THE WAR OF 1812

Reasons for War

Frustrated by the continued British policies of impressment and the seizure of ships, Madison formally asked Congress for a Declaration of War against Britain in June of 1812. Many Federalists opposed the war. They regarded Great Britain as a potential trading partner and viewed British citizens as people “like themselves.” To many Americans, Madison’s argument that the country’s political and economic rights as a neutral power had been violated was convincing. A younger group of Republicans, personified by Henry Clay of Kentucky, were especially supportive of war. This group, called the “War Hawks,” felt that war would enable the United States to acquire more territory in the West, leading to greater economic growth.

Another stated cause for war revolved around connections between the British and Native Americans. In 1812 two members of the Shawnee Tribe, Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa, decided the time was right to take a stand against further settlement by whites in the region between the Appalachians and the Mississippi River. Tecumseh joined many tribes together, terrifying settlers in the region. James Madison was convinced by Western political leaders that the Native Americans were being encouraged (and being armed) by the British in Canada. The attack on Tecumseh’s village by General William Henry Harrison in late 1811 intensified the conflict that would take place with Native Americans in the region.

The Outbreak of War

The United States was totally unprepared for war against Britain when war was first declared. In 1812 the army consisted of 6000 men, and the entire navy was made up of 17 ships. The first military effort was a threepronged attack against Canada, with the intent of destroying Indian villages, defeating British troops, and taking Montreal. Military efforts were largely unsuccessful, and American troops soon retreated.

The American navy had some initial successes, hut American ships were soon driven back and blockaded in their own ports. The naval victories of 1812 at least boosted the morale of the American nation. Native Americans, including Tecumseh and the Shawnee, were fighting on the side of the British, The first big victory for the Americans came in the summer of 1813 when William Henry Harrison and his forced defeated the British and the Native Americans at the Thames River (east of present-day Detroit), killing Tecumseh. In Tennessee a militiaman, Andrew Jackson, lead many victories over Indian forces.

The Attack on Washington

Napoleon was finally defeated in 1814. Many Americans rejoiced at the defeat of the French, but also realized that the United States was now Britain’s only enemy. The British began an offensive in New York, but in August 1814, a second British army advanced on Washington. Most Washingtonians (including President Madison) left the city before the British arrived, but the British proceeded to sack the city, including the White House and the Capitol.

Ironically, as the British were burning the capital, peace negotiations for ending the war were already in progress in Ghent, Belgium. With the European war over, many of the issues that had driven Britain and America apart, such as blockading and impressment, now appeared to be less important. After sustained battles against Napoleon, public opinion in England did not favor continued military action in the Americas. The strange Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war, actually said nothing about impressment or neutral trading rights, but simply restored diplomatic relations between Britain and the United States. Two weeks after peace was declared, Andrew Jackson defeated a large British force at the Battle of New Orleans.

Political Effects of the War

Nine days before the Treaty of Ghent was signed, a group of Federalists met at the Hartford Convention, They continued to see the war as disastrous to their interests and viewed with extreme suspicion the growing influence of politicians and military leaders from the West. Proposals regarding nullification, and even one concerning secession, were debated. When the ending of the war and the victory at New Orleans were announced, the actions of the Federalists appeared foolish. Their influence on political life in America was drawing to an end. With the decline of the Federalists, the United States was united more after the War of 1812 than it had been for years. As a result, the years 1816 to 1823 are called in textbooks the Era of Good Feelings, with James Monroe taking over the presidency in 1817.