Piles, L’Idée du peintre parfait (Amsterdam: Chez François L’Honoré, 1736), 77–78.

101. Jonathan Richardson, “The Connoisseur: An Essay on the Whole Art of Criticism as It Relates to Painting” in Two Discourses. I. An Essay on the Whole Art of Criticism as It Relates to Painting. . . . II. An Argument in Behalf of the Science of a Connoisseur; Both by Mr. Richardson (Paternoster Row, 1725), 185.

102. Mendax, Art Fakes and Forgeries, 147.

103. Samuel Foote, Taste: A Comedy in Two Acts (New York: D. Langworth, 1813). First published in 1752.

104. John Thomas Smith, Nollekens and His Times and Memories of Contemporary Artists from the Time of Roubiliac, Hogarth and Reynolds to that of Fuseli, Flaxman and Blake, ed. Wilfred Whitten (London: John Lane, 1917) 2:89.

105. Engravers Copyright Act (1735), 8 Geo. II, c. 3.

106. The First Modern Museums of Art: The Birth of an Institution in 18th- and Early-19th-Century Europe, ed. Carole Paul (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2012).

107. Nicholas Green, “Circuits of Production, Circuits of Consumption: The Case of Mid-Nineteenth-Century French Art Dealing,” Art Journal 48, no. 1 (1989): 32.

108. Green, “Circuits of Production,” 30.

109. “Archive Directory for the History of Collecting in America,” Center for the History of Collecting, The Frick Collection, research.frick.org/directoryweb/recordlist.php. Included in estimating the number of galleries in New York in 1900 are files provided to the author that were not online.

110. See Lynn Catterson, “Stefano Bardini and the Art of Crafting Authenticity,” Authentication in Art Congress, The Hague, May 7–9, 2014.

111. Eric Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble: Confessions of a Master Forger (New York: Random House, 1991), 358–60.

112. Irina Tarsis, “Knoedler Obituary (1857–2011): Select Legal History of the Oldest American Art Gallery,” Center for Art Law, August 10, 2014, https://itsartlaw.org/2014/08/10/knoedler-obituary-1857-2011-select-legal-history-of-the-oldest-american-art-gallery/.

113. For an extended discussion of nineteenth-century fictional writings about art forgery, see Aviva Briefel, The Deceivers: Art Forgery and Identity in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006).

114. Henry Carl Schiller, “Who Painted the Great Murillo de la Merced?” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine (August 1870): 133–65.

115. Mark Twain, “The Capitoline Venus,” http://americanliterature.com/author/mark-twain/short-story/the-capitoline-venus.

116. Honoré de Balzac, “Pierre Grassou,” https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1230/1230-h/1230-h.htm.

117. Nathaniel Hawthorne, “Edward Randolph’s Portrait,” https://www.ibiblio.org/eldritch/nh/erp.html.

118. Jacob Rothenberg, “Decensus Ad Terram”: The Acquisition and Reception of the Elgin Marbles (New York: Garland, 1977), 185.

119. John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture in The Works of John Ruskin, ed. E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn (London: George Allen, 1903), 3:244.

120. For examples, with discussion of general practices, see Paul Ackroyd, Larry Keith, and Dillian Gordon, “The Restoration of Lorenzo Monaco’s ‘Coronation of the Virgin’: Retouching and Display,” National Gallery Technical Bulletin 21 (2000): 34–57; Carol E. Snow, “The Affecter Amphora: A Case Study in the History of Greek Vase Restoration,” Journal of the Walters Art Gallery 44 (1986): 2–7; Mark Stevenson, “Print Restoration in Northern Europe: Development, Tradition, and Literature from the Late Renaissance to the 1930s,” Studies in the History of Art 51 (1995): 110–27.

121. Giovanni Morelli, Italian Painters: Critical Studies of Their Works, trans. Constance Jocelyn Ffoulkes (London: John Murray, 1900), see especially 34–63, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89037970514&view=1up&seq=6&skin=2021.

122. Carlo Ginsburg, “Morelli, Freud and Sherlock Holmes: Clues and Scientific Method,” History Workshop 9 (Spring 1980): 5–36.

123. Sigmund Freud, “The Moses of Michelangelo,” The Standard Edition of the Complete Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1913–14), 12:222.

124. “The Picture-Copying Trade,” American Bibliopolist 2 (April 1873).

125. Sheridan Ford, Art: A Commodity (New York: Press of Rogers & Sherwood, 1888), 36.

126. Gary Tinterow, Michael Pantazzi, and Vincent Pomarede, Corot (New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1996), 383.

127. Laurie Hurwitz, “If It Doesn’t Dance, It’s Not Corot,” ARTnews, June 27, 2012.

128. Tinterow, Pantazzi, and Pomarede, Corot, 386.

129. Reynold Alleyne Higgins, Tanagra and the Figurines (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987). See also Hoving, False Impressions, 72–73.

130. Antoine Zinc and Elisa Porto, “Luminescence Dating of the Tanagra Terracottas of the Louvre Collections,” Geochronometria 24 (2005): 21.

131. Jean-Jacques Fiechter, Egyptian Fakes: Masterpieces That Duped the Art World and the Experts Who Uncovered Them (Paris: Flammarion, 2009): 26.

132. Alfred Clerc, “Lettre à M. De Saulcy sur quelques antiquités égyptiennes et sur le boeuf apis,” Revue Archéologique (October 15, 1846–March 15, 1847).

133. For a summary of Billy and Charleys, see Jones, Fake?, 187; see also “The Billy and Charley Story,” http://www.mernick.org.uk/B&C/page1.htm. For a collection of articles on the topic, see www.pewterbank.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Billy-Charley.pdf.

134. See, for instance, “A Small Pewter ‘Billy and Charley’ Figure,” lot 248, in the Bonhams (New Bond Street) Gentleman’s Library Sale, January 20, 2010.

135. Angelo de Gubernatis, Dizionaio degli artisti italiani viventi (Florence, 1892), 432–33.

136. Roberta J. M. Olson, “‘Caveat Emptor’: Egisto Rossi’s Activity as a Forger of Drawings,” Master Drawings 20, no. 2 (Summer 1982): 149.

137. Olson, “Caveat Emptor,” 150–54.

138. Yvonne Hackenbroch, “Reinhold Vasters, Goldsmith,” Metropolitan Museum Journal 19–20 (1984/85): 164.

139. Leslie Bennetts, “45 Met Museum Artworks Found to Be Forgeries,” New York Times, January 12, 1984.

140. “European Manufacture of ‘Old Masters’ for the American Market,” New York Times, August 11, 1857.

141. Bastianini’s story is told by several chroniclers of art fakes. See Schüller, Forgers, Dealers, Experts, 26–35; Kurz, Fakes, 148–51; Hoving, False Impressions, 194–97.

142. See Jones, Fake?, chapter 6; Briefel, The Deceivers, introduction; Carol Helstosky, “Giovanni Bastianini, Art Forgery, and the Market in Nineteenth-Century Italy,” Journal of Modern History 81, no. 4 (December 2009).

143. Fiechter, Egyptian Fakes, 80–89.

144. H. Herzer, “Ein Relief des Berliner Meisters,” Objects (1971): 4–5.

145. For details about Aslanian, see Fiechter, Egyptian Fakes, chapters 5 and 6.

146. Lee Lescaze, “The ‘Spanish Forger’—A Mystery Show,” Washington Post, May 21, 1978.

147. For a brief explanation of the Spanish Forger, see “Manuscript Road Trip: The Spanish Forger” (January 18, 2014), https://manuscriptroadtrip.wordpress.com/2014/01/18/manuscript-road-trip-the-spanish-forger. For further discussion, see William M. Voelke, “The Spanish Forger: Master of Chicanery,” in Thomas Coomans and Jan De Maeyer, The Revival of Medieval Illumination: Nineteenth-Century Belgian Manuscripts and Illuminations from a European Perspective (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007), 207–27.

148. See G. Mazzoni, ed., Falsi d’autore: Icilio Federico Joni e la cultura del falso tra otto e novecento (Siena: Protagon, 2004).

149. Kurz, Fakes, 298–300.

150. Icilio Federico Joni, Affairs of a Painter (London: Faber & Faber, 1936).

151. Roderick Conway Morris, “Masters of the Art of Forgery,” New York Times, July 31, 2004.

152. There are many published accounts of Dossena’s career. See, for instance, David Sox, Unmasking the Forger: The Dossena Deception (London: Unwin Hyman, 1987). See also “The Aristocrat of Three-Dimensional Forgery,” chapter 4 in Lawrence Jeppson, The Fabulous Frauds: Fascinating Tales of Great Art Forgeries (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1990).

153. Jeppson, The Fabulous Frauds, 203.

154. Jonathon Keats, Forged: Why Fakes Are the Great Art of Our Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 48.

155. Günter Grass, Die Rattin (Munich: Luchterhand, 1986), English translation as The Rat (New York: Harcourt, 1987).

156. For a summary on Van Meegeren (including a comparison with Wolfgang Beltracchi), see Christa Roodt, “Forgers, Connoisseurs, and the Nazi Past,” Journal of Information Ethics 24 (2015): 43–62.

157. Biographer Frank Wynne’s calculation totals $60 million. I Was Vermeer: The Rise and Fall of the Twentieth Century’s Greatest Forger (New York: Bloomsbury, 2006), 257–58.

158. Edward Dolnick, The Forger’s Spell: A True Story of Vermeer, Nazis, and the Greatest Art Hoax of the Twentieth Century (New York: HarperCollins, 2008), 173.

159. Regarding Christ in the House of Martha and Mary, see Lord Kilbracken, Van Meegeren: Master Forger (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1967).

160. Wynne, I Was Vermeer, 152.

161. Lenain, Art Forgery, 247.

162. For a detailed discussion of the history of the Ghent Altarpiece, see Noah Charney, Stealing the Mystic Lamb: The True Story of the World’s Most Coveted Masterpiece (New York: Public Affairs, 2010).

163. An informative source is “Fake—Not Fake: Restorations-Reconstructions-Falsifications: the Preservation of the Flemish Primitives in Belgium, ca. 1930–1950,” exhibition at the Groeningemuseum, in Bruges, November 26, 2004–February 28, 2005, www.codeart.nl/guide/exhibitions/fake-not-fake-restauraties-reconstructies-falsificaties-het-conserveren-van-de-vlaamse-in-belgi-ca-1930-1950.

164. For an informative discussion of the complexities of authenticity, see David Scott, Art: Authenticity, Restoration, Forgery (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press at UCLA, 2016), especially chapter 1.

165. For a summary of the institutionalization of ideas about art restoration during the twentieth century, see Joyce Hill Stoner, “Changing Approaches in Art Conservation: 1925 to the Present,” in Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques in Conservation and Analysis (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2005), http://doi.org/10.17226/11413.

166. “Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice,” American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, https://www.culturalheritage.org/about-conservation/code-of-ethics.

167. The population of London in 1900 (over six million) was roughly twice that of Paris. “Greater London, Inner London, and Outer London Population and Density History,” http://demographia.com/dm-lon31.htm; “Ville de Paris: Population and Density from 1600,” http://www.demographia.com/dm-par90.htm.

168. Anne Helmreich, “The Socio-Geography of Art Dealers and Commercial Galleries in Early Twentieth-Century London,” in The Camden Town Group in Context, ed. Helena Bonett, Ysanne Holt, and Jennifer Mundy (London: Tate Research Publication, 2012), www.tate.org.uk/art/research-publications/camden-town-group-anne-helmreich-the-socio-geography-of-art-dealer-and-commercial-galleries-in-early-r1105658. See also Malcolm Gee, Dealers, Critics, and Collectors of Modern Painting: Aspects of the Parisian Art Market Between 1910 and 1930 (New York: Garland, 1981), 37.

169. For a full treatment of the relationship between Duveen and Berenson, see Colin Simpson, Artful Partners: Bernard Berenson and Joseph Duveen (New York: Macmillan, 1986).

170. Data from the Institute of Museum and Library Services, Washington, DC.

171. Rita Kottasz, Roger Bennett, Sharmila Savani, and Rehnuma Ali-Choudhury, “The Role of Corporate Art in the Management of Corporate Identity,” Corporate Communications: An International Journal 13, no. 3 (2008): 235–54.

172. “Global Art Market Reaches USD 63.7 billion in 2017, with Dealers Taking the Lion’s Share,” Art Basel, artbasel.com/news/global-art-market-reaches-usd-63-7-billion-in-2017-with-dealers-taking-the-lions-share; Rachel Corbett, “Art Market Watch: How Big Is the Global Art Market,” Artnet Magazine, www.artnet.com/magazineus/news/artnetnews/china-the-worlds-top-art-and-antique-market.asp; Scott Reyburn, “What’s the Global Art Market Really Worth? Depends on Who You Ask,” New York Times, March 23, 2017.

173. Eileen Kinsella, “What Does TEFAF 2016 Art Market Report Tell About the Global Art Trade?” Artnet News, March 9, 2016.

174. For examples, see Christophe Spaenjers, William N. Goetzmann, and Elena Mamonova, “The Economics of Aesthetics and Record Prices for Art since 1701,” Explorations in Economic History 57 (July 2015): 79–94.

175. “The 10 Most Faked Artists,” ARTnews, June 1, 2005.

176. “The 10 Most Faked Artists.”

177. Goodrich, Art Fakes in America, 78.

178. Denis Dutton, “Forgeries and Plagiarism,” Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics (San Diego: Academic Press, 1998).

179. Tinterow, Pantazzi, and Pomerade, Corot, 394.

180. The exact number of works seized varies according to the source consulted. Inspector Jack Ellis, who led the investigation for the US Postal Inspection Service, provided the figure of eighty thousand to this author in an interview on April 21, 2021. It conforms with the display “Operation Bogart” in the Behind the Badge exhibit at the Smithsonian National Postal Museum, https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/behind-the-badge-case-histories-scams-and-schemes/operation-bogart. United States v. Amiel, 95 F.3rd 135 (1996) stipulates seventy thousand. The figure of seventy-five thousand was reported by William Honan, “Federal Agents Seize Etchings as Fakes,” New York Times, January 31, 1992. Lee Catterall, The Great Dalí Art Fraud and Other Deceptions (Fort Lee, NJ: Barricade Books, 1992), 353–54, gives a breakdown of fifty thousand Dalís, twenty thousand Mirós, twenty-two hundred Picassos, and six hundred fifty Chagalls.

181. FTC v. Magui Publishers, Inc., 927 F2nd 609.

182. Hubertus Butin, “Whatever Is Coveted Will Be Forged—Forgers Set Their Sights on Contemporary Prints,” Print Quarterly 30 (March 2013): 45.

183. “Dalí Says Thousands of His Signed Prints Are Fake,” Lewiston Daily Sun, August 10, 1985; Catterall, The Great Dalí Art Fraud, 61.

184. Douglas C. McGill, “7 Charged in the Sale of Fake Dalís,” New York Times, February 28, 1986.

185. David Galenson, “Rodin’s Drawngs,” Huffington Post, December 6, 2017.

186. Dorothy Seiberling, “The Great Rodin: His Flagrant Faker,” Life (June 14, 1965): 65.

187. Frederick M. Winship, “The Art World: Fake Bronzes Flood Market,” UPI, August 15, 2002.

188. Schüller, Forgers, Dealers, Experts, 85.

189. Schüller, Forgers, Dealers, Experts, 86.

190. Jeppson, The Fabulous Frauds, 116.

191. “The Faking Game,” Time, March 10, 1997.

192. This estimate is based on my personal experience with hundreds of paintings attributed to Antoine Blanchard, as well as discussions with other dealers who have expertise on this artist. Howard Rehs, who has compiled a catalogue raisonné of Blanchard’s works, has estimated that as few as one in eight to one in ten supposed Blanchard paintings are authentic, www.rehs.com/newsletterarchives.htm?newsletter_no=60.

193. Author’s interview with Lee Berthelsen, April 4, 2011. See Johann Berthelsen Conservancy, www.berthelsen.com/authen.html.

194. “Quick Facts About the Highwaymen,” floridahighwaymen.com/viewgallery.php3?gallery_id=107.

195. Gary Monroe, The Highwaymen: Florida’s African-American Landscape Painters (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001); Bob Beatty, Florida’s Highwaymen: Legendary Landscapes (Orlando: Historical Society of Central Florida, 2001); Catherine M. Enns, The Journey of the Highwaymen (New York: Abrams, 2009).

196. Sally Kalson, “Art Collection Is Vast, but Is It the Real Deal?” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 11, 2010.

197. www.simpsonscels.com/info/faq.shtml.

198. Amid Amidi, “Most Disney Drawings on eBay Are Forgeries!” Cartoon Brew, November 24, 2010, cartoonbrew.com/Disney/most-disney-drawings-on-ebay-are-forgeries-31940.html.

199. Cahil Milmo, “How a Little-Known Welsh Painter Became Britain’s Most Forged Artist,” The Independent, September 3, 2009.

200. Martin Newman, “Art: Beware Copycats . . . Interview with Mandy Wilkinson,” Daily Mirror, August 31, 2009.

201. Clifford Irving, Fake: The Story of Elmyr de Hory, the Greatest Art Forger of Our Time (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969); Mark Forgy, The Forger’s Apprentice: Life with the World’s Most Notorious Artist (self-published, 2012); F for Fake, film directed by Orson Welles, 1974; Jeff Oppenheim, Real Fake: The Art, Life and Crimes of Elmyr de Hory (2017), imbd.com/title/tt1890370.

202. Irving, Fake, 228.

203. Irving, Fake, 234–35.

204. Irving, Fake, chapter 18.

205. See Johannes Rød, “Fakes in the Forger’s Oeuvre,” December 10, 2010, http://elmyrstory.wordpress.com/2010/12/04/fake-fakes-in-the-forgers-oeuvre.

206. Réal Lessard, L’Amour du faux (Paris: Hachette, 1988); Roger Peyrefitte, Tableaux de chassé; ou, La Vie extraordinaire de Fernand Legros (Paris: A. Michel, 1976).

207. Anne-Marie Stein, Three Picassos Before Breakfast: Memoirs of an Art Forger’s Wife (New York: Hawthorn, 1973), 142.

208. Stein, Three Picassos Before Breakfast, 78–79, 88.

209. Stein, Three Picassos Before Breakfast, 46.

210. Stein, Three Picassos Before Breakfast, 174–75.

211. “David Stein (art Forger) – Biography,” https://www.liquisearch.com/david_stein_art_forger/biography.

212. “Master Forger Geert Jan Jansen on Trial in France,” Museum Security Network, https://web.archive.org/web/20051229225528/http://www.museum-security.org/00/170.html.

213. “Geert Jan Jansen,” Fake! (symposium), http://symposiumstudentenverenigingou.wordpress.com/geert-jan-jansen.

214. “Geert Jan Jansen.”

215. Geert Jan Jansen, Magenta: Avonturen van een meestervervalser (Amsterdam: Prometheus, 1998).

216. geertjanjansen.nl.

217. A Genuine Forger, documentary film directed by Jean-Luc Léon (Java Films, 2016).

218. A Genuine Forger; Guy Ribes, Autoportrait d’un faussaire (Paris: Presses de la Cité, 2015).

219. Marc Helfer, “Guy Ribes väärensi Chaagalleja ja Picassoja—Ja eli kuin miljonaari,” Kulttuuricocktail, December 12, 2015; John Anderson, “A Forger’s Impressions of Impressionism: Guy Ribes’s Paintings Lend Realistic Touches to ‘Renoir,’” New York Times, March 22, 2013.

220. Helfer, “Guy Ribes Väärensi Chaagalleja ja Picassoja”; Anderson, “A Forger’s Impressions of Impressionism.”

221. Scott Verchin, “An Interview with Genius Art Forger Tony Tetro,” Art Market, April 2016.

222. Author’s interview of Tony Tetro, January 25, 2019.

223. tonytetro.com; Meisy Chong, “Tony Tetro,” Acclaim, March 15, 2014, https://www.acclaimmag.com/art/tony-tetro.

224. tonytetro.com.

225. Mark Seal, “The Prince, the Flash, and the Forger,” Vanity Fair, April 2020; Michael Kaplan, “The Art Forger Is So Good That His Paintings Tricked the Royal Family,” New York Post, December 14, 2019; Tessa Solomon, “$136M. in Art on View at Prince Charles’s Home Are My Fakes, Forger Claims,” ARTnews, November 4, 2019.

226. For an extensive recounting of Myatt and Drewe’s forgery operation, see Laney Salisbury and Aly Sujo, Provenance: How a Con Man and a Forger Rewrote the History of Modern Art (New York: Penguin, 2009). For a briefer treatment, see Peter Landesman, “A 20th-Century Master Scam,” New York Times Magazine, July 19, 1999.

227. Salisbury and Sujo, Provenance, 292, 302.

228. johnmyatt.com.

229. Salisbury and Sujo, Provenance, 292.

230. Andrew Levy, “The Most Devious Person I’ve Dealt with: Judge Hits Out at Conman Who Tricked Widow Out of £700,000,” Daily Mail, March 13, 2012.

231. Joshua Hammer, “The Greatest Fake-Art Scam in History?” Vanity Fair, October 10, 2012.

232. Duncan Chappell and Saskia Hufnagel, “The Beltracchi Affair: A Comment on the ‘Most Spectacular’ German Art Forgery Case in Recent Times,” Journal of Art Crime (Summer/Spring 2012).

233. Hammer, “The Greatest Fake-Art Scam.”

234. Ibid.

235. Arne Birkenstock, Beltracchi: The Art of Forgery (2014); Wolfgang and Helene Beltracchi, Selbstporträt (Reinbek: Rowohlt, 2014) and Einschluss mit Engeln (Reibek: Rowohlt, 2014).

236. Alexander Forbes, “What You Need to Know about Master Forger Wolfgang Beltracchi’s Latest Antics,” Artnet News, March 3, 2014.

237. United States v. Glafira Rosales, No. 13 Cr. 518 (S.D.N.Y. July 17, 2013.)

238. Barry Avrich and Melissa Hood, Made You Look, Netflix documentary (2020).

239. Colin Moynihan, “Dealer in Art Fraud Scheme Avoids Prison,” New York Times, January 31, 2017; United States v. Glafira Rosales Order of Restitution, July 5, 2017.

240. “Knoedler Forger Claims Innocence,” Artnet News, July 16, 2014.

241. Graham Rowley, “Fugitive in Art Fraud Case Deflects Blame in a Filmed Interview,” New York Times, April 25, 2020.

242. Anderson Cooper, “$80 Million Con,” 60 Minutes, May 22, 2016.

243. Tom Keating (with Frank Norman and Geraldine Norman), The Fake’s Progress: The Story of a Master Faker (London: Anchor Press, 1977), 263–72.

244. Matthew Sweet, “The Faker’s Moll,” Independent, January 31, 1999.

245. Anne Hodgson, “Tom Keating on Painters,” annehodgson.de/2013/08/14/tom-keating-on-painters.

246. Keating, The Fake’s Progress, 85.

247. Eric Hebborn, The Art Forger’s Handbook (New York: Overlook Press, 1997).

248. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 360.

249. Dalya Alberge, “Art Forger Eric Hebborn Linked to Mafia Boss, Film-Makers Say,” Guardian, April 14, 2019; Lynda Albertson, “A Film about the King of Counterfeiters, Forger Eric Hebborn,” Association for Research into Crimes Against Art, April 16, 2019, https://art-crime.blogspot.com/2019/04/a-film-about-king-of-counterfeiters.html.

250. Ken Perenyi, Caveat Emptor: The Secret Life of an American Art Forger (New York: Pegasus, 2012), 40.

251. Patricia Cohen, “Forgeries? Perhaps Faux Masterpieces,” New York Times, July 18, 2012.

252. Perenyi, Caveat Emptor, 305, 311.

253. Shaun Greenhalgh, A Forger’s Tale: Confessions of the Bolton Forger (London: Allen and Unwin, 2017), especially chapter 9.

254. Greenhalgh, A Forger's Tale, 351–58.

255. Nigel Bunyan, “Downfall of the Council House Art Fakers,” Telegraph, November 17, 2007.

256. Cahal Milmo, “Family of Forgers Fooled Art World with Array of Finely Crafted Fakes,” Independent, November 17, 2007.

257. Paul Harper, “World’s Most Infamous Art Forger Legally Sells Fake Lowry-Style Paintings at Auction for Triple the Expected Value,” Sun, February 21, 2017.

258. Andrew M. Goldstein, “Art Forger Mark Landis on How He Became an Unlikely Folk Hero,” Artspace, December 27, 2014.

259. Jason Caffrey, “America’s Most Generous Con Artist,” BBC World Service, March 31, 2015.

260. Art and Craft, www.artandcraftfilm.com.

261. www.marklandisoriginal.com.

262. Edgar Mrugalla, König der Kunstfälscher: Meine Erinnerungen (Berlin: Ullstein, 1993).

263. Anne Hansen, “. . . Edgar Mrugalla?” Stern, December 21, 2008.

264. “El ‘Rey de los Falsificadores’ expone sus falsos cuadros,” Perfil, October 15, 2007.

265. Ben Hills, “A Brush with Fame,” Sydney Morning Herald, July 18, 1998.

266. Hills, “A Brush with Fame.”

267. “Art Fraudster William ‘Billy’ Mumford Jailed for Two Years,” Huffington Post, April 5, 2012.

268. Richard Burgess, “Guilty Plea in Art Forgeries,” Acadiana Advocate, June 14, 2011.

269. “Art Dealer Sentenced for Counterfeit Art Sales: Counterfeit Clementine Hunter Paintings,” US Department of Justice, US Attorney’s Office, Western District of Louisiana, January 3, 2012. See also Ruth Laney, “Clementine Hunter Fakes: Scandal in the Art World: The FBI Investigates a Baton Rouge Couple for Selling Fake Clementine Hunter Paintings,” Country Road, December 2009.

270. Hoving, False Impressions, 248.

271. Walter Goodman, “How Fake Art Is Created and Discovered and Why,” New York Times, December 17, 1991.

272. Antonia Schaefer, “Der scurrile Fälscherskandal aus Niederbayern,” Welt, November 18, 2014.

273. “Christian Goller,” International Art Market Studies Association, July 2017, www.artstudies.org/tag/christian-goller.

274. “Le Case d’asta, La Fondazione e i falsi Peretti,” Archivio dell'arte metafisica, www.archivioartemetafisica.org/le-case-dasta-la-fondazione-e-i-falsi-peretti.

275. “Authentic De Chirico Painting Signaled as a Fake by L’Archivio dell’Arte Metafisica: The Construction of a Fake ‘Truth,” fondazionedechirico.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/authentic-de-chirico-painting-signalled-as-a-fake-by-l’archivio-dell’arte-metafisica.pdf; Cristina Ruiz; “Challenge to De Chirico Authentication Board: The Artist’s Own Backdated Paintings Add to His Market’s Complexities,” Art Newspaper, September 3, 2013.

276. Laurie Hurwitz, “Paris Art Expert Sentenced in Drawing Forgery Case,” ARTnews, January 26, 2010.

277. “Christian Parisot Arrested: Modigliani Institute President Involved in Forgery Investigation,” Huffington Post, January 14, 2013.

278. Milton Esterow, “The Art Market’s Modigliani Forgery Epidemic,” Vanity Fair, May 2017.

279. See Marc Spiegler, “Modigliani: The Experts Battle,” ARTnews, January 2004.

280. H. de Roos, “What Is an Original Rodin? The Guy Hain Case: Fraud and Forgery,” www.rodin-web.org/report_rom/1_11.htm.

281. Brendan Kemmet and Stéphanie Sellami, “Le Copieur de Rodin,” Le Parisien, June 12, 2015.

282. Thane Peterson, “Mystery of the Giacometti Fakes,” ARTnews, December 2010.

283. Michael Sontheimer, “‘The Art World Is Rotten’: Giacometti Forger Tells All,” Spiegel Online, April 10, 2013.

284. Information provided by Robert Driessen in an email correspondence with the author, August 11, 2019.

285. “Eric Piedoie: The Art of Living of a Forger,” Archyde, November 17, 2019.

286. “Eric Piedoie.”

287. Eric Piedoie, Confessions d’un faussaire: La Face cachée du marché de l’art (Paris: Max Milo, 2019).

288. Jesse Lerner, “Brigido Lara: Post-Pre-Columbian Ceramicist,” Cabinet, Spring 2001; Jonathan Kandell, “Protecting the Pre-Columbian,” Art and Antiques, May 2014; Kirstin Fawcett, “Brigido Lara, the Artist Whose Pre-Columbian Fakes Fooled Museums Around the World,” Mental Floss, September 18, 2017.

289. Catterall, The Great Dalí Art Fraud, 343–44.

290. Charles Storch, “Foiled by Fakes,” Chicago Tribune, November 1, 1993.

291. Becky Schlikerman, “Fraudulent Art Dealer Sentenced in Chicago,” Chicago Tribune, June 8, 2011.

292. United States v. Amiel, Jr., Plea Agreement, No. 08 CR 009-2 (N.D. Ill. October 6, 2010).

293. “What Is Giclée?,” https://ryepress.com/what-is-giclee.

294. J. Michael Kennedy, “Not a Pretty Picture,” Los Angeles Times, January 18, 2007.

295. “Third Defendant in $20 Million Scam That Sold Fake Art Nationwide via TV Auctions Sentenced to Federal Prison,” US Attorney’s Office, Central District of California, October 26, 2010.

296. Alan Abrams, “Catch Me If You Can,” Forbes, September 20, 2004, https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2004/0920/302/?sh=7d839ab89741. See also “Earl Washington Woodcuts,” www.gatewaygalleries.com/dynapage/PP0301.htm.

297. For an overview of eBay art fraud, see Lizzie Crocker, “Why eBay Is an Art Forger’s Paradise,” Daily Beast, August 19, 2014. See also Amore, The Art of the Con, chapter 11, and “How Forgers Sell Fake Art on eBay and Make Big Money,” ArtBusiness.com, www.artbusiness.com/faketutorial.html.

298. United States v. John Re, case summary, International Foundation for Art Research, http://ifar.org/case_summary.php.docid=1433279608.

299. Lisa Duffy-Zeballos and Sharon Flescher, “Long Island Con Man John Re Sentenced to 5 Years for Fraud That IFAR Helped Expose,” IFAR Journal 16, no. 1–2 (2015).

300. John Schwartz and Judith M. Dobrzynsky, “3 Men Are Charged With Fraud in 1,100 Art Auctions on eBay,” New York Times, March 9, 2001.

301. Kenneth Walton, Fake: Forgery, Lies, and eBay (New York: Simon Spotlight Entertainment, 2006), 44, 239.

302. Walton, Fake, 291.

303. See Amore, The Art of the Con, 147.

304. “The Copycat Millions,” Mastermind, television show, season 4, episode 7, aired November 14, 2006.

305. United States v. Sakhai, No. 04-cr-583, S.D.N.Y. July 6, 2005 (plea agreement).

306. “The Copycat Millions”; Jane A. Levine, “Case Study of Federal Criminal Investigation and Prosecution Involving Art Forgery,” paper presented to American Bar Association panel “Fakes and Forgeries: Problems for the International Trade in Art Works,” April 6, 2006, 5.

307. R. v. Ivan Liberto and Pamela Yvonne Liberto (2008) VCC 1372; “Libertos in Court over Forged Rover Thomas Paintings,” Herald Sun, November 9, 2007.

308. Steve Crawshaw, “Forger Is a Genuine Success,” Independent, October 23, 2011.

309. Maxine Bernstein, “75-Year-Old Portland Art Forger Sentenced to Federal Prison,” Oregonian, February 16, 2016; Steven Dubois, “Art Forger, 75, Gets Federal Prison Sentence,” Bulletin (Central Oregon), February 16, 2016.

310. “Artist Jailed in Moscow for Art Forgery,” TwoCircles.Net, March 28, 2013. “Art Forgery Is a Family Affair in Russia,” Worldcrunch, March 13, 2013.

311. “Padělatel Zrzavého se odvolával na malířova ducha,” TÝDEN.cz, October 23, 2007; “Czech Art Forger Draws Prison Sentence,” UPI, October 7, 2009.

312. Katherine Keener, “Finnish Forgeries: The Couple behind a €13 Million Art Scam,” Marketplace, November 10, 2018; “Finnish Couple Jailed over 13M Euro Art Forgery Scam,” Dunya News, October 31, 2018.

313. “‘Pathetic’ Swiss Art Forgers Sentenced to Prison for Giacometti-Switching Parakeet Scam,” Blouinartinfo, July 7, 2011.

314. Vernon Rapley, “The Police Investigation of Art Fraud,” in Art Crime: Terrorists, Tomb Raiders, Forgers and Thieves, ed. Noah Charney (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 35.

315. For a list of these police units, see “Specialized Police Forces,” UNESCO, www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/illicit-trafficking-of-cultural-property/partnerships/specialized-police-forces.

316. www.fbi.gov/investigate/violent-crime/art-theft.

317. Sandra Laville, “Met’s Art Theft Squad Has to Go Cap in Hand,” The Guardian, April 20, 2007.

318. Lisa Duffy-Zeballos and Sharon Flescher, “The Mysterious James Brennerman; Did He Exist and Where Did All His Fakes Come From?” IFAR Journal 17, no. 4 (2017): 13. See also Duffy-Zeballos and Flescher, “Long Island Con Man.”

319. Rex Sorgate, “The End of Authentication,” Message, July 17, 2014, https://medium.com/message/the-end-of-authentication-cbbfbcb0c49e; see also Danielle Rahm, “Warhols, Pollocks, Fakes: Why Art Authenticators Are Running for the Hills,” Forbes, June 18, 2013; Georgina Adam, “The High-Stakes Game of Art Authentication,” BBC, October 21, 2014.

320. Daniel Grant, “New Legislation Would Protect Art Authentication Against ‘Nuisance’ Lawsuits,” Observer, June 4, 2014.

321. For a comparative explanation of the collections and their methods of display, see Felicity Kate Strong, “(Re)Framing the F Word: The Case for the Collection and Exhibition of Art Forgery in Australia” (PhD diss., University of Melbourne, 2016), 141–56, minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/handle/11343/151617.

322. Schüller, Forgers, Dealers, and Experts, 33; M. M. van Dantzig, True or False: An Exhibition Organized and Circulated in Europe by the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, Holland, Circulated in the United States of America by the Corning Museum of Glass, Corning Glass Center, 1953–1954 Season (Corning, NY: Corning Glass Center, 1953).

323. Guy Isnard, Le Musée des faux artistiques (Paris: Salmon Artistique de la Police, 1954).

324. J. Kirk Varnedoe, Rodin Drawings, True and False (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1971).

325. Jones, Fake? The Art of Deception.

326. Martin Bailey, “Revealed: One Third of Brooklyn Museum’s Coptic Collection Is Fake,” The Art Newspaper, May 15, 2015; Alexander V. Kruglov, “Late Antique Sculpture in Egypt: Originals and Forgeries,” American Journal of Archaeology 114, no. 2 (2010).

327. Steven Litt, “‘Fakes, Forgeries and Mysteries’ Show at Detroit Institute of Arts Takes Viewers on Hunt for Authenticity,” Plain Dealer, March 28, 2011.

328. Catherine Schofield Sezgin, “The Detroit Institute of Art’s Exhibit, ‘Fakes, Forgeries, and Mysteries,’ Posts Videos on YouTube to Augment Its Painting and Sculpture Exhibit,” Association for Research into Crimes Against Art, February 6, 2011, art-crime.blogspot.com/2011/02/dias-fakes-forgeries-and-mysteries.html.

329. “Close Examination: Fakes, Mistakes, and Discoveries,” https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/exhibitions/past/close-examination-fakes-mistakes-and-discoveries.

330. Randall Chase, “Winterthur Exhibit Offers Insight into Detecting Art Fraud,” AP News, April 1, 2017.

331. Donald Myers, Elmyr de Hory: Artist and Faker, exh. cat. (Saint Peter, MN: Hillstrom Museum of Art, 2010), https://gustavus.edu/finearts/hillstrom/concertFiles/media/2010_Elmyr_de_Hory_Artist_and_Faker.pdf.

332. Caffrey, “America’s Most Generous Con Artist.”

333. See, for instance, Graham Young, “Art Faker John Myatt to Open His Biggest Exhibition in Birmingham,” Birmingham Live, September 28, 2012.

334. Andrew Dodds, “Fakes and Forgeries: Victoria and Albert Museum, UK,” Frieze, May 1, 2010, http://frieze.com/article/fakes-and-forgeries.

335. Intent to Deceive: Fakes and Forgeries in the Art World, exh. brochure (Washington, DC: International Arts and Artists, 2013).

336. Henry Samuel, “Paris Museum’s Fakes Exhibition Condemned for ‘Vampire’ Plagiarism,” Telegraph, April 24, 2010.

337. Peter Simpson, “F is for Fake at SAW Gallery,” Ottawa Citizen, June 2, 2014.

338. Henrik Dannemand, “AEgte forfalsninger på museum,” Berlingske, July 27, 2007, https://www.berlingske.dk/kultur/aegte-forfalskninger-paa-museum.

339. Sarah Cascone, “When Is a Rembrandt Not a Rembrandt?” Art in America, August 7, 2013.

340. “Why Is This Argentinian Pop-Up Art Exhibition of Latin American Masterpieces Full of Fakes?” Lonely Planet, May 12, 2016.

341. Laura Chesters, “Sotheby’s Buys Research Firm Orion Analytical in Fight against Fakes,” Antiques Trade Gazette, December 5, 2006.

342. For a brief but informative summary of scientific techniques used in discovering art forgeries, see Robyn Sloggett, “Art Crime: Fraud and Forensics,” Australasian Journal of Forensic Sciences 47, no. 3 (2015). For a detailed explanation of techniques in the forensic analysis of paintings, see Jehane Ragai, The Scientist and the Forger: Insights into the Scientific Detection of Forgery in Paintings (London: Imperial College Press, 2015).

343. Savage, Fakes, Forgeries, and Reproductions, 235, 270.

344. Nicholas Eastaugh, “Authenticity and the Scientific Method,” InCoRM Journal 1, no. 1 (2009).

345. For an explanation of the pigments Van Meegeren used, see Kilbracken, Van Meegeren: Master Forger, 24–27.

346. Hubertus von Sonnenburg, “A Case of Recurring Deception,” Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 11, no. 3 (Winter 1993/1994).

347. Patricia Cohen, “Suitable for Suing,” New York Times, February 22, 2012; “Lagrange v. Knoedler—SETTLED,” Center for Art Law, November 2, 2012.

348. Philippe Collon and Michael Wiescher, “Accelerated Ion Beams for Art Forensics,” Physics Today 65, no. 1 (2012): 58; Stefan Rohrs, Andreas Schwabe, Stefan Simon, Karl-Uwe Heussner, and Kurt Osterloh, “Dendrochronological Investigations of Stretcher Frames from Canvas Paintings—Linking Wooden Frames of a Larger Fraud Case to a Common Origin,” Authentication in Art conference, The Hague, Netherlands, May 7–9, 2014.

349. Keating, The Fake’s Progress, 224–25.

350. “Mattis Claim Against Rosenblum for Lewis Hine Photographs,” Case Summary, International Foundation for Art Research, www.ifar.org/case_summary.php?docid=1184603465; Ralph Blumenthal, “Shadows Cast by Forgery: The FBI Investigates Complaints About Lewis Hine Prints,” New York Times, August 16, 2001.

351. Sox, Unmasking the Forger, 89.

352. Fiechter, Egyptian Fakes, 141–48.

353. For an explanation of the varieties of X-ray technology, microscopy, and mass spectrometry, see Ragai, The Scientist and the Forger.

354. Jai Li, Lei Yao, Ella Hendriks, and James Z. Wang, “Rhythmic Brushstrokes Distinguish Van Gogh from His Contemporaries: Findings via Automated Brushstroke Extraction,” IEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 34, no. 6 (June 2012); Michelle Sipics, “The Van Gogh Project: Art Meets Mathematics in Ongoing International Study,” SIAM News 42, no. 4 (May 2009); Lei Yao, Jai Li, and James Z. Wang, “Characterizing Elegance of Curves Computationally For Distinguishing Morriseau Paintings and Their Imitations,” IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, 2009; James M. Hughes, Daniel J. Graham, and Daniel N. Rockmore, “Quantification of Artistic Style Through Sparse Coding Analysis in the Drawings of Peter Brueghel the Elder,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 107, no. 4 (January 2010).

355. Richard P. Taylor, Adam P. Micolich, and David Jonas, “Fractal Analysis of Pollock’s Drip Paintings,” Nature, June 3, 1999; Randy Kennedy, “The Case of Pollock’s Fractals Focuses on Physics,” New York Times, December 2, 2006; “Researchers End Debate Over Fractal Analysis of Pollock’s Art,” Science Daily, November 26, 2007.

356. Information on the cost of scientific testing of artworks was provided by Jennifer Mass of Scientific Analysis of Fine Art, Berwyn, Pennsylvania; Duane Chartier of the International Center for Art Intelligence, Culver City, California; and Douglas Komen of Great Masters Art, Science, and Engineering, Rancho Santa Fe, California.

357. Michael Kimmelman, “ART: Absolutely Real? Absolutely Fake?,” New York Times, August 4, 1991.

358. See Vassilis Lambrinoudakis, “Some Observations on the Authenticity of the Getty Kouros,” in The Getty Kouros Colloquium (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 1993), 31–33; and Giorgios Dontas, “The Getty Kouros: A Look at Its Artistic Defects and Incongruities,” in The Getty Kouros Colloquium, 37–38.

359. www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=12908; Christopher Knight, “Review: Something’s Missing from the Newly Reinstalled Antiquities Collection at the Getty Villa,” Los Angeles Times, April 19, 2018.

360. Avrova Fine Arts Investment Limited v. Christie, Manson and Woods Ltd. (2012) EWHC 2198 (Ch). See also Konstantin Akinsha, “Judge Decided It Was a Fake, but Some Scholars Say that a Russian Painting Sold at Christie’s Is Genuine,” Artnet News, February 5, 2013.

361. Eastaugh, “Authenticity and the Scientific Method.”

362. See “Applications of TL Dating,” www3.nd.edu/~nsl/Lectures/phys178/pdf/chap3_11.pdf; David Cycleback, “Thermoluminescence Testing in Ancient Artifacts Authentication and Fake Detection,” https://davidcycleback.com/2017/08/05/thermoluminescence-testing-in-ancient-artifacts-authentication-and-fake-detection.

363. Steve Schlackman, “Using Synthetic DNA to Fight Art Forgery,” Art Law Journal (November 16, 2015); Tom Mashberg, “Art Forgers Beware: DNA Could Thwart Fakes,” New York Times, October 12, 2015.

364. Milko den Leeuw interview with David Yermack, Authentication in Art, AIA Newsletter, February 2017, authenticationinart.org/pdf/newsletter/aia-newsletter-february.pdf; “Blockchain to Frame Art Forgers: Adapting Blockchain to Authenticate Valuable Artworks,” Cosmos, February 25, 2019.

PART II

1. Collins English Dictionary, 12th ed. (2014), s.v.

2. American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 5th ed., "Forgery."

3. 18 U.S.C. 2320; 18 U.S.C. 2319; 17 U.S.C. 506. See also www.legalmatch.com/law-library/article/forgery-laws.htm.

4. FBI New York Press Office, “Long Island Art Dealer Indicted in Massive Art Fraud, Money Laundering, and Tax Scheme: Glafira Rosales Charged with Knowingly Selling Fake Artworks Purportedly by Renowned Artists in $30 Million Scheme,” July 17, 2013, http://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/long-island-art-dealer-indicted-massive-art-fraud-money-laundering-and-tax-scheme.

5. “United States of America v. José Carlos Bergantiños-Diaz, Jesus Angel Bergantiños Diaz, and Pei-Shen Qian,” US District Court, Southern District of New York, No. 14 Cr. 217 at 38 (S.D.N.Y. March 31, 2014).

6. US Attorney’s Office, Southern District of New York, “Three Defendants Charged in Manhattan Federal Court in Connection with $33 Million Art Fraud Scheme,” April 21, 2014, www.justice/gov/usao-sdny/pr/three-defendants-charged-manhattan-federal-court-connection-33-million-art-fraud-scheme.

7. United States of America, Plaintiff-Appelle, v. James Kennedy, Defendant-Appellant, US Court of Appeals, Seventh Circuit No. 12-2630 (August 9, 2013).

8. Paul Dean, “An Artist of Talent and, Some Say, Genius, Tony Tetro Is Charged With Forging the Works of Chagall, Miró, Dalí. But He Claims Only to Be: The Repro Man,” Los Angeles Times, January 20, 1991.

9. G. Luther Whitington, “Detectives Find Most Prolific Art Forger,” UPI, August 10, 1986.

10. Weisz v. Parke-Bernet Galleries, 67 Misc. 2nd 1077 N.Y. Civ. Ct. 1971.

11. Noah Charney, The Art of Forgery: The Minds, Motives, and Methods of Master Forgers (London: Phaidon, 2015), 17.

12. Theodore Tedesco, Index of Literature in the English Language That Describes Postal Stamp Forgeries, Fakes, Reprints, Fraudulent Postal Markings and Other Obliterations (Bellefonte, PA: American Philatelic Research Laboratory, 2014).

13. “Fakes, Forgeries and Reproductions,” The Pewter Society, http://www.pewtersociety.org/identifying-and-collecting-pewter/collecting/fakes-forgeries-and-reproductions.

14. Brian Innes, Fakes and Forgeries: The True Crime Stories of History’s Greatest Deceptions: The Criminals, the Scams, and the Victims (Pleasantville, NY: Reader’s Digest, 2005), 1.

15. Anthony Amore, The Art of the Con, 13.

16. Stuart Kelly, “Forged: Why Fakes Are the Great Art of Our Age by Jonathan Keats—Review,” Guardian, June 28, 2013.

17. Spurlock Museum, University of Illinois, www.spurlock.illinois.edu/explorations/research/collecting/fdf. Although this site is no longer viable, the text was written for a project with students in local schools titled “Careful Collecting: Fakes and Forgeries.”

18. David Scott, Art: Authenticity, Restoration, Forgery (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press at UCLA, 2016), 88.

19. David Cycleback, “The Difference Between a Fake and a Forgery,” https://davidcycleback.com/2013/01/30/the-difference-between-a-fake-and-a-forgery.

20. Kurz, Fakes; Nelson Goodman, Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1976); Lenain, Art Forgery; Keats, Forged; Sándor Radnóti, The Fake: Forgery and Its Place in Art (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999).

21. Dean, “An Artist of Talent.”

22. Dean, "An Artist of Talent." See also Alan Citron, “‘Smoking Gun’ Tape Unveiled in Art Fraud Case,” Los Angeles Times, March 16, 1990.

23. Catterall, The Great Dalí Art Fraud, 136.

24. Citron, “‘Smoking Gun’ Tape.”

25. Scott Hays, “The Greatest Living American Art Forger,” Orange Coast, 2000.

26. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 335–36.

27. Perenyi, Caveat Emptor, 256–57.

28. Ibid., 303.

29. For instance, for a statement of Bastianini’s being misunderstood as a forger, see Kathryn C. Johnson, Fakes and Forgeries, exh. cat. (Minneapolis: Minneapolis Institute of Arts, 1973). A contrary view that labels Bastianini as a forger is found in John Pope-Hennessy, “The Forging of Italian Renaissance Sculpture,” Apollo 115 (1974). For a detailed explanation of changing trends in assessing Bastianini’s work as forgery, see Anita Fiderer Moskowitz, Forging Authenticity: Bastianini and the Neo-Renaissance in Nineteenth-Century Florence (Florence: Olschki, 2013), chapter 4.

30. Anita Moskowitz, “Masterpiece or Master Fraud? The Sculpture of Giovanni Bastianini,” Florentine, September 12, 2013, https://www.theflorentine.net/2013/09/12/masterpiece-or-master-fraud.

31. Moskowitz, “Masterpiece or Master Fraud?”

32. Anita Moskowitz, “The Case of Giovanni Bastianini-II: A Hung Jury?” Artibus et Historiae 27, no. 54 (2006): 201–4.

33. Denis Dutton, “Art Hoaxes,” Encyclopedia of Hoaxes, ed. Gordon Stein (Detroit: Gale Research, 1993), 21, archive.org/details/encyclopediaofho0000stei/ppge/20/mode/2up.

34. Radnóti, The Fake, 116.

35. Michael Wreen, “Forgery,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 32, no. 2 (2002): 152.

36. The roots of anti-intentionalism trace to New Criticism in literary criticism, along with reader-response theory, structuralism, semiotics, and hermeneutics. Key figures include Richard Rorty, Stanley Fish, Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Derrida.

37. Rosalind Krauss, “Sense and Sensibility: Reflections on Post 60’s Sculpture,” Artforum 12, no. 3 (November 1973).

38. Krauss, “Sense and Sensibility."

39. Roland Barthes, “The Death of the Author,” Aspen 5–6 (1967).

40. Michel Foucault, “What Is an Author?” in Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews with Michel Foucault, ed. Donald F. Bouchard (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977), 138.

41. For a detailed explanation of various perspectives on intentionalism and anti-intentionalism, see Paisley Livingston, Art and Intention: A Philosophical Study (New York: Oxford, 2005).

42. Livingston, Art and Intention.

43. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 119–22.

44. Monaghan v. Commissioner, 1981 T.C. Memo. 280, 42 T.C.M 27.

45. Ferrari v. Commissioner, 931 F. 2nd 54 (4th Cir. 1991).

46. De Balkany v. Christie Manson and Woods, Ltd. (1997) Q.B. 16 Tr. L. 163 (Eng.).

47. Conti, History of the Restoration and Conservation of Works of Art, 263.

48. Mark Sagoff, “On Restoring and Reproducing Art,” Journal of Philosophy 75, no. 9 (1978): especially 459.

49. Martin Heidegger, “The Origin of the Work of Art,” in Martin Heidegger: Basic Writings, ed. David Farrell Krell (New York: Harper & Row, 1977). For a good explanation of Heidegger’s view vis-à-vis that of Mark Sagoff, see Ami Harbin, “Authentic Art and Creative Preservation,” Le Panoptique (June 1, 2008).

50. Rafael De Clercq, “The Metaphysics of Art Restoration,” British Journal of Aesthetics 53, no. 3 (2013): 14.

51. Sagoff, “On Restoring and Reproducing Art,” 457.

52. Sidney Alexander, “The Restoration of Michelangelo’s Pietà,” American Artist 37 (July 1973): 56.

53. Mac Carey, “Fifteen Blows with a Sledgehammer: The Restoration of the Pieta,” http://www.stpetersbasilica.info/Docs/Pieta%20Restoration.htm.

54. John Russell, “Healing a Disfigured Rembrandt’s Wounds,” New York Times, August 31, 1997.

55. For a brief but informative summary of the collaboration between Rubens and Brueghel, see Alan Riding, “Partners? You Paint the Figures, and I’ll Do the Rest,” New York Times, December 23, 2006. For more detail, see Anne T. Woollett, Ariane von Suchtelen, and Tiarna Doherty, Rubens and Brueghel: A Working Friendship (Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006).

56. A good summary of Rubens’s studio practices is John A. Parks, “Masters: Rubens’ Drawings: The Marks of a Prolific Master,” Artistsnetwork, https://www.artistsnetwork.com/art-history/masters-rubens-drawings-the-marks-of-a-prolific-master.

57. Mendax, Art Fakes and Forgeries, 152–53.

58. “Auguste Rodin: Production Techniques,” Victoria and Albert Museum, https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/rodin-production-techniques.

59. www.gilbertandgeorge.co.uk; www.komarandmelamid.org; www.oldenburgvanbruggen.com; www.dmstarn.com; www.zhoubrothers.com; www.boylefamily.co.uk.

60. www.theartguys.com.

61. Bob Colacello, Holy Terror: Andy Warhol Close Up (New York: Cooper Square Press, 1990), 478.

62. Richard Dorment, “What Is an Andy Warhol?” New York Review of Books, October 22, 2009.

63. John Powers, “I Was Jeff Koons’s Studio Serf,” New York Times Magazine, August 17, 2012.

64. David Cohen, “Inside Damien Hirst’s Factory,” Evening Standard, August 30, 2007.

65. Andrew Johnson, “A Damien Hirst Original,” Independent, September 14, 2008.

66. Elizabeth Burns Coleman, “Aboriginal Painting: Identity and Authenticity,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 59, no. 4 (Autumn 2001): 388.

67. Cohen, “Inside Damien Hirst’s Factory.”

68. Dorment, “What Is an Andy Warhol?”

69. For this point as well as a detailed discussion of French and British copyright law as they apply to art, see Stina Teilmann-Lock, British and French Copyright: A Historical Study of Aesthetic Implications (Copenhagen: Djoef, 2009).

70. US Code, Title 17, Chapter 2: 201, “Ownership of Property.” For a detailed explanation of the “work made for hire” doctrine, including arguments against it, see James J. Mastroianni, “The Work-Made-For-Hire Exception to the Visual Artists Rights Act of 1990 (VARA): Carter v. Helmsley-Spear, Inc.,” Sports and Entertainment Law Journal 4, no. 2 (1997): 417–53.

71. Committee for Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989).

72. For Chihuly v. Kaindl, as well as Kaindl’s and Rubino’s responses, see www.robertkaindl.com/ChihulyArtGlassLawsuit.htm.

73. Kyle-Beth Hilfer, “Lawsuit Could Clarify What Is Original in the Art World,” Intellectual Property Strategist, Law Journal Newsletters (2006), www.lawjournalnewsletters.com/sites/lawjournalnewsletters/2006/09/29/lawsuit-could-clarify-what-is-original-in-the-art-world.

74. Regina Hackett, “Chihuly Settles Copyright Lawsuit,” seattlepi, August 3, 2006, www.seattlepi.com/ae/article/Chihuly-settles-copyright-lawsuit-1210845.php.

75. Moi v. Chihuly 17-2-14150 Superior Court of Washington, King County, June 17, 2017.

76. Regarding Chihuly’s condition as well as his working methods, see Kirk Johnson, “‘Chihuly Art’: A Legacy Under Siege,” New York Times, August 22, 2017.

77. Moi v. Chihuly Studio, Inc., http://www.leagle.com/decision/infdco20190621e55.

78. Sol LeWitt, “Paragraphs on Conceptual Art,” Artforum (Summer 1967).

79. LeWitt, “Paragraphs on Conceptual Art.”

80. Alva Noë, “How to Love a Fake,” National Public Radio, November 15, 2013.

81. Noë, “How to Love a Fake.”

82. Charles Thompson, “Stuck Inn XI: The Art Damien Hirst Stole,” 3:AM Magazine, September 14, 2010.

83. Livingston, Art and Intention, 75–89.

84. Livingston, Art and Intention, 84.

85. Livingston, Art and Intention, 86.

86. Livingston, Art and Intention, 83.

87. Salisbury and Sujo, Provenance, 11.

88. Roy A. Perry, “Present and Future: Caring for Contemporary Art at the Tate Gallery,” in Miguel Corzo, ed. Mortality Immortality: The Legacy of 20th-Century Art (Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute, 1999), 44.

89. See, for instance, Jean Lipman and Richard Marshall, Art About Art (New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1978), 6–7.

90. Hilton Kramer, “An American in Paris at 62: Robert Motherwell Is at the Height of His Fame,” New York Times, June 19, 1977.

91. R. G. Collingwood, The Principles of Art (London: Oxford University Press, 1938), 319.

92. Collingwood, The Principles of Art, 320.

93. David Walker, “The Art of the Steal: Warhol Didn’t Get Away With It; Why Should Richard Prince?” PDNPulse, May 10, 2012.

94. “Andy Warhol and the Art of Appropriation,” Revolver Gallery, www.revolverwarholgallery.com/andy-warhol-art-appropriation.

95. Morton Beebe, “Beebe v. Rauschenberg and Artists’ Rights: The Story of Morton Beebe’s Landmark Lawsuit Against Robert Rauschenberg Concerning Artists’ Rights,” www.mortonbeebe.com/beebe-v-rauschenberg-and-artists-rights; Greg Allen, “Beebe v. Rauschenberg, The First Big Appropriation Lawsuit,” greg.org/archive/2012/06/27/beebe-v-rauschenberg-the-first-big-appropriation-lawsuit.html.

96. Mark Memmott, “Shepard Fairey and AP Settle Copyright Dispute Over ‘Hope’ Poster,” NPR, January 12, 2011; Frank James, “Obama ‘Hope’ Poster Not Credible: AP,” NPR, October 20, 2009.

97. US Constitution, Article 1, Section 8, Clause 8.

98. United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, “Copyright Law Revision” (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1960).

99. At least half a dozen countries have followed the United States in adopting the standard of “fair use” (Bangladesh, Israel, Korea, the Philippines, Taiwan, Uganda), whereas at least thirty-five others are modeled after the “fair dealing” standard of the United Kingdom. However, there is often a blend, with “fair dealing” countries incorporating aspects of the “fair use” approach. See Jonathan Band and Jonathan Gerafi, The Fair Use/Fair Dealing Handbook, infojustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/fair-use-handbook-march-2015.pdf.

100. 17 US Code 107.

101. Rogers v. Koons 960 F. 2d 301 (2nd Cir. 1992).

102. United Feature Syndicate, Inc. v. Koons 817 F. Supp. 370 (S.D.N.Y. 1993).

103. Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music 510 U.S. 569 (1994).

104. Blanch v. Koons 467 F. 3d 244 (2nd Cir. 2006).

105. Cariou v. Prince 714 F. 3d 694 (2nd Cir. 2013).

106. Ben Depoorter and Robert Kirk Walker, “Unavoidable Aesthetic Judgments in Copyright Law: A Community of Practice Standard,” Northwestern University Law Review 343 (2015).

107. Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithography Co. 1888 U.S. 239 (1903).

108. Depoorter and Walker, “Unavoidable Aesthetic Judgments.”

109. Kienitz v. Sconnie Nation 766 F. 3d 756 (7th Cir. 2014).

110. Graham v. Prince No. 15-CV-10160 (S.D.N.Y. July 18, 2017).

111. For a discussion of natural right vis-à-vis copyright law and art, see Darren Hudson Hick, “Finding a Foundation: Copyright and the Creative Act,” Texas Intellectual Property Law Journal 17, no. 3 (Spring 2009).

112. See Teilmann-Lock, British and French Copyright, 45–54.

113. Catherine Muyl, “French Court Finds Jeff Koons Appropriated Copyrighted Photograph That ‘Saved Him Creative Work,’” May 2, 2017, www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/french-court-finds-jeff-koons-75017.

114. Consorts Bauret c/J. Koons No. 15/01086 (Paris District Court 2017); Azmina Jasani, “Appropriation Art Takes Another Hit in European Courts,” Art@Law, https://www.artatlaw.com/appropriation-art-takes-another-hit-european-courts; Kim Wilsher, “Jeff Koons Plagiarized French Photographer for Naked Sculpture,” Guardian, March 9, 2017.

115. Alex Marshall, “Jeff Koons Is Found Guilty of Copying. Again,” New York Times, November 8, 2018; “Jeff Koons Is Found Guilty of Plagiarism in Paris and Ordered to Pay $168,000 to Creator of an Ad He Appropriated,” Artnet News, November 9, 2018.

116. Kate Taylor, “In Twist, Jeff Koons Claims Rights to ‘Balloon Dogs,’” New York Times, January 19, 2011.

117. Sam Whiting, “Jeff Koons’ Balloon-Dog Claim Ends with a Whimper,” SFGate, February 4, 2011.

118. Guy Adams, “Jeff Koons Bites Back at ‘Copies’ of Balloon Dog,” Independent, January 27, 2011.

119. Mike Masnick, “Jeff Koons Drops Silly Lawsuit over Balloon Dog Bookends . . . But Not Before Helping to Sell a Bunch,” Techdirt, February 4, 2011.

120. Kate Winston Smith, “Hirst to Sue BA Over Adverts,” Independent, June 28, 1999.

121. “Damien Hirst Threatened to Sue Teenager Over Alleged Copyright Theft,” Daily Mail, December 12, 2008.

122. “Artists Flout Copyright Law to Attack Damien Hirst,” Telegraph, February 13, 2009.

123. Cat Weaver, "Is a Cease and Desist About Irony, Hypocrisy or Legal Strategy?," Hyperallergic, March 10, 2011.

124. Cariou v. Prince.

125. Andrew Gilden and Timothy Greene, “Fair Use for the Rich and Fabulous?” University of Chicago Law Review 80 (2013): 102.

126. Patricia Failing, “Unraveling the Mysteries of Degas’s Sculpture,” ARTnews, May 1, 2011.

127. Besides the article by Failing in note 126, summary histories of the Degas bronzes can be found in Clare Vincent, “Edgar Degas (1834–1917): Bronze Sculpture,” Heilbrun Timeline of Art History, Metropolitan Museum of Art, www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd-dgsb.htm; and James Adams, “Is She the ‘Real’ Thing?” Globe and Mail, October 4, 2003. A detailed presentation of Degas’s sculptures is Suzanne Glover Lindsay, Daphne S. Barbour, and Shelley G. Sturman, Edgar Degas Sculpture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011).

128. “Edgar Degas,” askART auction Records, for instance, https://www.askart.com/Artist_Export.aspx?S=1&QID=885553&ALL=3129741; https://www.askart.com/Artist_Export.aspx?S=1&QID=885484&ALL=3679047.

129. Roger J. Crum, “Degas Bronzes?” Art Journal 54, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 96.

130. Crum, “Degas Bronzes?” 95.

131. Among others is longtime critic Gary Arsenau, “Degas Bronze Forgeries: The ABCs of One of the Largest Art Frauds of the 20th/21st Century,” http://garyarsenau.blogspot.com/2007/05/all-degas-bronze-sculptures-are-fake.html.

132. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Paris Text, 1971), https://www.law.cornell.edu/treaties/berne; “Berne Convention,” Copyright House, http://copyrightthouse.org/countries-berne-convention.

133. For a summary of the Berne Convention, see “Summary of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1886),” World Intellectual Property Organization, www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/summary_berne.html; for a summary of the origin of moral rights, and how they apply in the United States, see Stephanie C. Ardito, “Moral Rights for Authors and Artists,” Information Today 19, no. 1 (January 2000); for French law in regard to Rodin, see “Respecting Rodin’s Moral Right: A Warning to Collectors about the Notion of Authenticity,” Musée Rodin, https://www.musee-rodin.fr/en/professionnals/respecting-Rodins-moral-right.

134. Gary Tinterow, “A Note on Degas’s Bronzes,” in Jean Sutherland Boggs, Degas, exh. cat. (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art and National Gallery of Canada, 1988).

135. “Statement on Standards for the Production and Reproduction of Sculpture: Part II: Standards for Sculptural Reproduction and Preventive Measures against Unethical Casting,” College Art Association (2013).

136. “Statement on Standards for the Production and Reproduction of Sculpture.”

137. William Cohan, “A Controversy over Degas,” Artnet News, April 1, 2010.

138. Patricia Failing, “Unraveling the Mysteries of Degas’s Sculpture.”

139. William Cohan, “Brass Foundry Is Closing but Debate over Degas’ Work Goes on,” New York Times, April 4, 2016.

140. See Walter Maibaum, “Edgar Degas: The Sculptures,” degassculptureproject.org/edgar-degas-the-sculptures-exhibition-catalog-essay.pdf; Maibaum, “Post-humous Bronzes and the Plasters from Which They Were Cast: A Case Study on Determining Authenticity Based on Physical Evidence, www.degassculptureproject.org/Case_Study_--_Plaster_Authentication.pdf; “Questions and Answers: The Sculpture of Edgar Degas,” www.degassculptureproject.org/degas-questions-and-answers-april-2019.pdf; Gregory Hedberg, “Degas’ The Little Dancer, Aged Fourteen: The Unknown Version,” bhartex.com/degas_the_little_dancer_unknown_firstversion_Hedberg.pdf; Hedberg, Degas’ Little Dancer Aged Fourteen: The Earlier Version That Helped Spark the Birth of Modern Art (Stuttgart: Arnoldsche Verlagsanstalt, 2016).

141. See Patricia Failing, “The Degas Debate: Analyzing the Controversial Plasters,” ARTnews, June 5, 2013; Failing, “Unraveling the Mysteries of Degas’s Sculpture”; William D. Cohan, “A Controversy over Degas.”

142. “Sculptures,” Frederic Remington Art Museum, https://fredericremington.org/sculptures-c32.php.

143. Hakim Bishara, “A Paris Court Sentences Two Art Dealers for Counterfeiting Rodin Sculptures,” Hyperallergic, April 24, 2019.

144. Article 123-1 of the French Intellectual Property Code says authors hold the rights to their works during their lifetime plus seventy years. Article L.121-1 of the code gives authors perpetual rights to their works, which may be conferred to others in their will. Article 8 of Decree 81-255 (established in 1981) requires that “any facsimile, molding, copy or other reproduction of a work of art or collectible” must be designated as such. Article 2.5 of the 1993 decree stipulates that first editions of Rodin bronzes must come from molds and plasters held by the Musée Rodin and that the editions are limited to twelve in number.

145. “Rodin Thinkers to the ROM: We Think Not, Thank You,” Globe and Mail, October 20, 2001.

146. Darren Hudson Hick, Artistic License: The Philosophical Problems of Copyright and Appropriation (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2017), 41.

147. James Adams, “Is She the ‘Real’ Thing?” Globe and Mail, October 4, 2003.

148. Adams, “Is She the ‘Real’ Thing?”

149. Anna Rohleder, “Rembrandt’s Dirty Secrets,” Forbes, February 14, 2001.

150. Erik Hinterding, Rembrandt as an Etcher: The Practice of Production and Distribution (Ouderkerk aan den IJssel: Sound and Vision, 2006), 1:124–29.

151. For a brief history of the plates, see “The History of Rembrandt’s Copper Etching Plates,” Masterworks Fine Art Gallery, news.masterworksfineart.com/2019/06/12/the-history-of-rembrandts-copper-etching-plates; see also “The Original Copper Etching Plates of Rembrandt’s,” Candlewood Yankee Fine Arts, candlewoodyankeefineart.wordpress.com/2013/06/10/the-original-copper-etching-plates-of-rembrandts. For a more detailed study, see Erik Hinterding, “The History of Rembrandt’s Copperplates, with a Catalogue of Those That Survive,” Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art 22, no. 4 (1993–94).

152. Elizabetta Lazzaro, “Assessing Quality in Cultural Goods: The Hedonic Value of Originality in Rembrandt’s Prints,” Journal of Cultural Economics 30, no. 1 (May 2006).

153. Hinterding, “The History of Rembrandt’s Copperplates,” 278.

154. Hinterding, “The History of Rembrandt's Copperplates,” 280.

155. “Rembrandt,” Jan Stevens Galleries, https://jsgalleries.com/product-category/artists/rembrandt. This gallery sells the full set of eight Millennium Rembrandt prints, with prices for each on the gallery website.

156. See for instance, Millennium prints listed by Archived Auctions, archivedauctions.com/s/1144427/022100-rembrandt-millennium-posthumous-etching.

157. John Walsh, “The Scandalous Outing of Eddie Burrup,” Independent, July 26, 2000.

158. Ben Goldsmith, “A Positive Unsettlement: The Story of Sakshi Anmatyerre,” Griffith Law Review 9, no. 2 (2001).

159. Hazel Cills, “Art World Denounces Artist Jimmie Durham for Claiming to Be Cherokee,” Jezebel, June 29, 2017; America Meredith, “Why It Matters That Jimmie Durham Is Not a Cherokee,” Artnet News, July 7, 2017.

160. Shanifa Nasser, “Toronto Gallery Cancels Show after Concerns Artist ‘Bastardizes’ Indigenous Art,” Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, April 28, 2017; Alexander Nazaryan, “White Painter Loses Art Show over Cultural Appropriation Debate,” Newsweek, May 5, 2017.

161. “White Woman Accused of Appropriating Maori Culture With Her Chin Tattoo. ‘It’s Not Acceptable,’” Yahoo Lifestyle, May 25, 2018.

162. Lorena Muñoz-Alonso, “Dana Schutz’s Painting of Emmett Till at Whitney Biennial Sparks Protest,” Tribes, March 21, 2017, tribes.org/web/2017/3/28/dana-schutzs-painting-of-emmett-till-at-whitney-biennial-sparks-protest.

163. Sheila Regan, “After Protests from Native American Community, Walker Art Center Will Remove Public Sculpture,” Hyperallergic, May 29, 2017.

164. “‘Authentic’ Aboriginal Art—ACCC v Australian Dreamtime Creations,” Arts Law Centre of Australia, https://www.artslaw.com.au/article/authentic-aboriginal-art-accc-v-australian-dreamtime-creations; Christine Adler, Duncan Chappell, and Kenneth Polk, “Frauds and Fakes in the Aboriginal Art Market,” Crime, Law, and Social Change 56 (September 2011): 189–207.

165. 18 USC 1159.

166. 18 USC 1159.

167. “Three New Mexicans Charged with Fraudulently Selling Filipino-Made Jewelry as Native American-Made,” US Department of Justice, October 29, 2015; Maraya Cornell, “Biggest Fake Native American Art Conspiracy Revealed,” National Geographic, March 15, 2018; “United States Response to Defendant Nael Ali’s Formal Objections to Presentence Report (Doc. 115) and Sentencing Memorandum,” Case No. 1:15-cr-3762-JCH, US District Court, New Mexico.

168. Frances Madeson, “Do the Laws on Counterfeit Native Art Go Far Enough?” High Country News, July 21, 2017.

169. US Attorney’s Office, District of New Mexico, “Owner of Old Town Albuquerque Jewelry Stores Sentenced to Six Months for Fraudulently Selling Filipino-Made Jewelry as Native American-Made,” August 28, 2018.

170. US Attorney's Office, District of New Mexico, “Federal Grand Jury Indicts Five in Connection with International Scheme to Fraudulently Import and Sell Filipino-Made Jewelry as Native American-Made,” February 2017.

171. Madeson, “Do the Laws on Counterfeit Native Art Go far Enough?”

172. Barbara Huron, “Canada Needs a Law Protecting Indigenous Art from Appropriation,” Ricochet, May 10, 2017; “Selling Fake Indigenous Art Should Be Illegal, MPs Told,” Guardian, April 9, 2018; Tom Lodewyke, “Lawyers Call for Legislative Protection for Indigenous Artists,” Lawyers Weekly, June 23, 2017.

173. Nasser, “Toronto Gallery Cancels Show after Concerns.”

174. Regan, “Walker Art Center Will Remove Public Sculpture.”

175. Jimmie Durham: At the Center of the World, Hammer Museum, January 29–May 7, 2017, https://hammer.ucla.edu/exhibitions/2017/jimmie-durham-at-the-center-of-the-world; the exhibition was shown at the Whitney Museum of American Art, November 3, 2017–January 28, 2018, https://whitney.org/exhibitions/jimmie-durham.

176. Sheila Regan, “Jimmie Durham Retrospective Reignites Debate over His Claim of Native Ancestry,” Hyperallergic, June 28, 2017.

177. Caitlin Gibson, “A White Artist Responds to the Outcry over Her Controversial Emmett Till Painting,” Washington Post, March 23, 2017.

178. Bruce Ziff and Pratima V. Rao, Borrowed Culture: Essays on Cultural Appropriation (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 3.

179. For discussion of property and cultural appropriation, see Rosemary J. Coombe, “The Properties of Culture and the Politics of Possessing Identity: Native Claims in the Cultural Appropriation Controversy,” Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence 6, no. 2 (July 1993). See also Naomi Mezey, “The Paradoxes of Cultural Property,” Columbia Law Review 107, no. 8 (December 2007).

180. Mezey, “The Paradoxes of Cultural Property.”

181. “Indian Ancestry and How to Enroll or Register in a Federally Recognized Tribe,” http://www.native-american-online.org/blood-quantum.htm.

182. “Kinship and Identity,” in Essentially Yours: The Protection of Human Genetic Information in Australia (ALRC Report 96), https://www.alrc.gov.au/publication/essentially-yours-the-protection-of-human-genetic-information-in-australia-alrc-report-96/36-kinship-and-identity.

183. For a book-length discussion of the evolution of Aboriginal art beginning in the 1970s, see Fred R. Myers, Painting Culture: The Making of an Aboriginal High Art (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002).

184. The quote appears on the website of the Museum of Contemporary Art Australia (Sidney), announcing Mawurndjul’s exhibition of July 6–September 23, 2018.

185. Elizabeth Durack: Art and Life Selected Writings, ed. Perpetua Durack Clancy (Redland Bay, Queensland: Connor Court Publishing, 2016), 246–47.

186. James O. Young, “Authenticity and Appropriation,” Frontiers of Philosophy in China 1, no. 3 (September 2006): 475.

187. James O. Young, Cultural Appropriation in the Arts (Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2010), 39–40.

188. bell hooks, Yearning: Race, Class, Gender and Cultural Politics (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 1999), 19.

189. Kwame Anthony Appiah, “The Case for Contamination,” New York Times, January 1, 2006.

190. These ideas are interwoven in Kwame Anthony Appiah, The Ethics of Identity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).

191. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage Books, 1993), 32.

192. Katrina Chapman, “Positioning Urban Aboriginal Art in the Australian Indigenous Art Market,” Asia Pacific Journal of Art and Cultural Management 4, no. 1 (February 2006). Chapman notes the original source of the quote as Benjamin Genocchio, “Opinion,” Australian, March 14, 2001.

193. Cassandra Lehman-Schultz, “How Super Laws are Killing the Market for Indigenous Art,” Conversation, October 31, 2013.

194. “Selected Statistics,” Creative Spirits, https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/arts; “Chapter 3—The Benefits of Indigenous Art,” Parliament of Australia, Parliamentary Business, www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/senate/environment_and_communications/completed_inquiries/2004-07/indigenousarts/report/c03.

195. “Australian Aboriginal Art,” Telegraph, February 3, 2009; Simon Thomsen, “An Aboriginal Painting Just Set a New Australian Record for a Female Artist,” Business Insider Australia, November 17, 2017.

196. For a summary of Urban Aboriginal Art, see Chapman, “Positioning Urban Aboriginal Art.”

197. Milani Gallery, milanigallery.com.au/artwork/scientia-e-metaphysica-bells-theorem.

198. Richard Bell, “Bell’s Theorem, Aboriginal Art: It’s a White Thing,” www.kooriweb.org/foley/great/art/bell.html.

199. Bell, “Bell’s Theorem, Aboriginal Art.”

200. For information on proppaNOW, see proppaNOW.wordpress.com; Margo Neale, Learning to Be Proppa: Aboriginal Artists Collective proppaNOW,” Artlink Magazine, March 2020.

PART III

1. Grace Duffield and Peter Grabosky, “The Psychology of Fraud,” Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice (March 2001).

2. Dolnick, The Forger’s Spell, 285. See also Kilbracken, Van Meegeren: Master Forger, 183.

3. Dolnick, The Forger’s Spell, 287.

4. Wynne, I Was Vermeer, 55–56.

5. Wynne, I Was Vermeer, 66.

6. Wynne, I Was Vermeer, 59.

7. Keating, The Fake’s Progress, 83, 86.

8. Keating, The Fake’s Progress, 79.

9. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 344.

10. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 177.

11. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 348.

12. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 348.

13. Dean, “An Artist of Talent.”

14. Ashleigh Elson, “Master Forger Turns Art Dealer,” Radio Netherlands, November 15, 2007.

15. Alec Wilkinson, “The Giveaway,” New Yorker, August 26, 2013.

16. Cohen, “Forgeries? Perhaps Faux Masterpieces.”

17. Cohen, “Forgeries? Perhaps Faux Masterpieces.”

18. Kilbracken, Van Meegeren, chapter 7. See also Wynne, I Was Vermeer, 178.

19. Dean, “An Artist of Talent.”

20. Ribes, Autoportrait d’un Faussaire.

21. Hammer, “The Greatest Fake Art Scam.”

22. Corey Kilgannon, “A Sea Toy James Bond Would Envy,” New York Times, November 18, 2007.

23. Irving, Fake, 137, 167, 175.

24. Keating, The Fake’s Progress, 88–89.

25. Hills, “A Brush with Fame.”

26. Sarah Maslin Nir, Patricia Cohen, and William K. Rashbaum, “Struggling Immigrant Artist Tied to $80 Million New York Fraud,” New York Times, August 16, 2013.

27. Salisbury and Sujo, Provenance, 302.

28. Charney, The Art of Forgery, 112.

29. Greenhalgh, A Forger’s Tale, 9.

30. Duffield and Grabosky, “The Psychology of Fraud.”

31. Duncan Chappell and Saskia Hufnagel, “Case Study 3: A Perspective from the Fakery Frontline—An Interview with an Art Forger,” in The Palgrave Handbook on Art Crime, ed. Saskia Hufnagel and Duncan Chappell (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 369.

32. Chong, “Tony Tetro.”

33. Colette Bancroft, “Art Forger Lived High Life by Mastering Fakes to Foist on Collectors,” Tampa Bay Times, September 14, 2012.

34. Sontheimer, “Giacometti Forger Tells All.”

35. Hebborn, The Art Forger’s Handbook, 177, 184, 188; Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 355, 357–58.

36. Charles V. Ford, Lies, Lies, Lies: The Psychology of Deceit (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1996), 31–33, 135–36.

37. Salisbury and Sujo, Provenance, 260.

38. Salisbury and Sujo, Provenance, 282–84.

39. Christine Cunningham, “Businessman John Drewe Jailed for Eight Years Following Fraud Trial at Norwich Crown Court,” Eastern Daily Press, March 12, 2012; Andrew Levy, “The Most Devious Person I’ve Dealt With”: Judge Hits Out at Conman Who Tricked Widow Out of £700,000” Daily Mail, March 13, 2012.

40. Mark Forgy’s The Forger’s Apprentice provides De Hory’s life story as the forger told it, as well as the truth (as much as has been uncovered).

41. For a brief description of antisocial personality disorder, see Ford, Lies, Lies, Lies, 105–10. See also Neel Burton, “The 10 Personality Disorders,” Psychology Today, May 29, 2010.

42. A Genuine Forger.

43. “How to Fool the Experts and Laugh Your Way to the Bank,” www.youtube.com/watch?v-OY0RbS0T36c.

44. “A Forger of Art Tells All,” CBS News, March 3, 2013.

45. Hammer, “The Greatest Fake-Art Scam.”

46. Lothar Gorris and Sven Robel, “Confessions of a Genius Art Forger,” Spiegel Online, September 3, 2012.

47. Birkenstock, Beltracchi: The Art of Forgery.

48. Gorris and Robel, “Confessions of a Genius Art Forger.”

49. Gorris and Robel, “Confessions of a Genius Art Forger.”

50. Arnau, The Art of the Faker, 264.

51. Arnau, The Art of the Faker, 266.

52. Fiechter, Egyptian Fakes, 197.

53. Keating, The Fake's Progress, 84–85.

54. Keating, The Fake's Progress, 160, 165–66, 183.

55. Milton Esterow, “Fakers, Fakes, and Fake Fakers,” ARTnews, November 20, 2013.

56. Stein, Three Picassos Before Breakfast, 77–78.

57. Irving, Fake, 233.

58. Beckett, Fakes, 16.

59. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 259.

60. For a discussion of Hebborn’s theory of the fundamental grammar of art, as well as of Keating’s supernaturalism, see Lenain, The Art of Forgery, 300–310.

61. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 296.

62. United States of America v. Donald Austin, U.S. Court of Appeals 7th Circuit, no. 94-2541, May 5, 1995.

63. US Attorney’s Office, District of Connecticut, “Madison Gallery Owner Sentenced to 57 Months in Prison for Selling Fraudulent Artwork,” January 16, 2015.

64. Justin Jones, “A Pastor’s Holy Mistake: Selling an Art Forgery,” Daily Beast, May 20, 2014.

65. Patrick Barkham, “Dealer Convicted of Fraud as the Aboriginal Art World Fights Back,” The Guardian, February 23, 2001.

66. Balog v. Center Art Gallery—Hawaii, Inc., 745 F. Supp. 1556 (D. Hawaii. 1990).

67. UCC 2-725.

68. See, for instance, Alan Feld, “Art Fakes and the Statute of Limitations,” in Fakebusters II: Scientific Detection of Fakery in Art and Philately, ed. Richard J. Weiss and Duane Chartier (New York: World Scientific Publishing, 2004).

69. Amore, The Art of the Con, 158.

70. Michael Sontheimer, “Art Forger All Smiles After Guilty Plea Seals Deal,” Spiegel Online, March 9, 2012.

71. Philip Oltermann, “Russian Avant-Garde Forgery Case Ends in Convictions and Disappointments,” The Guardian, March 16, 2018.

72. Wynne, I Was Vermeer, 8.

73. Wynne, I Was Vermeer, 7.

74. Wynne, I Was Vermeer.

75. United States v. Zabrin, No. 07 CR 521-5, Plea Agreement (N.D. Ill., filed January 5, 2010).

76. United States of America, Plaintiff-Appellee v. Donald Austin, Defendant-Appellant, No. 94-2541, May 5, 1995.

77. US Attorney’s Office, District of Connecticut, “Madison Gallery Owner Sentenced to 57 Months.”

78. “Vilas V. Likhite: Fraud and Fake Art Sales,” Crime Alert, City of Los Angeles, lapd-assets.lapdonline.org/assets/pdf/Artca_vilaslikhite.pdf; “Ex-doctor Is Found Guilty in Art Scam,” Boston Globe, April 29, 2006.

79. “The Scam Doctor,” Art Law Blog, theartlawblog.blogspot.com/2006/07/scam-doctor.html.

80. Luis Ferré-Sadurní, “Art Forger Is Accused of Selling Fake Prints. Again,” New York Times, June 10, 2017; Manhattan District Attorney’s Office, “DA Vance: Repeat Scammer Sentenced to 5½-to-11 Years in Prison for Counterfeit Art Scheme,” October 11, 2017.

81. Perenyi, Caveat Emptor, 76, 122, 126, 137.

82. United States v. Zabrin; for further discussion, see Hillel Levin, “Confessions of Art Fraud King Michael Zabrin,” Chicago Magazine, November 2011.

83. Robert Mendick, “Banned eBay Forger Back to His Old Tricks,” Telegraph, June 13, 2015.

84. Robert Mendick, “The Telegraph Exposes Amateur Artist Who Faked Lenkiewicz Paintings on eBay,” Telegraph, July 6, 2014.

85. Mendick, “Banned eBay forger”

86. Robert Mendick, “Art Forger Goes Straight Selling £5,000 fakes,” Telegraph, May 7, 2016.

87. For instance, see CLK Gallery, http://clkart.co.uk/product-category/artists/david-henty; https://www.forestgallery.com/david-henty.

88. “The Gentle Art of Forgery,” 60 Minutes, August 8, 1976, youtube.com/watch?v=e1nOweWPjFU.

89. Stein, Three Picassos, chapter 23.

90. Beckett, Fakes, 18.

91. Jesse Hamlin, “Master (Con) Artist Painting Forger Elmyr de Hory’s Copies Are Like the Real Thing,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 29, 1999.

92. For Beltracchi, see Birkenstock, Beltracchi: The Art of Forgery; for Ribes, A Genuine Forger, documentary; for De Hory, F Is for Fake; for Tetro, Tony Tetro the World’s “Greatest” Living Art Forger; for Landis, Art and Craft; for Greenhalgh, The Artful Codgers, bbc.co.uk/programmes/b05yxb3t; for Hebborn, Eric Hebborn: Portrait of a Master Forger, youtube.com/watch?v=8jKbbajb5pE; for Jansen, The Forgery (in Dutch), docsonline.tv/documentary/the-forger.

93. Jonathan Lopez, The Man Who Made Vermeers: Unvarnishing the Legend of Master Forger Han van Meegeren (New York: Harcourt, 2008); Dolnick, The Forger’s Spell.

94. Jeppson, The Fabulous Frauds, 229.

95. For information about both cases, see “The Destruction of Fakes,” Art@Law, December 9, 2013, https://www.artatlaw.com/the-destruction-of-fakes.

96. Tom Rowley, “Fake or Fortune—Or Going Up in Flames?” Telegraph, February 3, 2014.

97. United States v. Amiel Jr.

98. Karen Abidi, “Artists Gain Legal Clout with Ruling on Destruction of Fakes,” Age, June 3, 2010; Marion Maneker, “Aussie Artists Get Fakes Destroyed,” Art Market Monitor, June 4, 2010.

99. Dolnick, The Forger’s Spell, 20.

100. Rowley, “Fake or Fortune.”

101. Randy Kennedy, “Three ‘Fake’ J. M. W. Turner Paintings Authenticated,” New York Times, September 24, 2012.

102. Wynne, I Was Vermeer, 229–30.

103. “Art Forger Eric Hebborn Collection Sells for Thousands,” BBC News, October 23, 2014.

104. Steve Crawshaw, “Forger Is a Genuine Success,” Independent, January 23, 1993.

105. Daniel Grant, “What Happens to Confiscated Art Fakes?” Huffington Post, September 29, 2010.

106. Grant, “What Happens to Confiscated Art Fakes?”

107. Anonymous statement, http://isteve.blogspot.com/2013/08/art-forger-exploited.html.

108. “Art Forgery: An Art of Its Own,” Stolen from a Different Cloth, https://stolenfromadifferentcloth.wordpress.com/2016/10/07/art-forgery-an-art-of-its-own.

109. Michael Hodges, “The Art Crime of the Century: How a Brilliant British Forensic Investigator Trapped an Audacious Forger who Conned Hollywood Star Steve Martin out of a Fortune,” Daily Mail, May 2, 2015; see also Jessica Franses, “Master Forgers or Modern Day Robin Hoods, Princes of Thieves?” Jessica Franses Art Law, jessicafranses.com/master-forgers-modern-day-robinhood-princes-thieves.

110. Noah Charney, “The Art of the Fake: Forgers Are the Art World’s Antiheroes,” Salon, November 26, 2017.

111. Both stories are presented in Radnóti, Fake, chapter 1.

112. Paul Jordan-Smith, The Road I Came: Some Recollections and Reflections Concerning Changes in American Life and Manners Since 1890 (Caldwell, ID: Claxton Printers, Ltd.), 221.

113. Jordan-Smith, The Road I Came, 223.

114. Jordan-Smith, The Road I Came, 224.

115. Rachel Gould, “The Hoax Art Movement That Fooled the Art World Establishment,” Artsy, September 25, 2018.

116. Jordan-Smith, The Road I Came, 228.

117. Alma Whitaker, “International Art Hoax Bared by Los Angeles Author,” Los Angeles Times, August 14, 1927.

118. Jordan-Smith, The Road I Came, 225.

119. Henry Keazor, “Six Degrees of Separation: The Foax as More,” in Faking, Forging, Counterfeiting: Discredited Practices at the Margins of Mimesis, ed. Daniel Becker, Annalisa Fischer, Simone Niehoff, Florencia Sannders, and Yola Schmitz (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 29–37.

120. www.sonypictures.com/movies/thelastvermeer.

121. B. A. Shapiro, The Art Forger (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 2012).

122. Dominic Smith, The Last Painting of Sara de Vos (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016).

123. Helstosky, “Giovanni Bastianini, Art Forgery, and the Market in Nineteenth-Century Italy,” 814.

124. Helstosky, “Giovanni Bastianini,” 813.

125. Helstosky, “Giovanni Bastianini,” 822.

126. I. M. Palmarini, “Fabbrica di oggetti antichi: aneddoti, curiosità, spigolature,” Il Marzocco, December 1, 1907, 2, vieusseux.it/coppermine/displayimage.php?album=275&pid=14064#top_display_media.

127. Fiechter, Egyptian Fakes, 31, 36.

128. Hoving, False Impressions, 73.

129. The term has appeared in the German media portrayals, with the American press questioning its appropriateness. See Hammer, “The Greatest Fake Art Scam in History,” and Amy Brady, “Long Cons: ‘Beltracchi’ Exposes a Forger, but Also the Art World’s Value,” Village Voice, August 18, 2015. See also Franses, “Master Forgers or Modern Day Robin Hoods, Princes of Thieves?”; Maria Magdalena Ziegler, “From Art Forgers to Fake Art History,” http://arsmomentum.wordpress.com/2017/12/26/art-forgers-fake-art.

130. See Brady, “Long Cons”; Bettina Kolb, “How Beltracchi, the World’s Most Famous Art Forger, Plays with the Market,” DW, August 8, 2015, dw.com/en/how-beltracchi-the-worlds-most-famous-art-forger-plays-with-the-market/a-18436266.

131. Jacob Holley-Kline, “Art and Commerce Are the Rich Man’s Game in ‘Beltracchi: The Art of Forgery’” Northern Light, November 20, 2017.

132. John Soltes, “Interview: Director Explores Infamous Art Forger Wolfgang Beltracchi,” Hollywood Soapbox, August 20, 2015, www.hollywoodsoapbox.com/interview-director-explores-infamous-art-forger-wolfgang-beltracchi.

133. Charney, “The Art of the Fake.”

134. Wilkie Collins, A Rogue’s Life, https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/1588/pg1588-images.html, chapter 4. The novella first appeared in serialized form in the magazine Household Words in 1856

135. For a comprehensive view of Frey’s perspective on the economics of happiness, see, for instance (among his many books), Happiness: A Revolution in Economics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), and Bruno S. Frey and Alois Stutzer, Happiness and Economics: How the Economy and Institutions Affect Human Well-Being (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001). For a brief layman’s overview of happiness economics, see Ben S. Bernanke, “The Economics of Happiness,” graduation address, University of South Carolina, May 8, 2010, www.bis.org/review/r100511a.pdf.

136. Bruno S. Frey, “Some Considerations on Fakes in Art: An Economic View,” in The Economics of Copying and Counterfeiting, ed. Gianfranco Mossetto and Marilena Vecco (Milan: Franco Angeli, 2004).

137. Frey, “Some Considerations on Fakes in Art,” 24.

138. Frey, “Some Considerations on Fakes in Art,” 25.

139. Goodman, Languages of Art, 99. The quoted statement appeared in Aline B. Saarinen, “Masterpieces of Forgery,” New York Times Book Review, July 30, 1961.

140. For this quote and a more detailed account of Mancini’s view, see Lenain, Art Forgery, 204–8.

141. Lenain, Art Forgery, 209.

142. Piles, L’Idée du peintre parfait, archive.org/details/lidedupeintrepar00flib/page/n3/mode/2up.

143. Bosse, Sentimens sur la distinction, 56.

144. Bosse, Sentimens sur la distinction, 64.

145. Bosse, Sentimens sur la distinction, 60–62.

146. Richardson, “An Essay on the Whole Art of Criticism,” in Two Discourses, 185–86.

147. Richardson, “An Essay on the Whole Art of Criticism,” 186.

148. Richardson, “An Essay on the Whole Art of Criticism,” 177.

149. Richardson, A Discourse on the Dignity, 138.

150. Hans Tietze, Genuine and False: Copies, Imitations, Forgeries (New York: Chanticleer Press, 1948), 72.

151. Max Friedländer, On Art and Connoisseurship (Boston: Beacon Hill Press, 1960), 260–61.

152. Friedländer, On Art and Connoisseurship, 261. Friedländer first used this expression in an article published in 1909.

153. Goodman, Languages of Art, 103.

154. Goodman, Languages of Art, 106.

155. Goodman, Languages of Art, 110.

156. Friedländer, On Art and Connoisseurship, 235.

157. Friedländer, On Art and Connoisseurship, 240.

158. Friedländer, On Art and Connoisseurship, 259.

159. Kurz, Fakes, 317.

160. George Savage, Forgeries, Fakes, and Reproductions: A Handbook for the Art Dealer and Collector (New York: Praeger, 1963), 5.

161. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 362.

162. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble.

163. Hebborn, Drawn to Trouble, 361.

164. Hoving, False Impressions, 102–8.

165. Arthur Koestler, “The Aesthetics of Snobbery,” Horizon 8 (1965): 50.

166. Alfred Lessing, “What Is Wrong with a Forgery?” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 23, no. 4 (1965): 70.

167. Clive Bell, Art (London: Chatto & Windus, 1914), 59.

168. Jack W. Meiland, “Originals, Copies, and Aesthetic Value,” in The Forger’s Art: Forgery and the Philosophy of Art, ed. Denis Dutton (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 126; Thomas Kulka, “Forgeries and Art Evaluation: An Argument for Dualism in Aesthetics,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 39, no. 3 (Autumn 2005), 70.

169. Goodman, Languages of Art, 112.

170. Denis Dutton, “Artistic Crimes,” in Dutton, The Forger’s Art, 186–87.

171. Goodman, Languages of Art, 122.

172. Arthur Danto, The Transfiguration of the Commonplace: A Philosophy of Art (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 44.

173. Dutton, “Artistic Crimes,” 183.

174. Dutton, “Artistic Crimes,” 182.

175. M. W. Rowe, “The Problem of Perfect Fakes,” Philosophy and the Arts: Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement; 71, ed. Anthony O’Hear (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 172.

176. Quoted from Griggs, “Ancient Art and the Antiquarian,” 493.

177. Griggs, “Ancient Art and the Antiquarian,” 492.

178. See Francis Sparshott, “The Disappointed Art Lover,” in Dutton, The Forger’s Art, 249; Charney, The Art of Forgery, 236–41.

179. Also noted by Charney, The Art of Forgery, 240.

180. Mimi Crossley and E. Logan Wagner, “Ask Mexico’s Masterly Brigido Lara: Is It a Fake?” Connoisseur, June 1987, 100.

181. Crossley and Wagner, “Ask Mexico's Masterly Brigido Lara,” 101.

182. Sherri Irvin, “Forgery and the Corruption of Aesthetic Understanding,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 37 (2007): 299.

PART IV

1. For 10 percent, see Noah Charney, “The Secret Lives of Works of Art: What Percentage of a Museum’s Holdings Are Likely to Be Fakes?” Salon, April 2, 2017; for 50 percent, see “Over 50 Percent of Art Is Fake,” Artnet News, October 13, 2014.