THE COLD WAR POLICIES OF PRESIDENT EISENHOWER
Foreign policy decisions of the Eisenhower administration were often crafted by the Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles. Dulles felt that the policy of containment was not nearly aggressive enough; instead of merely containment, Dulles often spoke of “massive retaliation” against communist advances anywhere in the world. Dulles also spoke of the need to use nuclear weapons if necessary. At one press conference, Dulles stated that instead of containing communism, the goal of the United States should be to “make communism retreat” whenever and wherever possible.
Eisenhower hoped that the death of Stalin in 1953 would allow a “new understanding” between the United States and the Soviet Union. In some ways Nikita Khrushchev was different from Stalin, speaking about the possibilities of “peaceful coexistence” with the United States. However, when Hungary revolted in 1956, Khrushchev ordered this to be brutally stopped by the Soviet army.
The fate of the Hungarian leader Irme Nagy was sealed when the United States failed to assist the anti-Soviet rebellion of his government. Despite the tough talk of John Foster Dulles, who had boldly proclaimed that the United States would come to the aid of any in Eastern Europe who wanted to “liberate” themselves from communism, it was determined that U.S. forces could not be used to help the Hungarian rebels (despite the fact that the CIA operatives in Hungary had promised Nagy this aid), because this might provoke war with the Soviets. Eisenhower was also reluctant to get militarily involved in Southeast Asia, even though he believed in the domino theory, which proclaimed that if one country in Southeast Asia fell to the communists, others would follow. In 1954 French forces in Vietnam were being overrun by nationalist forces under the control of Ho Chi Minh. The French desperately asked for aid. Despite segments of the American military who pushed for assisting the French, Eisenhower ultimately refused.
As a result, the French were finally defeated at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. After they left, an international conference took place and the Geneva Accords established a North Vietnam under the control of Ho Chi Minh and a South Vietnam under the control of the Emperor, Bao Dai. From the beginning, the United States supplied military aid to South Vietnam. By the terms of the Geneva Accords, a national election was scheduled for 1956 on the potential unification of the entire country. However, a coup in South Vietnam overthrew the emperor and sabotaged the election plans. Nevertheless, the United States continued to support South Vietnam.
Cold War tensions also increased during the Eisenhower administration because of events in the Middle East. After Israel was declared independent in 1948, it was supported by the Americans, while the Arabs opposing Israel were supported by the Soviet Union. In 1953 the Central Intelligence Agency carried out a plan that brought the pro-American Shah of Iran back into power.
The major Middle Eastern crisis during the era was the Suez Canal Crisis. The United States had helped Egyptian leader Colonel Carnal Abdul Nasser build the Aswan Dam. The Egyptians wanted to purchase arms from the United States as well. When the Americans refused, the Egyptians went to the Soviets with the same request. When the United States (and Great Britain), in response, totally cut off all loans to Egypt, Nasser nationalized the British-owned Suez Canal. The British and the French attacked Egypt. In response to Soviet threats that they might join the conflict on the side of the Egyptians, the Americans got the British and French to retreat from Egypt.
Eisenhower and Dulles desperately wanted to prevent the spread of communism in the Middle East. In January 1957, the Eisenhower Doctrine was formally unveiled, which stated that Americans arms would be used in the region to prevent communist aggression. The Americans invoked the Eisenhower Doctrine when they landed troops in Beirut, Lebanon, in mid-1958 to put down a rebellion against the government.
The Americans were equally concerned with the spread of communism in Latin America, where America had numerous economic interests. A defensive alliance of most nations of the Western Hemisphere was signed as the Rio Pact in 1947. Critics would argue that the United States was never shy about throwing its weight around in the region. In 1954 the CIA helped orchestrate the overthrow of the president of Guatemala on the grounds that his administration was too friendly with the Soviet Union; during this coup, property that had been seized from American businesses was restored to American hands.
In 1959 Fidel Castro orchestrated the removal of dictator Fulgencio Batista from power. Castro soon seized American businesses located in Cuba and began trade negotiations with the Soviet Union. Thus, beginning in late 1960, the United States cut off trade with Cuba, and eventually cut off diplomatic relations with the island (a situation that still exists today).