Introduction
1. Nietzsche, F. W. (1964). Thoughts out of season, part II (see “Schopenhauer as Educator”). Trans. A. Collins. Russell and Russell.
2. “The deeper minds of all ages have had pity for animals, because they have not the power to turn the sting of the suffering against themselves, and understand their being metaphysically.” From Nietzsche, F. W. (2011). Thoughts out of season, part II. Project Gutenberg.
3. Nicholsen, S. W. (1997). Untimely meditations, trans. R. J. Hollingdale.
4. Hemelsoet, D., Hemelsoet, K., & Devreese, D. (2008). The neurological illness of Friedrich Nietzsche. Acta neurologica belgica, 108(1), 9.
5. Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols, and The Antichrist.
6. Young, J. (2010). Friedrich Nietzsche: A philosophical biography. Cambridge University Press, 531.
7. Diethe, C. (2003). Nietzsche’s sister and the will to power: A biography of Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche (Vol. 22). University of Illinois Press.
8. There is some speculation that the Turin horse events might be apocryphal.
9. Hemelsoet, D., Hemelsoet, K., & Devreese, D. (2008). The neurological illness of Friedrich Nietzsche. Acta neurologica belgica, 108(1), 9.
10. Monett, D. and Lewis, C. W. P. (2018). Getting clarity by defining Artificial Intelligence—A Survey. In Muller, V. C., ed., Philosophy and Theory of Artificial Intelligence 2017, volume SAPERE 44. Springer. 212–214.
11. Wang, P. (2008). What do you mean by “AI”? In Wang, P., Goertzel, B., and Franklin, S., eds., Artificial General Intelligence 2008. Proceedings of the First AGI Conference, Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications, volume 171. IOS Press. 362–373.
12. Monett, D., Lewis, C. W., & Thórisson, K. R. (2020). Introduction to the JAGI Special Issue “On Defining Artificial Intelligence”—Commentaries and Author’s Response. Journal of Artificial General Intelligence, 11(2), 1–100.
13. Spearman, C. (1904). “General Intelligence,” objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15(2): 201–293. doi:10.2307/1412107
14. aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/30591-1
15. Lattman, P. (2007, September 27). The origins of Justice Stewart’s “I know it when I see it.” Wall Street Journal. LawBlog. Retrieved December 31, 2014.
16. Diethe, C. (2003). Nietzsche’s sister and the will to power: A biography of Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche (Vol. 22). University of Illinois Press.
17. Salmi, H. (1994). Die Sucht nach dem germanischen Ideal. Bernhard Förster (1843–1889) als Wegbereiter des Wagnerismus. Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, 6, 485–496.
18. Ellison, K. (1998, September 10). Racial purity dies in the jungle vision: Founders saw their Paraguayan settlement as a place that would spawn a race of Aryan supermen. But they didn’t take into account disease, heat and inbreeding. The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved from baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1998-09-10-1998253112-story.html
19. Leiter, B. (2015, December 21). Nietzsche’s Hatred of “Jew Hatred.” Review of Nietzsche’s Jewish problem: Between anti-Semitism and anti-Judaism by Robert C. Holub. The New Rambler.
20. Nietzsche, F. W. (1901). Der wille zur macht: versuch einer umwerthung aller werthe (studien und fragmente). Vol. 15. CG Naumann.
21. Macintyre, B. (2013). Forgotten fatherland: The search for Elisabeth Nietzsche. A&C Black.
22. Santaniello, W. (2012). Nietzsche, God, and the Jews: His critique of Judeo-Christianity in relation to the Nazi myth. SUNY Press.
23. Golomb, J., & Wistrich, R. S. (Eds.). (2009). Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: On the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton University Press.
24. Southwell, G. (2009). A beginner’s guide to Nietzsche’s Beyond Good and Evil. John Wiley & Sons.
25. Nietzsche, F. W. (2018). The twilight of the idols. Jovian Press.
26. My neighbor and Nietzsche scholar Dan Ahern describes him as a “nice, gentle, well-mannered guy—not a misanthrope as you would expect.”
27. United States Holocaust Memorial and Museum. (2019, February 4). Documenting numbers of victims of the Holocaust and Nazi persecution.
Chapter 1
1. Nietzsche, F. W. (1887). Die fröhliche Wissenschaft: (“La gaya scienza”). E. W. Fritzsch. Translated from this passage: “Der Mensch ist allmählich zu einem phantastischen Tiere geworden, welches eine Existenz-Bedingung mehr als jedes andre Tier zu erfüllen hat: der Mensch muß von Zeit zu Zeit glauben, zu wissen, warum er existiert.”
2. Thanks to David Hill for profiling Mike in the Ringer: Hill, D. (2021, February 16). The beach bum who beat Wall Street and made millions on GameStop. The Ringer. theringer.com/2021/2/16/22284786/gamestop-stock-wall-street-short-squeeze-beach-volleyball-referee
3. Gilbert, B. (2020, January 23). The world’s biggest video game retailer, GameStop, is dying: Here’s what led to the retail giant’s slow demise. Business Insider. businessinsider.com/gamestop-worlds-biggest-video-game-retailer-decline-explained-2019-7
4. markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/gamestop-stock-price-retail-traders-shorts-citron-andrew-left-gme-2021-1-1029994276
5. King, M. (2013, January 13). Investments: Orlando is the cat’s whiskers of stock picking. The Guardian. theguardian.com/money/2013/jan/13/investments-stock-picking
6. Video game Michael Pachter analyst weighs in on GameStop’s earnings call. (2021, March 26) CNBC. youtube.com/watch?v=fOJV_qaJ2ew
7. McBrearty, S., & Jablonski, N. G. (2005). First fossil chimpanzee. Nature, 437(7055), 105–108.
8. Karmin, M., et al. (2015). A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture. Genome Research, 25(4), 459–466.
9. The exact shape (although not size) of the human brain would settle into place between 100,000 and 35,000 years ago, but these Baringo relatives of ours were arguably quite similar to modern humans cognitively. See Neubauer, S., Hublin, J. J., & Gunz, P. (2018). The evolution of modern human brain shape. Science Advances, 4(1), eaao5961.
10. Zihlman, A. L., & Bolter, D. R. (2015). Body composition in Pan paniscus compared with Homo sapiens has implications for changes during human evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(24), 7466–7471.
11. bbc.com/earth/story/20160204-why-do-humans-have-chins
12. Brown, K. S., et al. (2009). Fire as an engineering tool of early modern humans. Science, 325(5942), 859–862.
13. Aubert, M., et al. (2019). Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art. Nature, 576(7787), 442–445.
14. Culotta, Elizabeth. (2009). On the origin of religion. Science, 326(5954). 784–787. 10.1126/science.326_784
15. Snir, A., et al. (2015).The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming. PLOS ONE, 10(7): e0131422 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131422
16. Burrowing bettong. (n.d.). Australian Wildlife Conservancy. australianwildlife.org/wildlife/burrowing-bettong/
17. Tay, N. E., Fleming, P. A., Warburton, N. M., & Moseby, K. E. (2021). Predator exposure enhances the escape behaviour of a small marsupial, the burrowing bettong. Animal Behaviour, 175, 45–56.
18. Visalberghi, E., & Tomasello, M. (1998). Primate causal understanding in the physical and psychological domains. Behavioural Processes, 42(2-3), 189–203.
19. Suddendorf, T. (2013). The gap: The science of what separates us from other animals. Constellation.
20. Millikan, R. (2006). Styles of rationality. In S. Hurley & M. Nudds (Eds.). Rational animals?, 117–126.
21. Jacobs, I. F., & Osvath, M. (2015). The string-pulling paradigm in comparative psychology. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 129(2), 89.
22. Heinrich, B. (1995). An experimental investigation of insight in common ravens (Corvus corax). The Auk, 112(4), 994–1003.
23. Taylor, A. H., et al. (2010). An investigation into the cognition behind spontaneous string pulling in New Caledonian crows. PloS one, 5(2), e9345.
24. Völter, C. J., & Call, J. (2017). Causal and inferential reasoning in animals. In G. M Burghardt, I. M. Pepperberg, C. T. Snowdon, & T. Zentall (Eds). APA handbook of comparative psychology Vol. 2: Perception, learning, and cognition. American Psychological Association, 643–671.
25. Owuor, B. O., & Kisangau, D. P. (2006). Kenyan medicinal plants used as antivenin: a comparison of plant usage. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2(1), 7.
26. Luft, D. (2020). Medieval Welsh medical texts. Volume one: the recipes. University of Wales Press, 96 (Welsh text on 97).
27. Harrison, F., et al.. (2015). A 1,000-year-old antimicrobial remedy with antistaphylococcal activity. MBio, 6(4).
28. Mann, W. N. (1983). G. E. R. Lloyd (ed.). Hippocratic writings. Translated by J. Chadwick. Penguin, 262.
29. The mechanics of how this works is not exactly clear. Snake venom was considered by Avicenna and the other humorism experts to be hot. Chicken butts were also considered by Avicenna to be hot, potentially because those butts produced feces—and all dung and feces were considered hot. So maybe the dung-smothered chicken butt attracted the venom because they were both hot? My wife is an expert on these things and advised me not to speculate lest I run afoul of the medievalists. There’s plenty to read about this subject in the following articles: Walker-Meikle, K. (2014). Toxicology and treatment: medical authorities and snake-bite in the middle ages. Korot, 22: 85–104. Vries, R. de (2019). A short tract on medicinal uses for animal dung. North American Journal of Celtic Studies, 3(2), 111–136.
30. Collier, R. (2009). Legumes, lemons and streptomycin: A short history of the clinical trial. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 180(1): 23–24.
31. Schloegl, C., & Fischer, J. (2017). Causal reasoning in nonhuman animals. The Oxford Handbook of Causal Reasoning, 699–715.
32. Huffman, M. A. (1997). Current evidence for self-medication in primates: A multidisciplinary perspective. American Journal of Physical Anthropology: The Official Publication of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, 104(S25), 171–200.
33. pnas.org/content/111/49/17339
34. Levenson, R. M., Krupinski, E. A., Navarro, V. M., & Wasserman, E. A. (2015). Pigeons (Columba livia) as trainable observers of pathology and radiology breast cancer images. PloS one, 10(11), e0141357.
35. Morton, S. G., & Combe, G. (1839). Crania Americana; or, a comparative view of the skulls of various aboriginal nations of North and South America: to which is prefixed an essay on the varieties of the human species. Philadelphia: J. Dobson; London: Simpkin, Marshall.
36. Cotton-Barratt, O., et al. (2016). Global catastrophic risks. A report of the Global Challenges Foundation/Global Priorities Project.
Chapter 2
1. Nietzsche, F. W. (2015). Über Wahrheit und Lüge im außermoralischen Sinn: (“Was bedeutet das alles?”). Reclam Verlag. Translated from this passage: “Was ist also Wahrheit? Ein bewegliches Heer von Metaphern, Metonymien, Anthropomorphismen, kurz eine Summe von menschlichen Relationen, die, poetisch und rhetorisch gesteigert, übertragen, geschmückt wurden und die nach langem Gebrauch einem Volke fest, kanonisch und verbindlich dünken: die Wahrheiten sind Illusionen, von denen man vergessen hat, daß sie welche sind.”
2. Bogus Lancashire vet jailed after botched castration. (2010, January 11). BBC News. news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/merseyside/8453020.stm
3. Tozer, J, & Hull, L. (2010, January 12). Bogus doctor and vet who conned patients out of more than £50,000 jailed for 2 years. The Daily Mail. dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1242375/Bogus-doctor-conned-patients-50-000-pay-child-maintenance-jailed.html
4. The man who exposed bogus GP Russell Oakes speaks. (2010, January 12). Liverpool Echo. liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/man-who-exposed-bogus-gp-3433329
5. Equine osteopath used forged degree to register as a vet. (2008, March 20). Horse & Hound. horseandhound.co.uk/news/equine-osteopath-used-forged-degree-to-register-as-a-vet-199362
6. The man who exposed bogus GP Russell Oakes speaks. (2010, January 12). Liverpool Echo. liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/man-who-exposed-bogus-gp-3433329
7. Bogus Lancashire vet jailed after botched castration. (2010, January 11). BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/merseyside/8453020.stm
8. How bogus GP Russell Oakes made others in Merseyside believe his lies. (2010, January 12). Liverpool Echo. liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/how-bogus-gp-russell-oakes-3433327
9. Fraudulent vet: The bigger picture (2010, June) RCVS News. The Newsletter of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons.
10. Souchet, J., & Aubret, F. (2016). Revisiting the fear of snakes in children: the role of aposematic signalling. Scientific reports, 6(1), 1–7.
11. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Aichmophobia. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aichmophobia
12. Nietzsche, F. W. (1994). Nietzsche: “On the genealogy of morality” and other writings. Cambridge University Press.
13. Gallup, G. G. (1973). Tonic immobility in chickens: Is a stimulus that signals shock more aversive than the receipt of shock? Animal Learning & Behavior, 1(3), 228–232.
14. See Byrne, R. W., & Whiten, A. (1985). Tactical deception of familiar individuals in baboons (Papio ursinus). Animal Behaviour, 33(2), 669–673. And also: Whiten, A., & Byrne, R. W. (1988). Tactical deception in primates. Behavioral and brain sciences, 11(2), 233–244.
15. Brown, C., Garwood, M. P., & Williamson, J. E. (2012). It pays to cheat: tactical deception in a cephalopod social signalling system. Biology letters, 8(5), 729–732.
16. Heberlein, M. T., Manser, M. B., & Turner, D. C. (2017). Deceptive-like behaviour in dogs (Canis familiaris). Animal Cognition, 20(3), 511–520.
17. Theory of mind is a term coined in 1978 by David Premack and Guy Woodruff: Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(4), 515–526.
18. Krupenye, C., & Call, J. (2019). Theory of mind in animals: Current and future directions. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 10(6), e1503.
19. Krupenye, C., et al. (2016). Great apes anticipate that other individuals will act according to false beliefs. Science, 354(6308), 110–114.
20. Oesch, N. (2016). Deception as a derived function of language. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1485.
21. The story of Leo Koretz that I am relaying here can be found in the wonderfully researched book Empire of Deception by Dean Jobb (Harper Avenue, 2015).
22. Levine, T. R. (2019). Duped: Truth-default theory and the social science of lying and deception. University of Alabama Press.
23. Serota, K. B., Levine, T. R., & Boster, F. J. (2010). The prevalence of lying in America: Three studies of self-reported lies. Human Communication Research, 36(1), 2–25.
24. Curtis, D. A., & Hart, C. L. (2020). Pathological lying: Theoretical and empirical support for a diagnostic entity. Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice, appi-prcp.
25. Paige, L. E., Fields, E. C., & Gutchess, A. (2019). Influence of age on the effects of lying on memory. Brain and Cognition, 133, 42–53.
26. This is an actual method for interrogating a witness. See: Walczyk, J. J., Igou, F. D., Dixon, L. P., & Tcholakian, T. (2013). Advancing lie detection by inducing cognitive load on liars: a review of relevant theories and techniques guided by lessons from polygraph-based approaches. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 14.
27. Chandler, M., Fritz, A. S., & Hala, S. (1989). Small-scale deceit: Deception as a marker of two-, three-, and four-year-olds’ early theories of mind. Child Development, 60(6), 1263–1277.
28. Talwar, V., & Lee, K. (2008). Social and cognitive correlates of children’s lying behavior. Child Development, 79(4), 866–881.
29. Jensen, L. A., Arnett, J. J., Feldman, S. S., & Cauffman, E. (2004). The right to do wrong: Lying to parents among adolescents and emerging adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(2), 101–112.
30. Knox, D., Schacht, C., Holt, J., & Turner, J. (1993). Sexual lies among university students. College Student Journal, 27(2), 269–272.
31. See definitions in: Petrocelli, J. V. (2018). Antecedents of bullshitting. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 76, 249–258. And Turpin, M. H., et al. (2021). Bullshit Ability as an Honest Signal of Intelligence. Evolutionary Psychology, 19(2), 14747049211000317.
32. Truthiness was famously introduced to the world by Stephen Colbert in 2005 on The Colbert Report, and was subsequently announced as Merriam-Webster Dictionary’s word of the year in 2006. The definition provided here is from the Oxford Dictionaries.
33. Turpin, M. H., et al. (2021). Bullshit ability as an honest signal of intelligence. Evolutionary Psychology, 19(2), 14747049211000317.
34. Templer, K. J. (2018). Dark personality, job performance ratings, and the role of political skill: An indication of why toxic people may get ahead at work. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 209–214.
35. Templer, K. (2018). Why do toxic people get promoted? For the same reason humble people do: Political skill. Harvard Business Review, 10.
36. cnn.com/2017/10/17/politics/russian-oligarch-putin-chef-troll-factory/index.html
37. Rosenblum, N. L., & Muirhead, R. (2020). A lot of people are saying: The new conspiracism and the assault on democracy. Princeton University Press.
38. Department of Justice. (2018). Grand jury indicts thirteen Russian individuals and three Russian companies for scheme to interfere in the United States political system. Department of Justice.
39. Broniatowski, D. A., et al. (2018). Weaponized health communication: Twitter bots and Russian trolls amplify the vaccine debate. American Journal of Public Health, 108(10), 1378–1384.
40. Reinhart, R. (2020, January 14). Fewer in US continue to see vaccines as important. Gallup.
41. callingbullshit.org/syllabus.html
42. Bergstrom, C. T., & West, J. D. (2020). Calling bullshit: The art of skepticism in a data-driven world. Random House.
43. Henley, J. (2020, January 29). How Finland starts its fight against fake news in primary schools. The Guardian. theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/28/fact-from-fiction-finlands-new-lessons-in-combating-fake-news
44. Lessenski, M. (2019). Just think about it. Findings of the Media Literacy Index 2019. Open Society Institute Sophia. osis.bg/?p=3356&lang=en
45. For handy methods on bullshit detection, check out Carl Sagan’s chapter—“The Fine Art of Baloney Detection”—in his 1995 book, The Demon-Haunted World, and social psychologist John Petrocelli’s The Life-Changing Science of Detecting Bullshit.
Chapter 3
1. Nietzsche, F. W. (1887). Die fröhliche Wissenschaft: (“La gaya scienza”). E. W. Fritzsch. Translated from this passage: “Wie seltsam, daß diese einzige Sicherheit und Gemeinsamkeit fast gar nichts über die Menschen vermag und daß sie am weitesten davon entfernt sind, sich als die Brüderschaft des Todes zu fühlen!”
2. Selk, A. (August 12, 2018). Update: Orca abandons body of her dead calf after a heartbreaking, weeks-long journey. The Washington Post. washingtonpost.com/news/animalia/wp/2018/08/10/the-stunning-devastating-weeks-long-journey-of-an-orca-and-her-dead-calf/
3. Orcas now taking turns floating dead calf in apparent mourning ritual. (2018, July 31). CBC Radio. cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-tuesday-edition-1.4768344/orcas-now-appear-to-be-taking-turns-floating-dead-calf-in-apparent-mourning-ritual-1.4768349
4. Mapes, L. W. (2018, August 8). “I am sobbing”: Mother orca still carrying her dead calf—16 days later. The Seattle Times. seattletimes.com/seattle-news/environment/i-am-sobbing-mother-orca-still-carrying-her-dead-calf-16-days-later/
5. Howard, J. (2018, August 14). The “grieving” orca mother? Projecting emotions on animals is a sad mistake. The Guardian. theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/aug/14/grieving-orca-mother-emotions-animals-mistake
6. Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man. London, UK: John Murray.
7. King, B. J. (2013). How animals grieve. University of Chicago Press.
8. Gonçalves, A., & Biro, D. (2018). Comparative thanatology, an integrative approach: exploring sensory/cognitive aspects of death recognition in vertebrates and invertebrates. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 373(1754), 20170263.
9. Mayer, P. (2013, May 27). Questions for Barbara J. King, author of “How animals grieve.” NPR. npr.org/2013/05/27/185815445/questions-for-barbara-j-king-author-of-how-animals-grieve
10. Monsó, S., & Osuna-Mascaró, A. J. (2021). Death is common, so is understanding it: The concept of death in other species. Synthese, 199, 2251–2275.
11. Monsó, S., & Osuna-Mascaró, A. J. (2021). Death is common, so is understanding it: the concept of death in other species. Synthese, 199, 2251–2275.
12. Nicholsen, S. W. (1997). Untimely Meditations, trans. R. J. Hollingdale.
13. de Winter, N. J., et al. (2020). Subdaily-scale chemical variability in a Torreites sanchezi rudist shell: Implications for rudist paleobiology and the Cretaceous day-night cycle. Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, 35(2), e2019PA003723.
14. See the following brilliant book for more info on sleep: Walker, M. (2017). Why we sleep: Unlocking the power of sleep and dreams. Simon and Schuster.
15. Suddendorf, T., & Corballis, M. C. (2007). The evolution of foresight: What is mental time travel, and is it unique to humans? Behavioral and brain sciences, 30(3), 299–313.
16. Adapted from a definition provided by: Hudson, J. A., Mayhew, E. M., & Prabhakar, J. (2011). The development of episodic foresight: Emerging concepts and methods. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 40, 95–137.
17. Thanks to Marianna Di Paolo, Director of the WRMC Shoshoni Language Project & Center for American Indian Languages with the University of Utah. She was able to confirm the Shoshoni name for this bird, and noted that “the word tookottsi is widely used throughout Shoshone land, and probably dates back over a thousand years.”
18. Ogden, L. (2016, November 11). Better know a bird: The Clark’s nutcracker and its obsessive seed hoarding. Audubon. audubon.org/news/better-know-bird-clarks-nutcracker-and-its-obsessive-seed-hoarding
19. Hutchins, H. E., & Lanner, R. M. (1982). The central role of Clark’s nutcracker in the dispersal and establishment of whitebark pine. Oecologia, 55(2), 192–201.
20. Balda, R. P., & Kamil, A. C. (1992). Long-term spatial memory in Clark’s nutcracker, Nucifraga columbiana. Animal Behaviour, 44(4), 761–769.
21. Suddendorf, T., & Redshaw, J. (2017). Anticipation of future events. Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior, 1–9.
22. McCambridge F. (n.d.). This is why chimpanzees throw their poop at us. The Jane Goodall Institute of Canada. janegoodall.ca/our-stories/why-chimpanzees-throw-poop-at-us/
23. Osvath, M. (2009). Spontaneous planning for future stone throwing by a male chimpanzee. Current Biology, 19(5), R190–R191.
24. Osvath, M., & Karvonen, E. (2012). Spontaneous innovation for future deception in a male chimpanzee. PloS One, 7(5), e36782.
25. Osvath, M. (2010). Great ape foresight is looking great. Animal Cognition, 13(5), 777–781.
26. Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council. (2007, February 26). Birds found to plan for the future. ScienceDaily. sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070222160144.htm
27. Raby, C. R., Alexis, D. M., Dickinson, A., & Clayton, N. S. (2007). Planning for the future by western scrub-jays. Nature, 445(7130), 919–921.
28. Anderson, J. R., Biro, D., & Pettitt, P. (2018). Evolutionary thanatology. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 373(1754): 20170262.
29. Anderson, J. R. (2018). Chimpanzees and death. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 373(1754), 20170257.
30. Varki, A., & Brower, D. (2013). Denial: Self-deception, false beliefs, and the origins of the human mind. Hachette UK.
31. Varki, A. (2009). Human uniqueness and the denial of death. Nature, 460(7256), 684.
32. Becker, E. (1997). The denial of death. Simon and Schuster.
33. Depression. (2021, 13 September). The World Health Organization. who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression
Chapter 4
1. Nietzsche, F. W. (1881). Morgenröthe. Translated from this passage: “Wir halten die Tiere nicht für moralische Wesen. Aber meint ihr denn, daß die Tiere uns für moralische Wesen halten?—Ein Tier, welches reden konnte, sagte: »Menschlichkeit ist ein Vorurteil, an dem wenigstens wir Tiere nicht leiden.”
2. For a description of the Sakai incident, read Bargen, D. G. (2006). Suicidal honor: General Nogi and the writings of Mori Ogai and Natsume Soseki. University of Hawaii Press.
3. De Waal, F. (2013) The bonobo and the atheist: In search of humanism among the primates. W. W. Norton.
4. A description of this behavior can be found in de Waal, F. B. M., & R. Ren (1988). Comparison of the reconciliation behavior of stumptail and rhesus macaques. Ethology, 78: 129–142.
5. I first saw this definition in a presentation by Westra during the June 2021 online conference organized by Andrews and Westra called Normative Animals Online Conference. It will be appearing in a forthcoming journal article by Andrews and Westra titled “A New Framework for the Psychology of Norms.”
6. Some philosophers and animal behavior scientists do use the term “moral” to describe animals that rely on these more sophisticated feelings/emotions to arrive at behavioral norms. In the book Wild Justice, cognitive ethologist Marc Bekoff and philosopher Jessica Pierce cite altruism, tolerance, forgiveness, and fairness as feelings that guide animals’ normative behavior, which they argue are complex enough to be elevated to the level of morality. Bekoff, M., & Pierce, J. (2009). Wild justice: The moral lives of animals. University of Chicago Press. The philosopher Mark Rowlands argues in his book Can Animals Be Moral that “animals can act morally in the sense that they can act on the basis of moral emotions.” These moral emotions include the sense of fairness Brosnan and de Waal described for macaques, as well as “sympathy and compassion, kindness, tolerance, and patience, and also their negative counterparts such as anger, indignation, malice, and spite.” Rowlands, M. (2015). Can animals be moral? Oxford University Press.
7. Hsu, M., Anen, C., & Quartz, S. R. (2008). The right and the good: distributive justice and neural encoding of equity and efficiency. Science, 320(5879), 1092–1095.
8. Reingberg, S. (2008). Fairness is a hard-wired emotion. ABC News.abcnews.go.com/Health/Healthday/story?id=4817130&page=1
9. De Waal, F. (2013). The bonobo and the atheist: In search of humanism among the primates. W. W. Norton.
10. Old Testament (Leviticus 11:27).
11. Tomasello, M. (2016). A natural history of human morality. Harvard University Press.
12. Boesch, C. (2005). Joint cooperative hunting among wild chimpanzees: Taking natural observations seriously. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(5), 692–693.
13. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future: Summary of the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
14. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future: Summary of the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
15. Graham, E. (1997). The mush hole: Life at two Indian residential schools. Heffle Pub.
16. cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/mississauga-pastor-catholic-church-residential-schools-1.6077248
17. Wolfe, R. (1980). Putative threat to national security as a Nuremberg defense for genocide. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 450(1), 46–67.
18. Rheault, D. (2011). Solving the “Indian problem”: Assimilation laws, practices & Indian residential schools. Ontario Metis Family Records Center.
19. Wrangham, R. W., & Peterson, D. (1996). Demonic males: Apes and the origins of human violence. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
20. Hrdy, S. B. (2011). Mothers and others. Harvard University Press.
21. Associated Press. (1968, February 8). Major describes moves.Associated Press.
22. Hrdy, S. B. (2011). Mothers and others. Harvard University Press.
23. Young, L. C., Zaun, B. J., & VanderWerf, E. A. (2008). Successful same-sex pairing in Laysan albatross. Biology Letters, 4(4), 323–325.
24. Resko, J. A., et al. (1996). Endocrine correlates of partner preference behavior in rams. Biology of Reproduction, 55(1), 120–126.
25. Leupp, Gary P. Male colors. University of California Press, 1995.
26. economist.com/open-future/2018/06/06/how-homosexuality-became-a-crime-in-the-middle-east
27. Glassgold, J. M., et al. (2009). Report of the American Psychological Association Task Force on appropriate therapeutic responses to sexual orientation. American Psychological Association.
28. Flores, A. R., Langton, L., Meyer, I. H., & Romero, A. P. (2020). Victimization rates and traits of sexual and gender minorities in the United States: Results from the National Crime Victimization Survey, 2017. Science Advances, 6(40), eaba6910.
29. Translated from wciom.ru/analytical-reviews/analiticheskii-obzor/teoriya-zagovora-protiv-rossii-
30. nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/1-5-russians-want-gays-lesbians-eliminated-survey-finds-n1191851
31. Graham, R., et al. (2011). The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people: Building a foundation for better understanding. Washington, DC: Institute of Medicine.
32. Gates, G. J. (2011). How many people are lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender? The Williams Institute.
Chapter 5
1. Nietzsche, F. W. (1977). Nachgelassene Fragmente: Juli 1882 bis Winter 1883-1884. Walter de Gruyter. Translated from this passage: “Was kümmert mich das Schnurren dessen, der nicht lieben kann, gleich der Katze.”
2. Nagel, T. (1974). What is it like to be a bat? Philosophical Review, 83, 435–450.
3. Dennett, D. C. (1988). Quining Qualia. In: Marcel, A., & Bisiach, E. (eds.) Consciousness in Modern Science, Oxford University Press.
4. van Giesen, L., Kilian, P. B., Allard, C. A., & Bellono, N. W. (2020). Molecular basis of chemotactile sensation in octopus. Cell, 183(3), 594–604.
5. The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness (Archive). (2012, July 7). Written by Low, P., and edited by Panksepp, J., Reiss, D., Edelman, D., Van Swinderen, B., Low, P., and Koch, C. University of Cambridge.
6. Siegel, R. K., & Brodie, M. (1984). Alcohol self-administration by elephants. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22(1), 49–52.
7. Bastos, A. P., et al. (2021). Self-care tooling innovation in a disabled kea (Nestor notabilis). Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1–8.
8. Corlett, E. (2021, September 10). “He has adapted”: Bruce the disabled New Zealand parrot uses tools for preening. The Guardian.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/10/the-disabled-new-zealand-parrot-kea-using-tools-for-preening-aoe
9. Edelman, D. B., & Seth, A. K. (2009). Animal consciousness: a synthetic approach. Trends in Neurosciences, 32(9), 476–484.
10. Chittka, L., & Wilson, C. (2019). Expanding consciousness. American Scientist, 107, 364–369.
11. Queen Mary, University of London. (2009, November 18). Bigger not necessarily better, when it comes to brains. ScienceDaily. sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/11/091117124009.htm
12. Barron, A. B., & Klein, C. (2016). What insects can tell us about the origins of consciousness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(18), 4900–4908.
13. Loukola, O. J., Perry, C. J., Coscos, L., & Chittka, L. (2017). Bumblebees show cognitive flexibility by improving on an observed complex behavior. Science, 355(6327), 833–836.
14. Chittka, L. (2017). Bee cognition. Current Biology, 27(19), R1049–R1053.
15. Shohat-Ophir, et al. (2012). Sexual deprivation increases ethanol intake in Drosophila. Science, 335(6074), 1351–1355.
16. Chittka, L., & Wilson, C. (2019). Expanding consciousness. American Scientist, 107, 364–369.
17. Barron, A. B., & Klein, C. (2016). What insects can tell us about the origins of consciousness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(18), 4900–4908.
18. This improv show model of the mind is loosely based on Global Workspace Theory—first proposed by Bernard Baars. See Baars, B. J. (1997). In the Theater of Consciousness. Oxford University Press.
19. Langer, S. K. (1988). Mind: An essay on human feeling (abridged edition). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
20. Panksepp, J. (2004). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. Oxford University Press.
21. Davis, K. L., & Montag, C. (2019). Selected principles of Pankseppian affective neuroscience. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12, 1025.
22. See the discussion about feelings vs. emotions in Mama’s Last Hug by Frans de Waal. De Waal, F. (2019). Mama’s last hug: Animal emotions and what they tell us about ourselves. W. W. Norton & Company.
23. foodplot. (2011, March 8). Denver official guilty dog video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8ISzf2pryI
24. This is very loosely adapted from a discussion by the philosopher David DeGrazia: DeGrazia, D. (2009). Self-awareness in animals. In Lutz, R. W. (Ed.). The Philosophy of Animal Minds. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 201–217.
Chapter 6
1. Nietzsche, F. W. (1894). Menschliches, allzumenschliches: ein Buch für freie Geister (Vol. 1). C. G. Naumann. Translated from this passage: “Die Presse, die Maschine, die Eisenbahn, der Telegraph sind Prämissen, deren tausendjährige Konklusion noch niemand zu ziehen gewagt hat.”
2. A Capable Sheriff. (nd). capabilitybrown.org/news/capable-sheriff/
3. Milesi, C., et al. (2005). A strategy for mapping and modeling the ecological effects of US lawns. J. Turfgrass Manage, 1(1), 83–97.
4. Ingraham, C. (2015, August 4). Lawns are a soul-crushing timesuck and most of us would be better off without them. Washington Post. washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/08/04/lawns-are-a-soul-crushing-timesuck-and-most-of-us-would-be-better-off-without-them/
5. Brown, N. P. (2011, March). When grass isn’t greener. Harvard Magazine. harvardmagazine.com/2011/03/when-grass-isnt-greener
6. Martin, S. J., Funch, R. R., Hanson, P. R., & Yoo, E. H. (2018). A vast 4,000-year-old spatial pattern of termite mounds. Current Biology, 28(22), R1292–R1293.
7. Santos, J. C., et al. (2011). Caatinga: the scientific negligence experienced by a dry tropical forest. Tropical Conservation Science, 4(3), 276–286.
8. Kenton, W., (2021) Conspicuous consumption. Investopedia. investopedia.com/terms/c/conspicuous-consumption.asp
9. Reduce Your Outdoor Water Use. (2013). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/www3/watersense/docs/factsheet_outdoor_water_use_508.pdf
10. Miles, C., et al. (2005). Mapping and modeling the biogeochemical cycling of turf grasses in the United States. Environmental Management, 36(3):426–438. Christensen, A., Westerholm, R., & Almén, J. (2001). Measurement of regulated and unregulated exhaust emissions from a lawn mower with and without an oxidizing catalyst: A comparison of two different fuels. Environmental Science and Technology, 35(11), 2166–2170.
11. Data from 2011: epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-09/documents/banks.pdf
12. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Macmillan.
13. Ariely, D. (2008, May 5). 3 main lessons of psychology. danariely.com/2008/05/05/3-main-lessons-of-psychology/
14. Johnson, E. J., & Goldstein, D. (2003). Do defaults save lives?. Science, 302(5649), 1338–1339. DOI: 10.1126/science.1091721
15. Ariely, D. (2017, March 10). When are our decisions made for us? NPR. npr.org/transcripts/519270280
16. Gangestad, S. W., Thornhill, R., & Garver-Apgar, C. E. (2005). Women’s sexual interests across the ovulatory cycle depend on primary partner developmental instability. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 272(1576), 2023–2027.
17. Eberhardt, J. L., Goff, P. A., Purdie, V. J., & Davies, P. G. (2004). Seeing Black: Race, crime, and visual processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(6), 876–893. doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.876
18. Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (2000). When choice is demotivating: Can one desire too much of a good thing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(6), 995.
19. Wasserman, E. (2020, August 4). Surviving COVID-19 may mean following a few simple rules. Here’s why that’s difficult for some. NBC News. nbcnews.com/think/opinion/surviving-covid-19-means-following-few-simple-rules-here-s-ncna1235802
20. Cotton-Barratt, O., et al. (2016). Global catastrophic risks. A report of the Global Challenges Foundation/Global Priorities Project.
21. Global Risks. (n.d.). Global Challenges Foundation. globalchallenges.org/global-risks/
22. globalzero.org/updates/scientists-and-the-bomb-the-destroyer-of-worlds/
23. Robinson, E., & Robbins, R. C. Sources, abundance, and fate of gaseous atmospheric pollutants. Final report and supplement. United States.
24. Copies of this report are available online under the name “Energy and Carbon—Managing the Risks.” More info can be found in Clark, M. (2014, April 1). ExxonMobil acknowledges climate change risk to business for first time. International Business Times.ibtimes.com/exxon-mobil-acknowledges-climate-change-risk-business-first-time-1565836
25. Data can be found here: Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2020). Energy. ourworldindata.org/energy. Occasional dips in extraction rates appear to reflect oil supply and pricing fluctuations, not efforts by the industry to reduce extraction stemming from a climate change policy.
26. Global catastrophic risks 2020 (2020). A report of the Global Challenges Foundation/Global Priorities Project.
27. Thunberg, G. (2019, January 25). “Our house is on fire”: Greta Thunberg, 16, urges leaders to act on climate. The Guardian.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jan/25/our-house-is-on-fire-greta-thunberg16-urges-leaders-to-act-on-climate
28. unfccc.int/news/full-ndc-synthesis-report-some-progress-but-still-a-big-concern
29. Milman, O., Witherspoon, A., Liu, R., & Chang, A. (2021, October 14). The climate disaster is here. The Guardian. theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2021/oct/14/climate-change-happening-now-stats-graphs-maps-cop26
30. Quoted in: Carrington, D. (2021, September 28) “Blah, blah, blah”: Greta Thunberg lambasts leaders over climate crisis. The Guardian. theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/28/blah-greta-thunberg-leaders-climate-crisis-co2-emissions
31. Rourke, A. (2019, September 2). Greta Thunberg responds to Asperger’s critics: “It’s a superpower.” The Guardian. theguardian.com/environment/2019/sep/02/greta-thunberg-responds-to-aspergers-critics-its-a-superpower
32. Thunberg, G. (2019, August 31). “When haters go after your looks and differences, it means they have nowhere left to go. And then you know you’re winning! I have Aspergers and that means I’m sometimes a bit different from the norm. And—given the right circumstances—being different is a superpower.” #aspiepower. Twitter. twitter.com/GretaThunberg/status/1167916177927991296?
Chapter 7
1. Nietzsche, F. W. (1892) Zur Genealogie der Moral. C. G. Naumann. Leipzig, Germany, 38. Translated from this passage: “Alle Wissenschaften haben nunmehr der Zukunfts-Aufgabe des Philosophen vorzuarbeiten: diese Aufgabe dahin verstanden, dass der Philosoph das Problem vom Werthe zu lösen hat, dass er die Rangordnung der Werthe zu bestimmen hat.”
2. Allen, M. (1997, July 13). Reston man, 22, dies after using bungee cords to jump off trestle. The Washington Post. washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/07/13/reston-man-22-dies-after-using-bungee-cords-to-jump-off-trestle/f9a074b2-837d-4008-a0a7-687933268f62/
3. Downer, J. (Writer) Downer, J. (Director). (2017). “Mischief” (Season 1, Episode 4) Spy in the Wild. BBC Worldwide
4. Roth, S., et al. (2019). Bedbugs evolved before their bat hosts and did not co-speciate with ancient humans. Current Biology, 29(11), 1847–1853.
5. Hentley, W. T., et al. (2017). Bed bug aggregation on dirty laundry: A mechanism for passive dispersal. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 11668.
6. For a history of bedbugs in North America, see: Doggett, S. L., Miller, D. M., & Lee, C. Y. (Eds.). (2018). Advances in the biology and management of modern bed bugs. John Wiley & Sons.
7. Longnecker, M. P., Rogan, W. J., & Lucier, G. (1997). The human health effects of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and PCBS (polychlorinated biphenyls) and an overview of organochlorines in public health. Annual Review of Public Health, 18(1), 211–244.
8. Pest control professionals see summer spike in bed bug calls. (n.d.). pestworld.org/news-hub/press-releases/pest-control-professionals-see-summer-spike-in-bed-bug-calls/
9. DDT no longer used in North America. (n.d.). Commission for Environmental Cooperation of North America. cec.org/islandora/en/item/1968-ddt-no-longer-used-in-north-america-en.pdf
10. DDT (Technical Fact Sheet, 2000). National Pesticide Information Centre. npic.orst.edu/factsheets/archive/ddttech.pdf
11. Cirillo, P. M., La Merrill, M. A., Krigbaum, N. Y., & Cohn, B. A. (2021). Grandmaternal perinatal serum DDT in relation to granddaughter early menarche and adult obesity: Three generations in the child health and development studies cohort. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Biomarkers, 30(8), 1430–1488.
12. Researchers link DDT, obesity. (2013, October 22) ScienceDaily. Washington State University. sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131022205119.htm
13. Sender, R., Fuchs, S., & Milo, R. (2016). Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body. PLoS biology, 14(8), e1002533.
14. This is a best-guess estimate: Stephen, A. M., & Cummings, J. H. (1980). The microbial contribution to human faecal mass. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 13(1), 45–56.
15. Planet bacteria (1998, August 26). BBC. news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/158203.stm
16. Brochu, C. A. (2003). Phylogenetic approaches toward crocodylian history. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 31(1), 357–397.
17. Dinets, V. (2015). Play behavior in crocodilians. Animal Behavior and Cognition, 2(1), 49–55.
18. Dinets, V., Brueggen, J. C., & Brueggen, J. D. (2015). Crocodilians use tools for hunting. Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 27(1), 74–78.
19. Huntley, J., et al. (2021). The effects of climate change on the Pleistocene rock art of Sulawesi. Scientific Reports 11, 9833.
20. Balcombe, J. (2006). Pleasurable kingdom: Animals and the nature of feeling good. St. Martin’s Press.
21. Balcombe, J. (2009). Animal pleasure and its moral significance. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 118(3-4), 208–216.
22. Bentham, J. (1970). An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation (1789). J. H. Burns & H. L. A. Hart (eds.).
23. Slobodchikoff, C. N., Paseka, A., & Verdolin, J. L. (2009). Prairie dog alarm calls encode labels about predator colors. Animal Cognition, 12(3), 435–439.
24. Zuberbühler, K. (2020). Syntax and compositionality in animal communication. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 375(1789), 20190062.
25. Benson-Amram, S., Gilfillan, G., & McComb, K. (2018). Numerical assessment in the wild: Insights from social carnivores. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 373(1740), 20160508.
26. Bisazza, A., Piffer, L., Serena, G., & Agrillo, C. (2010). Ontogeny of numerical abilities in fish. PLoS One, 5(11), e15516.
27. Chittka, L., & Geiger, K. (1995). Can honey bees count landmarks? Animal Behaviour, 49(1), 159–164.
28. UN Report: Nature’s dangerous decline “unprecedented”; Species extinction rates “accelerating.” (2019, May 6). United Nations.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-unprecedented-report/
29. Roser, M., & Ritchie, H. (2013). Hunger and undernourishment. ourworldindata.org/hunger-and-undernourishment
30. Roser, M., Ortiz-Ospina, E., & Ritchie, H. (2013). Life expectancy. ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy
31. World report 2019: Rights trends in Central African Republic. (2019). Human Rights Watch. hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/central-african-republic
32. Weintraub, K. (2018). Steven Pinker thinks the future is looking bright. The New York Times. nytimes.com/2018/11/19/science/steven-pinker-future-science.html
33. Pinker, S. (2019). Steven Pinker: what can we expect from the 2020s? Financial Times. ft.com/content/e448f4ae-224e-11ea-92da-f0c92e957a96
34. Nicholsen, S. W. (1997). Untimely meditations. Trans. R. J. Hollingdale.
Epilogue
1. Frasch, P. D. (2017). Gaps in US animal welfare law for laboratory animals: Perspectives from an animal law attorney. ILAR Journal, 57(3), 285–292.
2. Nietzsche, F. W. (1894). Jenseits von Gut und Böse: Vorspiel einer Philosophie der Zukunft (Vol. 1). Naumann. Translated from this passage: “Was aus Liebe gethan wird, geschieht immer jenseits von Gut und Böse.”