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Mamluks, from the Arabic ‘Mamluk’ meaning 'enslaved', first appeared under the Abbasid Caliphate. Unsure as to the loyalty of those surrounding them and fearful of the bordering Byzantine Empire in a period when their power was in decline, the Abbasids had already in the 9th century created an army loyal only to themselves. They achieved this by taking the sons of enslaved non-Muslim families, bringing them up as Sunni warriors, and giving them positions of responsibility in the service of the caliphate. The power of these slaves grew to such an extent that they ended up playing a major role in the medieval Islamic world, overthrowing the remains of Saladin’s Ayubbid dynasty in 1250,40 and quickly extending their power over Palestine and Syria.41
The crusaders may have been ejected in the end but the experience had reaped benefits for the West. ‘Although they would ultimately end in failure, the Crusades nonetheless paid significant dividends by bringing the Latin world face-to-face with the scientific and technological prowess of the Arab East.’42 One of the skills the crusaders brought home with them was that of stone carving, a skill that contributed greatly to the building of magnificent churches throughout Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries. Another major effect of the Crusades was economic: they opened the old Middle East and Asia to the West, stimulating demand for Asian luxuries and making great trade centres of Venice and Genoa. This was important in that it laid the foundations for the economic prosperity that would help drive the Renaissance in Europe.
While the Holy Land was in turmoil, Europe had enjoyed a period of peace. Agricultural advances meant that productivity was improved which meant that fewer farmers were needed to feed society. More people moved to towns and trade grew significantly as a result. However, this was all to be interrupted in the 13th century when Europe and the Middle East were invaded by new hoards of bloodthirsty warriors from the east: the Mongols.