OVERVIEW
Perhaps no other century in European history has seen the ebb and flow of national powers, ideologies, and warfare as did the nineteenth century. Beginning with the Age of Metternich, a few dynamic personalities dominated the politics and diplomacy of nineteenth-century Europe. Regimes fell and nations grew up in their place as nationalism swept the continent. Violent and bloody revolutions scarred many nations. In the last quarter of the century, Europeans carried their “superiority” across oceans and imposed their culture on the “primitive” peoples of “uncivilized” lands. Industrialization launched some nations into modernity, while other nations lagged behind. The growing pains of industrialization forced governments to turn their attentions toward the growing number of working poor and the revolutionaries who sought to end poverty by eliminating social classes and property.
NEW IDEOLOGIES
Thinkers of the nineteenth century introduced new ideas to Europe. The most important ideological trends were liberalism, nationalism, romanticism, conservatism, and socialism (discussed in Chapter 7 with Marx and Engels). These ideologies often overlapped chronologically, so they will be discussed together.
Liberalism
The liberal thinkers concerned themselves primarily with the rights of the individual and advocated the limitation of the powers of state. Liberals often advocated freedom of religion, freedom of the press, equal treatment under the law, and a free-market economy. In general, liberals were influenced by the theories of Adam Smith concerning little or no governmental interference in the economy.
One of the greatest liberals was Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), author of Introduction of the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789).
Bentham founded the philosophy of utilitarianism, the idea that decisions should be made based on what’s best for the greatest number of people. He said the government should not interfere in people’s lives except to bring order and harmony. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) went even farther than Bentham and said that it was the role of the government to provide happiness for the people. Mill worked for the rights of the poor and of women. Later in his life, Mill argued for an equitable distribution of property among the people. Mill’s most influential writings were Utilitarianism (1836), On Liberty (1859), Principles of the Political Economy (1848), and On the Subjection of Women (1869).
Nationalism
Note
During the nineteenth century, many nationalists were also liberals.
In its purest and most simple form, nationalism was people’s feeling of unity against an absolutist or against oppression from outsiders. Nationalism was very often fueled by religion, geography, culture, or history that people had in common with each other. Nationalism made people feel like a national citizen, a member of a nation. The spirit of nationalism was a driving force and often inspired people to join the army and fight and to rise up against their oppressors. Nationalism, arguably, first emerged during the Hundred Years’ War, then again during the French Revolution, and then spread across Europe during the Napoleonic Era. With its seeds firmly planted in the early nineteenth century, nationalism shaped the course of European history during the next hundred years.
Conservatism
Contrary to the more radical ideologies of the nineteenth century, conservatism advocated a slower, more gradual process of change. Conservatives believed change should come only through a gradual process and not by way of the destruction of the tradition or the old order. Conservatism emphasized the importance of tradition. Frenchman Joseph de Maistre demonstrated his extreme conservatism by defending the monarchy and opposing any and all political reform. One of the most influential writings of conservatism was Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790).
Romanticism
Unlike some of the other nineteenth-century ideologies, Romanticism tended to be more of an artistic and literary movement. Romanticism involved a new outlook on life and a new way of looking at the world. Inspired by Rousseau, the emotion of the Romantic Movement appeared in stark contrast to the cold, rational Enlightenment. Generally, the Romantic Movement celebrated Europe’s medieval past, whereas the Enlightenment looked down upon the Middle Ages. This fascination with the Middle Ages was nowhere more apparent than in Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe (1820) and Victor Hugo’s Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831). The Romantics developed a deep appreciation for nature, unlike the thinkers of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment, who merely studied it. Romantic writers broke with tradition and encouraged free thinking, emotions, and imagination. William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) were the first Romantic poets. When they published Lyrical Ballads in 1798, they introduced the world to emotional poetry about nature. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) wrote in a style called Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) that was both romantic and tragic. Germaine de Stael (1766-1817), a French Romantic, followed Rousseau’s example and wrote about a child’s proper education that should be centered on the emotional needs and development of the child. Romanticism affected all areas of art, including music and painting. Frederic Chopin (1810-1849) and Franz Liszt (1811-1886) were the musical geniuses of the Romantic period. J. M. W. Turner (1861-1932) painted emotional landscapes in rich, vibrant colors. Eugene Delacroix (1798— 1863) showed an experimental use of color and expression of spirit in such paintings as Liberty Leading the People (1830). The Romanticism of the nineteenth century is perhaps best characterized by its intense passion and emotion in art, music, and literature.
THE AGE OF METTERNICH (1815-1848)
England in the Age of Metternich
After 1815, Parliament represented only the wealthy. Tory, or conservative, reform in the 1820s reinstated labor unions, reworked the justice system, and granted religious toleration to Catholics. In the revolutions of 1830 on the continent, suffrage was a major issue. In Britain, the main concern was representation in Parliament. Largely because of urban industrialization, people left the country to go find work in the cities. The urban populations increased, but the representation for the urban areas did not always increase at the same rate. Therefore, the underrepresented urban areas were upset about the gross overrepresentation of the rural areas. In many rural areas, which happened to have the same representation in Parliament as large urban areas, there lived more sheep than people. These overrepresented rural districts were called rotten boroughs. The Great Reform Bill of 1832 increased the electorate by almost 50 percent and redrew the voting district lines, thereby abolishing the rotten boroughs. Later, a group of people introduced the People’s Charter, a document that demanded universal male suffrage. Supporters of this document were called Chartists. The Chartists also demanded the secret ballot, annual elections, salaries for Parliament, and equal voting districts. The Chartist movement lasted about ten years before it dissolved. One of the greatest issues facing Britain was that of the Corn Laws, or tariffs on imported grains to benefit domestic grains sales. These Corn Laws were repealed in 1846 in a controversial legislative move. Those who supported the repeal hoped it would mean lower wages for factory workers, while those who opposed the repeal feared a decline in the domestic grain industry.
France in the Age of Metternich
Note
Louis Philippe ruled as the citizen king because he was content to rule without many royal privileges in order to satisfy the republicans.
After the fall of Napoleon, Louis XVIII returned to the French throne. Louis granted a constitution, but the constitution was weak, giving power to only a few in France. His successor, Charles X (1757-1836, king 1824- 1830), ruled as an ultraroyalist and angered many liberals during his short reign. In 1830, Charles sparked the July Revolution by trying to undo the results of an election that was won by the liberals. After the Revolution, Louis Philippe (1773-1850, king 1830-1848) became king. He honored the constitution and replaced the Bourbon flag with the tricolor of the French Revolution, but he ignored the demands of the workers. Under his rule, troops repeatedly were required to put down workers’ revolts. Louis Philippe ruled until 1848.
The German States in the Age of Metternich
After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Germany was organized into a Germanic Confederation composed of thirty-nine independent German states. Many people in the German states sought unification under a liberal government, such as those of England and France. The leaders of Prussia and Austria (especially Austria) strongly opposed such a plan. At the time, Austria was under the leadership of Prince Clemens von Metternich (1773-1859). In 1819, Metternich pushed through the Carlsbad Decrees that censored and controlled nationalistic student organizations called Burschenschaften. The secret police also persecuted everyone who advocated political changes. When the July Revolution erupted in France, many liberal Germans spoke out against the repressive government. In response, the ultraconservative Metternich prohibited public assemblies and petitions. Metternich continued his rule until 1848.
Russia in the Age of Metternich
In 1815, the Congress of Vienna granted the Duchy of Warsaw to Russia, which was led by Czar Alexander I (1777-1825, czar 1801-1825). After 1815, many Russians became increasingly liberal, especially the students and the younger nobility. These young liberals formed secret political societies; the members longed for a new government that was not corrupt and that was actually concerned about the people. When Alexander died in 1825, Nicholas I (1796-1855, czar 1825-1855), his younger brother, ascended to the throne.
Note
The army officers who revolted in December 1825 were known as Decembrists. They had been influenced by Western and liberal ideas and were remembered as martyrs by Russian revolutionaries who followed.
At the time of his succession, a group of young army officers staged a revolt known as the Decembrist Revolt. The Decembrists wanted a more liberal, even constitutional, government. After the revolt was crushed and some of the Decembrists were executed, Nicholas became increasingly reactionary and repressive. He created the Third Section, the secret police, which was designed to squelch further revolutionary activity. During the reign of Nicholas prior to 1848, Russia added to its territory part of Armenia, aided the revolutionaries in Greece, defeated Turkey in the Russo- Turkish War, and put down a revolt in Poland.
THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848
Note
The First Republic was created by the French Revolution in 1792.
The decade of the 1840s was a time of terrible harvests and agricultural disasters, such as the Irish potato famine of 1846. A new class of working poor emerged, a creation of the capitalist industrialization that swept over Europe. Nationalism had been brewing for some time in pockets all over the continent. In short, the time was right for frustrated people to resort to violence as a means of venting their frustration and anger.
In France, Louis Philippe’s repressive administration prohibited any political meetings when the politics might be unfavorable to the regime. In February of 1848, Louis’ chief minister, Francoise Guizot (1787-1874), banned a political meeting that was to be held in honor of George Washington. In response, angry Parisians took to the streets. Louis forced Guizot to resign, but Louis later abdicated, too. Later in 1848, the socialist Louis Blanc (1811-1882) convinced the provisional government to establish national workshops to provide employment opportunities to those without work. In June of 1848, the government did away with the national workshops, and again angry Parisians stormed the streets. During the June Days, approximately 10,000 people, defeated by the republican army, died in a violent class struggle. In November, France created the Second Republic and elected Louis Napoleon as their president. Through political maneuvering, he won a re-election and then declared himself Emperor Napoleon III in 1852. The revolution in France proved to be a failure.
As news of the revolution in France spread throughout Europe, liberals demanded governmental reforms. In the Austrian Empire, Hungarians demanded autonomy and additional liberal concessions. The workers and students in Vienna took to the streets in revolt when the government balked at the demands. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand I (1793-1875, emperor 1835-1848) promised reform, abolished serfdom, and then capitulated. Fearing that the new wave of anti-conservative violence might threaten his life, Metternich fled the country and went to Fondon. However, imperial forces overthrew the revolutionary government. Francis Joseph (1830-1916, emperor 1848-1916) became Emperor of Austria in December of 1848. Six months later, with the aid of the Russians, the revolution in Hungary was crushed. The revolution in the Austrian Empire had also failed.
Study Strategy
Just in case you see the term on the AP exam, remember that a constituent assembly is one whose purpose is the creation of a constitution.
Prior to 1848, German liberals desired a unified German state. When revolution broke out in France, Prussian liberals stated their demands. After a revolt in Berlin, Frederick William IV (1795—1861, king 1840—1861) promised a new German state and a constitution. Although the desires of the aristocracy and the middle class differed, Frederick allowed the election of a constituent assembly that was to draw up a constitution for Prussia. Meanwhile, in Frankfurt, the National Assembly, called the Frankfurt Assembly, met to create a unified German state. In 1849, the National Assembly completed its constitution and elected Frederick William IV emperor of the new German state. However, Frederick refused to accept a “crown from the gutter,” so he granted a conservative constitution and reasserted his authority. Attempts to unify the German states had failed.
The revolutions of 1848 failed mostly because the revolutionaries were united only by their desire to reform or replace the current governments. The revolutionaries in each example were divided by social and economic differences. Each time, after the revolutionaries gained control or made progress, they fought amongst themselves and afforded the old regimes opportunities to regain power.
THE CRIMEAN WAR (1854-1856)
Note
Tennyson’s Charge of the Light Brigade is about a famous battle of the Crimean War.
The Crimean War began as a dispute between Russia and France over who should protect certain holy Christian sites in the Ottoman Empire. The British and French worried about the increasing Russian influence in the Balkans because of the weakness of the Ottoman Empire. In 1853, France and Britain declared war on Russia. Most of the fighting took place on the Crimean Peninsula, and most of the casualties were from disease and poor conditions. Russia ended their fighting when Austria threatened to join the side of the French and British. Unfortunately for Europe, this undid what the Congress of Vienna had tried to accomplish in the Concert of Europe. After the war, Britain isolated itself to avoid being dragged into further conflicts on the continent. Humiliated, Russia resented Austria along with Britain and France. However, the Crimean War served as a wake-up call for Russia. Russia realized just how far it had lagged behind the rest of Europe technologically, economically, and culturally.
THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
In 1848, liberals attempted and failed to create a unified state of Italy. For years afterward, however, people still wanted a unified Italy. Prior to unification, Italy consisted of the Kingdom of Sardinia (also known as Piedmont-Sardinia), Lombardy-Venetia, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of Naples (also known as the Two Sicilies). The only independent state was Sardinia. In Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II (1820-1878, king of Sardinia 1849-1861, king of Italy 1861-1878) ruled as a constitutional monarch. In 1854, Camillo de Cavour (1810-1861) became prime minister. Cavour was a nationalist who broke away from the romantic nationalism of such thinkers as Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872). Cavour was a reformer who strengthened Sardinia by encouraging industrial development and freeing the peasants. He sought a unified Italy, but he knew that goal would be reached only by force and only by ridding Italy of Austria. Not letting the idea go, Cavour developed a plan to get rid of Austria. He convinced Napoleon III to come to the aid of Sardinia in the event of a Sardinian war with Austria. Napoleon agreed because Sardinia had entered the Crimean War on the side of France, and Sardinia had promised France some territory in return for help. In 1859, Austria declared war on Sardinia and, as promised, Napoleon III came to Sardinia’s aid. Before the war was over, though, Napoleon withdrew his forces because of Prussian threats. Angered and humiliated, Cavour resigned (only to resume his duties the following year).
Inspired by the war, many people throughout the Italian states cried out for unification. Several of the regions held plebiscites and voted to join Sardinia. Cavour persuaded Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), a throwback to romantic nationalism, to invade Sicily. Garibaldi led his Red Shirts, only a thousand strong, into Sicily and Naples and defeated the much larger Bourbon forces. Soon after the stunning victory, Victor Emmanuel II became king of a unified Italy. Within ten years, the Papal States and Venetia were part of the Kingdom of Italy, too. Although Italy was unified, the north and the south often resented each other, and a rivalry developed between the two regions. In addition, the relations between the Church and the state remained icy for years.
THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
After the Napoleonic Era, Austria and Prussia dominated the German states. Prussia, in particular, enjoyed superiority due in part to the Zollverein, the trade and customs union, and in part to its industrialization. In 1860, William I of Prussia (1797-1888, king 1861-1888) appointed Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) as chancellor. Bismarck was a spirited Junker, or a member of the landed nobility, and a statesman. He told the Prussian parliament that Germany would be united by blood and iron and that Germany needed Prussia’s power to lead the struggle for unification. Despite his speech, Parliament refused to grant the military budget that William and Bismarck wanted. Therefore, Bismarck collected the taxes himself, enlarged the army, and instituted his own reforms. No one stood in his way.
In 1864, Prussia and Austria led the German states into war with Denmark over the territories of Schleswig and Holstein, a war in which Denmark was easily defeated. Bismarck then schemed to create a dispute between Austria and Prussia over the government of the new territories. Bismarck entered into an agreement with France that France would remain uninvolved. Bismarck then enlisted the aid of Italy against Austria. With all the plans in order, Prussia declared war on Austria, thus beginning the Austro-Prussian War. The Prussian army smashed the Austrians in just seven weeks. Bismarck intentionally made the peace terms lenient at the end of the war so as not to alienate Austria. After the war with Austria, Bismarck created the North German Confederation. The Prussian king and a bicameral legislature ruled the union of twenty-one states. The Reichstag, or lower house, represented the people, and the Bundesrat, or upper house, represented the German princes.
In 1870, Bismarck began a dispute with France over the Spanish throne. William I agreed to settle the dispute, but Bismarck would not settle for it. He took an account of William’s meeting with the French and reworded it to make France feel as though William insulted them. Bismarck then made the Ems Dispatch public, thus inciting Napoleon III to declare war on Prussia. Prussia defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War and took Alsace-Lorraine.
In 1871, four German states in the south joined the northern states. Then William I became the emperor, or kaiser, of the new German Empire. Both France and Britain resented and feared the new German Empire. The German Empire was not entirely stable, though. To increase its stability, Bismarck launched his Kulturkampf, which comes from the German words for culture and struggle. Bismarck’s Kulturkampf was an attack on the Catholic Church in an attempt to bring the Church under strict control. He attempted to repress socialists as well. In both cases, though, the repression backfired by making the two more popular. When William II (1859-1941, emperor 1888-1918) became emperor, Bismarck was dismissed. William II ruled as an arrogant, oppressive ruler until 1918.
ENGLAND FROM 1848-1900
England began the second half of the nineteenth century in style with the Great Exhibition of 1851 and the unveiling of the Crystal Palace, the great English building constructed entirely of steel and glass. The Crystal Palace symbolized the seemingly unlimited potential of industrialization. In the
1860s, William Gladstone (1809-1898), the Whig, or liberal, prime minister, attempted unsuccessfully to expand the franchise, or vote. A year later, Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881), a Tory, pushed through the Second Reform Bill, legislation that doubled the size of the electorate. Disraeli lost the next election to Gladstone, who instituted many reforms, including the secret ballot and free public education. This era of British history saw the rise of the two-party system and the decline of the power of the monarchy under Queen Victoria (1819-1901, queen 1837-1901).
FRANCE FROM 1848-1900
Note
In modern French history, there have been five republics. The First French Republic was declared by the National Convention in 1792, the Second Republic began in 1848, the Third Republic in 1875, the Fourth Republic in 1945, and the Fifth Republic in 1958.
The Second Republic of Napoleon III was soon replaced by the Second Empire (the first being that of Napoleon I). Napoleon III led France to prosperity. He constructed numerous canals and roads that led to further economic expansion. He rebuilt Paris with the help and direction of George Haussmann (1809-1891). He ruled initially in an authoritarian manner but became increasingly liberal, even creating a Liberal Empire in 1859. Shortly thereafter, he involved France in the Franco-Prussian War in which he was captured. He was soon exiled.
The Second Empire was replaced by the Third Republic. Immediately, the Third Republic was challenged by the Paris Commune. The Paris Commune was destroyed, and 20,000 Parisians lost their lives. The Third Republic stabilized and finished the nineteenth century as the best of hitherto French Republics. However, near the end of the century, France became divided over the Dreyfus Affair. In 1893, a Jewish artillery captain named Alfred Dreyfus stood accused of treason for drawing up secret French documents that allegedly were to be delivered to the Germans. Dreyfus was found guilty and exiled to Devil’s Island where he was to remain for the rest of his life. A few years later, another French officer discovered that someone other than Dreyfus wrote the documents. That officer was silenced and then removed from the military. About the same time, though, Dreyfus’ friends and family also discovered evidence that Major Marie Charles Esterhazy had written the document. The army court-martialed Esterhazy, but he was later acquitted. Another French officer, Lieutenant Colonel Hubert Joseph Henry, was arrested in 1898 for forging documents that implicated Dreyfus; Henry later committed suicide. The following year, Dreyfus stood before a new trial where he once again was found guilty. Fortunately for Dreyfus, a new government nullified the verdict within a few weeks. The Dreyfus Affair divided France politically, socially, and religiously as accusations of anti-Semitism and government conspiracy became widespread. The famous French writer Emile Zola wrote a letter accusing the government of lying and covering up conspiracies. For this letter, Zola was sent to prison. Zola eventually escaped from prison, though, and moved to England. The prestige and credibility of the military and civil authorities in France declined significantly after the Dreyfus Affair.
RUSSIA FROM 1848-1900
After the Crimean War, Russia realized how far behind the rest of Europe it actually was. In 1861, Alexander II (1818-1881, emperor 1855-1881) freed the serfs. He created the zemstvos, or local governments, that were empowered to deal with local issues. Alexander II went on to reform the legal system as well. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 and was replaced by Alexander III (1845-1894, emperor 1881-1894). In addition to political strides, Russia made great progress with industrialization. Through the construction of railroads and factories, Russia established itself as a legitimate industrial power by the turn of the twentieth century.
IMPERIALISM
Study Strategy
If you have not already done so, find a copy of Rudyard Kipling's White Man’s Burden and read it. Kipling's work provides great insight into the era of imperialism.
Imperialism was nothing new to Europeans. Under the old imperialism of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, countries sent explorers and colonists to all parts of the globe. But the new imperialism of the nineteenth century often involved military domination of a weaker country or geographic area. The industrialized nations of Europe were constantly seeking raw materials and new markets for their manufactured goods. Although much of the commerce of the nineteenth century was done with other European nations, non-European markets seemed promising. The Europeans heavily invested in foreign lands that produced raw materials. Then, they established colonies to protect those investments. In addition, the European nations established military bases and naval ports around the world in order to protect their colonies and, if need be, to launch offensives. The military played a large role in imperialism when other nations began to compete for land and when subjugated lands began to revolt.
Imperialism also grew out of the desire to spread European thought, culture, and religion to the underdeveloped and “inferior” people of the world. Social Darwinism proposed that some people were more fit than others to rule, and, of course, the Europeans were the most fit of all. Prodded by the “white man’s burden” to take their culture abroad and “civilize” the uncivilized, the Europeans of the nineteenth century believed it was their duty to “improve” the “inferior” people of the world.
European powers scrambled for Africa. Britain, France, Italy, Germany, and Belgium all wanted pieces of Africa. To prevent any major conflicts, Bismarck called the Berlin Conference of 1885. There, the ground rules were laid that a country must occupy land in order to have a legitimate claim to it. After that, the Europeans continued to grab up pieces of Africa. European conquest of Africa was not without incident. Europeans clashed with natives such as the Zulu. They also clashed with the Afrikaners, descendants of the early Dutch settlers, in the Boer War (1899-1902).
In Asia, the British controlled India, the “crown jewel of the British Empire.” There, they instituted social reforms, advocated education, and introduced technology. The Dutch held the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), and the French took Indochina. Even the Russians got involved by establishing control over Persia. China remained independent but was forced to open its doors to Western trade. In 1900, the Chinese revolted in the unsuccessful Boxer Rebellion. Japan, although initially resistant to westernization, changed its government and its economy because of the European influence.
NINETEENTH-CENTURY CULTURE
Note
Although families had fewer children, the birthrate didn’t necessarily decrease. In fact, the nineteenth century experienced an illegitimacy explosion.
As Europe became more industrialized, European cities grew at alarming rates. As the cities grew, conditions in the cities worsened, due mostly to overcrowding. People flocked to the cities to find work or to find a mate, because life in the city seemed much more promising than life in the country. As a result, the cities exceeded their population limits. People lived in subhuman conditions amongst rats, fleas, and human waste. The housing was cramped, and the streets were overcrowded. The terrible conditions forced the governments to turn their attentions to the cities. Through major building and renovation projects, European governments made major improvements in water and sewage systems and public transportation systems. Slums were torn down and replaced by parks, wider streets, and new buildings.
One of the major changes brought about by industrialization was an increase in the average person’s standard of living, especially in the second half of the nineteenth century. Although the living conditions didn’t always improve, salaries increased tremendously. During this time, the gap between the rich and poor didn’t necessarily shrink. However, the middle class expanded significantly. Professionals such as engineers, accountants, and even teachers moved into the middle class. Across the board, families began having fewer children, and parents gave their children more attention, affection, and opportunities than at any other point in European history.
Many women left the country to find employment in the cities. Outside the home, though, employment often came in the form of maid service or prostitution. In most middle class scenarios, women were expected to stay at home and manage the household. Toward the end of the century, women mobilized and sought economic and social reform and equality under the law for themselves. Many women even demanded suffrage.
Near the end of the nineteenth century, art and literature moved away from Romanticism and into Realism. The realists focused on the everyday struggles and triumphs of life. Realists also focused on inequality and championed a more progressive world view.
THE MAJOR PLAYERS
Prince Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von Metternich (1773- 1859)—Metternich was born into an aristocratic German family and then married into an aristocratic Austrian family. Under the employment of the Habsburgs, he served as ambassador to Saxony, Prussia, and France. Metternich played a major role at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 by stopping Russia from taking all of Poland and by stopping Prussia from taking Saxony. Metternich established himself as the leading statesman in Europe until 1848. He repeatedly attacked liberalism and nationalism. A consummate conservative, Metternich defended the power of the aristocracy. He truly believed that the privileged class deserved to rule, a characteristic that has made him appear vain and arrogant to many of his contemporaries and to many historians.
Sir Robert Peel (1788-1850)—Robert Peel was born in England and educated at Oxford. As a young man, Peel went into politics. Early in his conservative career, Peel denied religious freedom to the Catholics in Ireland. Later, though, he introduced and pushed through legislation that granted equality to the Irish Catholics. One of Peel’s accomplishments was the reorganization of the police force. English policemen are known as bobbies now because of Robert Peel. Also early in his political career, Peel opposed the idea of free trade in Britain. Later, though, Peel changed and repealed the Corn Laws. He resigned from politics after the repeal because of all the controversy surrounding the legislation.
Benjamin Disraeli (1804—1881)—Born to a Jewish family in England, Benjamin Disraeli later converted to Christianity. Disraeli wrote novels as a young man to pay bills. He moved from novels to pamphlets and articles that outlined his conservative views. He supported governmental reform and aid for the middle class. He also sought to preserve the power of the monarchy. In 1837, Disraeli became a member of Parliament. He continued writing novels in the 1840s, novels that showed his support for government reform. He earned the respect of his colleagues and eventually became Prime Minister. As Prime Minister, Disraeli improved housing and working conditions for many in England. He persuaded the government to invest in the Suez Canal. He even created the title of Empress of India for Queen Victoria. Later, he became concerned about Russia’s power and influence. At the Congress of Berlin, Disraeli limited the power of Russia after Russia defeated Turkey in the Russo-Turkish War. Disraeli is remembered as a great politician who was conservative regarding the empire but liberal regarding government reform.
Study Strategy
When dealing with Darwinism, or any other controversial subject, on the AP exam, avoid making value judgments like “Evolution is wrong ” or “Darwin is an idiot. ” The importance of people like Darwin is not whether or not his ideas are right or wrong. Rather, he is important because of the enormous impact he made on the history of the world.
Napoleon III (1808-1873, emperor 1852-1870)—Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was the nephew of Napoleon I. As a young man, he led unsuccessful attempts to overthrow King Louis Philippe. One of the failed attempts landed him in prison, but he later escaped. In 1848, he was elected president of the new French republic, mostly because of the popularity of his name. The new president was limited to a four-year term, so he led a coup, seized power, and granted himself a ten-year term as president. The following year, Napoleon changed the Second Republic to the Second Empire. He, of course, became emperor. Napoleon censored writers and newspapers and ruled authoritatively. However, he grew more liberal as opposition rose against his rule. Even though he didn’t tolerate anyone who challenged him or questioned him, he was very popular.
Napoleon III built roads, railroads, and canals that helped France grow prosperous. Napoleon also rebuilt Paris and made it one of the grandest of all European cities. His construction and political reform greatly improved France. However, Napoleon spent too much money on wars like the Crimean War. He foolishly involved France in the Franco-Prussian War. During this war, he was captured. Afterward, his regime came undone, and Napoleon III left in exile.
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)—The English scientist and writer Charles Darwin proved to be one of the most influential and important of all nineteenth-century thinkers. After college, Darwin traveled around the world on the HMS Beagle and served on the voyage as a naturalist. After the voyage and after reading the work of Thomas Malthus, Darwin applied Malthus’ ideas to plants and animals. He developed his theories of evolution and natural selection. Darwin published his ideas about natural selection in Origin of the Species (1859), often called the book that shook the world. Some called Darwin a genius, while others claimed he could not prove his theories. The religious reaction to Darwin tended to be the most vocal and antagonistic. Many religious leaders said that Darwin’s ideas completely contradicted the Bible and the teachings of the Church. Another one of Darwin’s famous and influential works is The Descent of Man (1871).
William Ewart Gladstone (1809-1898)—A very religious and moral man, William Gladstone was first elected to the British Parliament in 1832 as a Tory, or conservative. Early in his life, he was conservative, but he grew more liberal with age. He sought moral and religious reforms and advocated the admission of Jews to Parliament. Gladstone was concerned about Ireland, and he disestablished the Anglican Church there. He wanted Home Rule for Ireland, and he wanted to pacify the Irish. Gladstone opposed the Boer War and imperialism in general. Throughout his political career, morality and religious beliefs guided Gladstone. He served as Prime Minister four times and was always Disraeli’s rival.
Note
The issue of Home Rule for Ireland centered around Ireland’s independence from Britain. The Catholics in Ireland wanted Home Rule, while the Protestants did not want to leave the Protestant influence of England.
Prince Otto Edward Leopold von Bismarck (1815-1898)—Bismarck was born a Junker. He studied law and then worked briefly for the government before entering politics in 1847. He soon became Prussia’s representative to the German Confederation, then ambassador to Russia, and then ambassador to France. Because of his hard work and abilities, Bismarck was appointed as minister-president of Prussia. He immediately ignored Parliament and collected taxes on his own to increase the size of the military. He fought for German unification and said that the issue would not be settled by speeches but by blood and iron. A skilled diplomat and politician, Bismarck provoked war with Denmark, France, and Austria. He then used the foreign enemies to unite the people by focusing German attentions on the foreign aggressors. He established numerous alliances and dealt strongly with anyone who challenged his ideas or his authority. In a brilliant political move, Bismarck introduced social security and unemployment insurance to the German people, the first programs of their kind. His greatest achievement, though, was the unification of Germany.
CHRONOLOGY OF EUROPE FROM 1815-1900
Study Strategy
Use this chronology to begin to frame the big picture. Chronologies are helpful when you are trying to see how a story unfolds; in this case, the story is that of Europe from 1815— 1900.
1798—William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge published the Romantic work Lyrical Ballads.
1815—The Congress of Vienna was held to reestablish political boundaries after the Napoleonic Era.
1818—Prussia created the Zollverein, the international trade union.
1818-1819—Theodore Géricault painted his Romantic masterpiece Raft of the Medusa.
1819—Metternich imposed the Carlsbad Decrees upon the Germans.
1824—Charles X became king of France.
1824—England repealed the Combination Acts and allowed labor unions.
1829—Frederic Chopin presented his first piano concerts in Vienna.
1830—Revolution broke out in France. Eugene Delacroix painted his Romantic masterpiece Liberty Leading the People.
1832—The Great Reform Bill increased the electorate and reduced the requirements for holding public office in England.
1833—The Factory Act in England restricted child labor.
1838—The Chartists presented their People’s Charter.
1845—1846—The Great Potato Famine in Ireland killed thousands and drove thousands of Irish to other parts of the world in search of food and better economic opportunities.
1846—The Corn Laws were repealed by Parliament.
1847—The Ten Hours Act limited the number of hours that women and children could work daily in factories.
1848—Revolutions erupted in Paris, Hungary, and Vienna. All the revolutions proved unsuccessful in their nationalistic efforts.
1851—Louis Napoleon became Emperor Napoleon III.
1851-1877—Franz Liszt composed some of his greatest sonatas, concertos, and etudes.
1852—Camillo de Cavour became Prime Minister in Sardinia.
1858—The British Empire added India to its vast holdings that were ruled directly.
1860—Giuseppe Garibaldi and his 1,000 Red Shirts invaded Sicily.
1861—Italy became unified under Victor Emmanuel II.
1862—Prince Otto von Bismarck became minister-president of Prussia.
1866—Bismarck provoked Austria into fighting the Austro-Prussian War.
1871—The German Empire was created under the direction of Bismarck.
1878—The Congress of Berlin set ground rules for European imperialism.
1894—The Dreyfus Affair drove a wedge into France.
1898—The Chinese revolted against westerners in the Boxer Rebellion.
1899—1902—The British and the Afrikaners battled in the Boer War.
SAMPLE ESSAY QUESTIONS
Note
These questions are for review purposes only, not to predict the questions that will be on the AP exam.
1. Analyze and discuss the most important economic developments in Europe during the nineteenth century.
2. Analyze the extent to which industrialization affected the culture of nineteenth-century Europe, and discuss its impact on European culture.
3. Discuss the extent to which Romanticism might be perceived as a reaction to the Enlightenment.
4. Compare and contrast the personalities and politics of Napoleon I and Metternich.
5. “By the end of the nineteenth century, England and France were very similar politically although each took a different path to democracy.” Assess the validity of this statement. Be sure to include examples to support your answer.
6. Analyze and discuss the political situation in Europe prior to 1848 that led to the revolutions of 1848.
7. Analyze and discuss the motives of Europeans during the imperialism of the late nineteenth century.
8. Using specific examples, contrast the ideologies of liberalism, conservatism, and nationalism during the nineteenth century.
9. Analyze and discuss the extent to which European rulers attempted to suppress nationalism and liberalism between 1815 and 1848.
10. Compare and contrast the unification of both Italy and Germany. Be sure to include a treatment of the motives and methods of the driving forces behind each of the unifications.
Now that you have reviewed the information about Europe from 1815— 1900, take a few moments to read through the sample essay questions that follow. The questions are intended to get you to think about some of the ways the AP exam may test your knowledge of Europe from 1815-1900. To completely answer the questions, you will need to draw upon the knowledge you gained during your own course of study in addition to your review with this book.