NOTES

Chapter One. The Old Country: Imperial China in the Nineteenth Century

For nineteenth-century eyewitness descriptions of China, see Mrs. J. F. Bishop (Isabella L. Bird), The Yangtze Valley and Beyond: An Account of Journeys in China, chiefly in the province of Szechuan and among the Man-Tze of the Somo Territory (London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1899); Robert Fortune, A Residence Among the Chinese; Inland, on the Coast and at Sea (London: J. Murray, 1856); Robert Fortune, Three Years of Wandering in the Northern Provinces of China, including a visit to the tea, silk and cotton countries: with an account of the agriculture and horticulture of the Chinese, new plants, etc. (London: J. Murray, 1847); John Scarth, Twelve Years in China; The People, the Rebels, and the Mandarins; By a British Resident (Edinburgh: Thomas Constable and Company, 1860); Bayard Taylor, A Visit to India, China and Japan; In the Year 1853 (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1862).

13 60 million liang of silver: Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, translated by J. R. Foster (Cambridge, England, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 530-31.

14 Lin confiscated 20,000 chests of opium: Gernet, p. 537.

15 “Should I break his nose or kill him”: Paul Carus, “The Chinese Problem,” Open Court XV (October 1901), p. 608, as cited in Robert McClellan, The Heathen Chinee: A Study of American Attitudes Toward China, 1890-1905 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1971), pp. 88-89.

17 Guangdong credit crisis in 1847: Madeline Y. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home: Transnationalism and Migration Between the United States and South China, 1882-1943 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000), p. 25.

17 a hundred thousand laborers found themselves unemployed: Ibid., p. 25.

17 a Chinese resident in California wrote a letter: San Francisco Chronicle, July 21, 1878.

19 “Swallows and magpies”: Marlon K. Horn, “Rhymes Cantonese Mothers Sang,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1999 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1999), p. 63.

Chapter Two. America: A New Hope

20 23 million people: Clyde A. Milner II, Carol A. O‘Connor, and Martha A. Sandweiss, eds., The Oxford History of the American West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 814.

20 430 million: Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990), p. 210.

20 towns of more than 2,500 people: Clyde A. Milner II, Carol A. O’Connor, and Martha A. Sandweiss, p. 814.

21 Population statistics for Paris and London: Adna Ferrin Weber, The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century: A Study in Statistics (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1963), p. 450.

21 a mere six cities in the United States had more than 100,000 people: Robert Sobel and David B. Sicilia, The Entrepreneurs: An American Adventure (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), p. 119.

21 New York population in mid-nineteenth century: Adna Ferrin Weber, p. 450.

21 Description of New York and Brooklyn: Ruth Barnes Moynihan, Cynthia Russett, and Laurie Crumpacker, eds., Second to None: A Documentary History of American Women (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), p. 209.

21 Information on Irish and German immigrants: Roger Daniels, Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life (New York: HarperPerennial, 1990), pp. 129, 146.

22 Life expectancy data on China and the United States: James I. Lee and Wang Feng, One Quarter of Humanity: Malthusian Mythology and Chinese Realities (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), p. 54; Michael Haines, “The Population of the United States, 1790-1920,” in Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the United States (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996-2000), p. 159; Michael R. Haines, “Estimated Life Tables for the United States, 1850-1910,” Historical Methods 31:4(Fall 1998).

23-24 Life in American Midwest: M. H. Dunlop, Sixty Miles from Contentment: Traveling in the Nineteenth-Century American Interior (New York: HarperCollins, 1995); Catherine Reef, An Eyewitness History: Working America (New York: Facts on File, 2000), p. 7.

24 “people were settling right under his nose”: Lillian Schlissel, Women’s Diaries of the Westward Journey (New York: Schocken, 1982), p. 20.

25 Statistics on American Indians: Clyde A. Milner II, Carol A. O‘Con-nor, and Martha A. Sandweiss, p. 175; Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States: 1492-Present (New York: HarperCollins, 1999; first Perrenial Classics edition, 2001), p. 125.

26 On the number of Chinese before gold rush: Him Mark Lai, “The United States,” in Lynn Pan, ed., The Encyclopedia of the Chinese Overseas (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), p. 261.

26 Information on Afong Moy; “monstrously small”: New York Times, November 12, 1834.

27 Barnum exhibit; twenty thousand spectators: John Kuo Wei Tchen, “Staging Orientalism and Occidentalism: Chang and Eng Bunker and Phineas T. Barnum,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1996 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1996), p. 119.

27 A “double-jointed Chinese dwarf Chin Gan”: John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown: Orientalism and the Shaping of American Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), p. 97.

27 Details on Chang and Eng Bunker: John Kuo Wei Tchen, “Staging Orientalism and Occidentalism, pp. 93-131; Ruthanne Lum McCunn, ”Chinese in the Civil War: Ten Who Served,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1996; John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown,pp. 106-13, 134-42; Irving Wallace and Amy Wallace, The Two (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978).

Chapter Three. “Never Fear, and You Will Be Lucky”: Journey and Arrival in San Francisco

29 “Americans are very rich people”: Diane Mei Lin Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1982; Organization of Chinese Americans, 1993), p. 5.

30 three-quarters of a million Chinese men: Robert J. Schwendinger, “Investigating Chinese Immigrant Ships and Sailors,” in Genny Lim, ed., The Chinese American Experience: Papers from the Second National Conference on Chinese American Studies (1980), p. 16. An estimated 250,000 Chinese were shipped to Cuba and 87,000 to Peru between 1847 and 1874, according to Laura L. Wong, “Chinese Immigration and Its Relationship to European Development of Colonies and Frontiers,” in Genny Lim, ed., The Chinese American Experience, p. 37.

30 “without a danger of being hustled”: H. F. MacNair, Modern Chinese History: Selected Readings (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1927), pp. 409-10; Jack Chen, The Chinese of America (New York: Harper and Row, 1980), p. 21.

30-31 Description of coolie trade—the kidnappings and South American conditions: Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor: A History of the Chinese Diaspora (New York: Kodansha America, 1994), pp. 67-69; Madeline Y. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home, p. 34; John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, pp. 49-50. Tchen describes how American shipbuilders created the slave ships used for the coolie trade, and that the guano harvested by the Chinese fertilized the topsoil of Maryland tobacco plantations.

32 forty dollars in gold: Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, eds., A History of the Chinese in California: A Syllabus (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1969), pp. 14-15; William Speer, An Humble Plea (San Francisco, 1856), p. 7. According to historian Haiming Liu, the trip cost $40-$60 and it took 35 to 45 days to travel from Guangdong to California. (Haiming Liu, ”Between China and America: The Trans-Pacific History of the Chang Family,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Irvine, 1996.)

32 Travel conditions over Pacific: Jack Chen, The Chinese of America, p. 23; Sylvia Sun Minnick, Samfow: The San Joaquin Chinese Legacy (Fresno, Calif.: Panorama West Publishing, 1988), p. 8; Liping Zhu, A Chinaman’s Chance: The Chinese on the Rocky Mountain Mining Frontier(Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1997), p. 24.

32 “The food was different”: Lee Chew, “Life Story of a Chinaman,” p. 289, as cited in Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Little, Brown, 1989; reprinted by Penguin Books, 1990), p. 68.

33 Libertad: Jack Chen, p. 23.

34 Description of San Francisco before the gold rush: J. Hittel, A History of the City of San Francisco and Incidentally of California (San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft and Company, 1878), pp. 398-400; Edward Kemble, “Reminiscences of Early San Francisco,” in Joshua Paddison, ed., A World Transformed: Firsthand Accounts of California Before the Gold Rush (Berkeley, Calif.: Heyday Books, 1999), pp. 309, 315.

34 Description of San Francisco in 1848: Christopher Lee Yip, “San Francisco’s Chinatown: An Architectural and Urban History,” Ph.D. dissertation in architecture, University of California, Berkeley, 1985, p. 11; Joshua Paddison, ed., A World Transformed: Firsthand Accounts of California Before the Gold Rush, p. 311; David E. Eames, San Francisco Street Secrets (Baldwin Park, Calif.: Gem Guides Book Company, 1995), p. 51.

34 boom town of thirty thousand: David E. Eames, p. 44.

34 46 gambling halls, 144 taverns, and 537 places that sold liquor: Ibid., p. 48.

35 “worthy of an Empress”: Lucius Morris Beebe, San Francisco’s Golden Era (Berkeley, Calif.: Howell-North, 1960), p. 12.

35 Women were scarce: David E. Eames, p. 44.

35 92 percent of California was male: Clyde A. Milner II, Carol A. O’Connor, and Martha A. Sandweiss, The Oxford History of the American West, p. 815.

35 “Every man thought every woman in that day a beauty”: Curt Gentry, The Madams of San Francisco: An Irreverent History of the City by the Golden Gate (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964), p. 33.

35 Information on brothels: Mary Ellen Jones, Daily Life on the Nineteenth-Century American Frontier (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998), p. 152.

36 five murders every six days: David E. Eames, p. 66.

36 “Committee of Vigilance” history: Ibid., pp. 68-78.

36 Description of San Francisco culture: Ibid., p. 66.

37 more than half of the San Francisco population was foreign-born: Julie Joy Jeffrey, p. 143.

Chapter Four. Gold Rushers on Gold Mountain

38 Information on Chinese costumes: Edward Eberstadt, ed., Way Sketches; Containing Incidents of Travel Across the Plains, From St. Joseph to California in 1850, With Letters Describing Life and Conditions in the Gold Region by Lorenzo Sawyer, Later Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of California (New York, 1926), p. 124, as cited in Gunther Barth, Bitter Strength: A History of the Chinese in the United States 1850-1870 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 114.

39 “allow a couple of Americans to breathe in it”: Gunther Barth, p. 114; San Francisco Herald, November 28, 1857.

39 wonderfully clean”: J. D. Borthwick, Three Years in California, 1851-1854 (Edinburgh: Blackwood and Sons, 1857 [also Oakland, Calif.: Biobooks, 1949]), p. 44; Benson Tong, Unsubmissive Women: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth Century San Francisco (Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994), p. 13.

39 “They are quiet”: Vardis Fisher and Opal Laurel Holmes, Gold Rushes and Mining Camps of the Early American West (Caldwell, Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1990), p. 272.

39 “It was a mystery”: Ibid., p. 262.

39 forty-pound nugget: Pauline Minke, “Chinese in the Mother Lode (1850-1870),” thesis, California History and Government Adult Education, 1960, Asian American Studies Library, University of California at Berkeley, p. 27. (Later published as book—San Francisco: R and E Research Associates, 1974.)

40 240-pound nugget: Ibid., p. 27.

40 friendly Shoshone and Bannock Indians: Liping Zhu, A Chinaman’s Chance, p. 28.

40 water wheel: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretative History (New York: Twayne Publishers [imprint of Simon & Schuster], 1991), p. 29.

40 Tin mining: David Valentine, “Chinese Placer Mining in the United States: An Example from American Canyon, Nevada,” in Susie Lan Cassel, ed., The Chinese in America: A History from Gold Mountain to the New Millennium (Walnut Creek, Calif.: Alta Mira Press, 2002), p. 40.

40 Yuba River: Isaac Joslin Cox, Annals of Trinity County (Eugene, Ore.: John Henry Nash of the University of Oregon, 1940), p. 210, as cited in Pauline Minke, p. 26.

40 irrigation ditch from the Carson River to Gold Canyon: Origins & Destinations: 41 Essays on Chinese America / A Joint Project of Chinese Historical Society of Southern California and UCLA Asian American Studies Center (Los Angeles: Chinese Historical Society of Southern California and UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1994), p. 113; Jack Chen, p. 256.

40 “wailings of a thousand lovelorn cats”: Charles Dobie, San Francisco’s Chinatown (New York and London: D. Appteton-Century Company, 1936), p. 42, as cited in James L. Boyer, “Anti-Chinese Agitation in California, 1851-1904: A Case Study on Traditional Western Behavior,” master of arts thesis, San Francisco State College, p. 112.

41 “About every third Chinaman runs a lottery”: John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989), p. 99.

41 “We don’t know and don’t care”: Vardis Fisher and Opal Laurel Holmes, Gold Rushes and Mining Camps of the Early American West, p. 262.

41 “He assaulted me without provocation”: Diane Mei Lin Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America, p. 6.

41 Information on Joaquin Murieta: Pauline Minke, Chinese in the Mother Lode, pp. 34-35.

42 “their presence here is a great moral and social evil”: Diane Mei Lin Mark and Ginger Chih, p. 32.

42 “tide of Asiatic immigration”: Roger Daniels, Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States Since 1850 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), p. 35. Original citation: John Bigler, Governor’s Special Message, April 23, 1852, p. 4.

42 Commutation tax: Charles J. McClain, “California’s First Anti-Chinese Laws,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1995 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1995), p. 91.

42 Taxes: Otis Gibson makes reference to a 1876 statement by the Chinese Six Companies which complained that the Chinese paid taxes on personal property, the foreign miner’s tax, $200,000 in annual poll taxes, and more than $2 million in duties to the Custom House of San Francisco. Otis Gibson, The Chinese in America (reprint edition, New York: Arno Press, 1979; original published in 1877 by Hitchcock & Walden in Cincinnati), p. 321.

42 barred from the city hospital: Robert J. Schwendinger, “Investigating Chinese Immigrant Ships and Sailors,” The Chinese American Experience: Papers from the Second National Conference, Chinese American Studies (1980), p. 21.

43 Information on foreign miner’s tax: Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., “Chink!” A Documentary History of Anti-Chinese Prejudice in America (New York: World Publishing Company, 1972), pp. 4, 11; Charles J. McClain, “California’s First Anti-Chinese Laws,” p. 91; Chen-Yung Fan, “The Chinese Language School of San Francisco in Relation to Family Integration and Cultural Identity,” Ph.D. dissertation in education, Duke University, 1976, p. 44.

43 “I had no money to keep Christmas with”: Charles Dobie, p. 50, as cited in James Boyer, p. 119.

43 tied the Chinese to trees: Pauline Minke, p. 46.

43 “I was sorry to have to stab the poor fellow”: Vardis Fisher and Opal Laurel Holmes, p. 261; Charles Dobie, p. 50.

43 runners to sprint from one village to the next: Pauline Minke, p. 47.

43 Maidu Indians: Gunther Barth, p. 145.

44 “no black or mulatto person”: Charles J. McClain, “California’s First Anti-Chinese Laws,” p. 100.

44 “same type of human species”: Ibid., pp. 101, 140. The full text of Murray’s opinion can be found in Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., “Chink!,” pp. 3-43.

44 “soon see them at the polls”: Charles J. McClain, “California’s First Anti-Chinese Laws,” p. 101. Also, People v. Hall case file, October 1, 1854, California State Archives, Sacramento.

44 “Any failing to comply”: Diane Mei Lin Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America, p. 32.

45 In El Dorado County, white miners torched Chinese tents: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ’: A Documentary Study of an American Chinatown (New York: Pantheon, 1972, 1973), p. 37.

45 “opened the way for almost every sort of discrimination against the Chinese”: Elmer Clarence Sandmeyer, The Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991; original edition published in 1939), p. 45.

45 picked over abandoned claims: The historical record suggests that the Chinese miners were extremely thorough. As one contemporary observed, “When a Chinaman gets through going over the diggings with a comb, there ain’t enough gold left to fill a bedbug’s mouth.” Nelson Chia-Chi Ho, “Portland’s Chinatown: The History of an Urban Ethnic District,” in Paul D. Buell, Douglas W. Lee, and Edward Kaplan, eds., The Annals of the Chinese Historical Society of the Pacific Northwest (The National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1984), p. 31.

45 Ah Sam: Autobiography of Charles Peters, pp. 143-45, as cited in Gunther Barth, Bitter Strength, p. 116.

45 dilettante ancestors: For example, interview with Rodney Chow, #149, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

45 Wong Kee: Sue Fawn Chung, “Destination: Nevada, the Silver Mountain,” Origins & Destinations: 41 Essays on Chinese America, p. 119.

46 First ship to sail from Canton: H. Brett Melendy, Chinese and Japanese Americans (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1984), p. 15; Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of California, Vol. 7 (San Francisco: The History Company, 1890), p. 336.

46 “two or three ‘Celestials’ ”: San Francisco Star, April 1, 1848.

46 325 Chinese arrived: Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Little, Brown, 1989; reprinted by Penguin Books, 1990), p. 79.

46 450 in 1850: Ibid., p. 79.

46 90 percent quickly moved to rural mining camps: Laverne Mau Dicker, The Chinese in San Francisco: A Pictorial History (New York: Dover Publications, 1979), pp. 355-370, as cited in Qingsong Zhang, “Dragon in the Land of the Eagle: The Exclusion of Chinese from U.S. Citizenship, 1848-1943,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Virginia, 1994, p. 196.

46 Information on “little China” in San Francisco: Christopher Lee Yip, “San Francisco’s Chinatown: An Architectural and Urban History,” Ph.D. dissertation in architecture, University of California at Berkeley, 1985, pp. 85, 90-94; Chin-Yu Chen, “San Francisco’s Chinatown: A Socio-Economic and Cultural History, 1850-1882,” Ph.D. dissertation in history, University of Idaho, 1992, p. 27; Curt Gentry, The Madams of San Francisco, p. 55.

47 more than 2,716 new immigrants: Chin-Yu Chen, p. 29.

47 by 1852 the number had jumped to more than twenty thousand: Ibid., p. 29.

47 gathering of some three hundred Chinese: San Francisco Daily Alta California, December 10, 1849.

48 Description of Chinese restaurants: Christopher Lee Yip, pp. 144-46; Otis Gibson, The Chinese in America, pp. 70-71; Chin-Yu Chen, p. 95.

48 “The best eating houses”: William Shaw, Golden Dreams and Waking Realities (1851), as cited in Jack Chen, The Chinese of America, p. 57.

48 chop suey: National Public Radio, All Things Considered transcript 2320-9, August 29, 1996; Robert Cross, “Chop Suey: Alive and Selling Well in American Restaurants; Beginnings of the Cuisine Lost, but Popularity Remains High,” Chicago Tribune, February 11, 1988.

49 twelve dollars for a dozen shirts: Jack Chen, p. 58.

49 four months: Ibid., p. 58.

49 Wah Lee: Paul Siu, The Chinese Laundryman: A Study in Social Isolation (New York: New York University Press, 1987), p. 46.

49 curio stores: J. D. Borthwick, Three Years in California (Oakland, Calif.: Biobooks, 1948), p. 61, as cited in Chin-Yu Chen, pp. 28-29.

49 “mere shells”: San Francisco Daily Alta California, November 22, 1853, as cited in Christopher Lee Yip, p. 86.

49 $200 a month: The Oriental, as cited in Chin-Yu Chen, p. 28.

50 Gold Hills News: Gold Hills News, May 4, 1868, in Chin-Yu Chen, pp. 28, 41.

50 “It is a little singular”: Edward C. Kemble, A History of California Newspapers 1846-1858. Reprinted from the Supplement to the Sacramento Union of December 25, 1858 (Los Gatos, Calif.: Talisman Press, 1962), p. 161.

50 from a prefabricated kit: L. Rodecap, “Celestial Drama in the Golden Hills,” California Historical Quarterly, 23:2 (June 1944), p. 101, as cited in Christopher Lee Yip, p. 149.

50 “two or three months are generally consumed”: Otis Gibson, The Chinese in America, pp. 78-79.

51 prominent place in the memorial procession: Theodore Hittel, History of California, Vol. 4 (San Francisco: N. J. Stone, 1898), pp. 98-99, as cited in Charles J. McClain, “California’s First Anti-Chinese Laws,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1995, p. 88.

51 Mayor John Geary: San Francisco Daily Alta California, May 12, 1851, p. 2.

51 “China Boys will yet vote at the same polls”: San Francisco Daily Alta California, May 12, 1851, as cited in Victor Low, The Unimpressible Race: A Century of Educational Struggle by the Chinese in San Francisco (San Francisco, California: East/West Publishing Company, 1982), p. 2.

51 “Many have already adopted your religion as their own”: Mary Roberts Coolidge, Chinese Immigration (New York: Henry Holt, 1909), p. 55. Also in Victor Low, p. 2.

51 “morally a far worse class”: San Francisco Daily Alta California, May 21, 1853, p. 2, as cited in Victor Low, pp. 2-3. Also in H. Brett Melendy, Chinese and Japanese Americans, p. 30.

52 “How long, sir”: Qingsong Zhang, Ph.D. dissertation, 1994, p. 46.

Chapter Five. Building the Transcontinental Railroad

55 Eight hundred laborers: Tzu-Kuei Yen, “Chinese Workers and the First Transcontinental Railroad of the United States of America,” Ph.D. dissertation, St. John’s University, 1976, p. 34.

55 “unsteady men, unreliable”: David Haward Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999), p. 208.

55 close to fifty thousand: John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989), p. 95.

55 hired fifty Chinese anyway: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 33.

56 “I will not boss Chinese!”: Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, eds., A History of the Chinese in California: A Syllabus (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1969), p. 44.

56 four feet ten ... and weighed 120 pounds: Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It in the World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), p. 150.

56 race of people who had built the Great Wall of China: John Hoyt Williams, pp. 96-97; Lynne Rhodes Mayer and Kenneth E. Vose, Makin’ Tracks: The Story of the Transcontinental Railroad in the Pictures and Words of the Men Who Were There (New York: Praeger, 1975), p. 27.

56 “quiet, peaceable, patient”: Southern Pacific Relations Memorandum, The Chinese Role in Building the Central Pacific, January 3, 1966. Also Charles Nordhoff, California, A Book for Travelers and Settlers (New York, 1873), pp. 189-90. Both cited in Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, p. 45.

56 “dregs” of Asia: Tzu-Kuei Yen, pp. 40-42.

56 “I like the idea”: William Deverell, Railroad Crossing: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 15. Also Stephen E. Ambrose, p. 243.

57 Central Pacific recruitment tactics: David Haward Bain, Empire Express, p. 331. Charlie Crocker hired a Chinese artist to engrave the recruitment information onto woodblocks and printed 5,000 handbills, which were posted in China and California.

57 “inherent and inalienable right of man”: Erika Lee, “Enforcing and Challenging Exclusion in San Francisco: U.S. Immigration Officials and Chinese Immigrants, 1882-1902,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1997 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1997), p. 3.

57 transported by riverboat to Sacramento: Stephen E. Ambrose, p. 161.

57 organized into teams of about a dozen: David Haward Bain, p. 221.

57 foreman: Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, p. 44.

57 special ingredients like cuttlefish: Lynne Rhodes Mayer and Kenneth E. Vose, Makin’ Tracks, p. 32.

57 slept in tents: Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, p. 45.

57 employ more than ten thousand Chinese men: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretative History (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1991) p. 30.

57 “persecuted not for their vices”: Stephen E. Ambrose, p. 153.

58 “always outmeasured the Cornish miners”: Charlie Crocker’s testimony, November 25, 1876. Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley. Crocker also said of the Chinese, “They are very trusty; and they are very intelligent, and they live up to their contracts.”

58 “I think we were paying $35 a month and board to white laborers”: cited in David Haward Bain, p. 222.

58 “damned nagurs”: David Haward Bain, p. 222.

58 driving the Chinese off the job: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 36.

58 ten barrels of gunpowder: John Hoyt Williams, p. 115.

59 handheld drills: Neill C. Wilson and Frank J. Taylor, Southern Pacific: The Roaring Story of a Fighting Railroad (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952), p. 18.

59 porphyritic rock: John Hoyt Williams, p. 115.

59 seven inches a day: Ibid.; Lynne Rhodes Mayer and Kenneth E. Vose, p. 40.

59 a million dollars for each mile of tunnel: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 126.

59 several shifts of men: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 129; Neill C. Wilson and Frank J. Taylor, p. 19.

59 nitroglycerin: Neill C. Wilson and Frank J. Taylor, p. 18. Also, John Hoyt Williams, p. 133.

59 an ancient method used to create fortresses: Stephen E. Ambrose, p. 156.

60 salt beef, potatoes, bread: Lynne Rhodes Mayer and Kenneth E. Vose, p. 32.

60 fresh boiled tea: Ping Chiu, Chinese Labor in California, 1850-1880: An Economic Study (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin for the Department of History, University of Wisconsin, 1963), p. 49; Lynne Rhodes Mayer and Kenneth E. Vose, p. 32.

60 “not having acquired the taste of whiskey”: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 35.

60 “a sort of hydrophobia”: John Hoyt Williams, p. 98. Original citation: Pamphlet by B. S. Brooks, The Chinese in California, San Francisco, possibly 1876. Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley.

60 thirty-foot drifts: John Hoyt Williams, p. 130.

60 “Homeric winter”: John Hoyt Williams, p. 143.

60 eighty feet high: Lynne Rhodes Mayer and Kenneth E. Vose, p. 52.

Power snowplows: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 123.

60 Sheds: Lynne Rhodes Mayer and Kenneth E. Vose, p. 52.

60 horses broke the icy crust: John Hoyt Williams, p. 143; Original citation: George Kraus, High Road to Promontory (Palo Alto, Calif.: American West Publishing Company, 1969), p. 148.

60 Norwegian postal worker: John Hoyt Williams, p. 144.

60 carved a working city under the snow: John Hoyt Williams, pp. 143-44. Also Wesley S. Griswold, A Work of Giants (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962), pp. 191-92.

61 “a gang of Chinamen”: Dutch Flat Enquirer, December 25, 1866, as cited in Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, p. 45.

61 corpses still standing erect: Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 86; Railroad Record, October 31, 1867, p. 401, as cited in John Hoyt Williams, p. 161.

61 Landslides: John Hoyt Williams, p. 115.

61 Melting snow: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 121.

61 plummet to 50 degrees below zero: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 132.

61 soar above 120: John Hoyt Williams, p. 208.

61 twelve-hour shifts: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 37.

61 on Sundays: Origins & Destinations: 41 Essays on Chinese America, p. 125.

61 two-thirds those of white workers: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 111.

61 a fourth those of white foremen: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 130.

61 allocation for feed for horses: Ibid., p. 130.

62 endured whippings: Ibid., p. 38; Stephen E. Ambrose, p. 241. The historical record suggests that Strobridge had difficulty viewing the Chinese as human beings. “I used to quarrel with Strobridge when I first went in,” Crocker told a biographer. “Said I, ‘Don’t talk so to the men—they are human creatures—don’t talk so roughly to them.’ Said he, ‘You have got to do it, and you will come to it; you cannot talk to them as though you were talking to gentlemen, because they are not gentlemen. They are about as near brutes as they can get.’ ” (David Haward Bain, p. 208.)

62 brink of bankruptcy: John Hoyt Williams, p. 181; Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 28.

62 two thousand Chinese in the Sierras walked off the job: Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, p. 45.

62 a list of demands: Tzu-Kuei Yen, pp. 130-31; Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, p. 46. According to Chinn, Lai, and Choy, the workers demanded a raise to forty dollars a month and a reduction of work to ten hours in the open and eight hours in the tunnels.

62 circulated ... a placard: Tzu-Kuei Yen, pp. 130-31.

62 an attempt to recruit ten thousand recently freed American blacks: John Hoyt Williams, p. 181.

62 cut off the food supply: John Hoyt Williams, p. 181.

62 strike lasted only a week: Tzu-Kuei Yen, pp. 39, 130-31.

62 raise of two dollars a month: Ping Chiu, p. 47

62 “If there had been that number of whites in a strike”: Stephen E.

Ambrose, p. 242. 63 Description of Irish harassment and Chinese retaliation: Tzu-Kuei

Yen, pp. 143-44. 63 ten miles of track a day: David Haward Bain, p. 639.

63 wager $10,000: Stephen E. Ambrose, p. 348. A witness to the competition raved about the Chinese, “I never saw such organization as this; it is just like an army marching across over the grounds and leaving a track built behind them.” (Stephen E. Ambrose, p. 350.)

63 690 miles of track: “Condition of the Union Pacific Railroad.” Letter from the Secretary of the Interior, Transmitting Report of Isaac N. Morris, one of the Commissions appointed to examine the unaccepted portions of the Union Pacific Railroad. June 3, 1876, Referred to the Committee on the Pacific Railroad. June 20, 1876, Ordered to be printed. Forty-fourth Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives, Ex. Doc. No. 180.

63 1,086 miles: Ibid.

64 one thousand Chinese railroad workers died: An estimated 1,200 Chinese died out of 10,000 to 12,000 Chinese workers. (The Asian American Almanac, p. 46; Connie Young Yu, “Who Are the Chinese Americans?,” in Susan Gall, managing ed., and Irene Natividad, executive ed., The Asian American Almanac: A Reference Work on Asians in the United States [Detroit: Gale Research, 1995]; Lynne Rhodes Mayer and Kenneth E. Vose, 28.) The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, p. 219, gives the figure of 12,000 to 14,000 Chinese workers. William Chew, a descendent of a transcontinental railroad worker, found through his research that on average for every two miles of track laid, three Chinese laborers died in accidents (Salt Lake Tribune, May 11, 1999).

64 twenty thousand pounds of bones: Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor: A History of the Chinese Diaspora (New York: Kodansha America, 1994), p. 55.

64 journey back to the Sierra Nevada to search for the remains of their colleagues: Connie Young Yu, “John C. Young, A Man Who Loved History,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1989 (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1989), p. 6.

64 excluded from the ceremonies: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans, p. 31.

64 laid off most of the Chinese workers: Ibid., p. 32.

64 refusing to give them even their return passage: Ibid.

64 retained only a few hundred: Ibid., p. 32.

64 converted boxcars: Origins & Destinations: 41 Essays on Chinese America, p. 129.

Chapter Six. Life on the Western Frontier

66 whites were paid seven dollars a day, the Chinese only two dollars or less: Leigh Bristol-Kagan, “Chinese Migration to California, 1851-1882: Selected Industries of Work, the Chinese Institutions and the Legislative Exclusion of a Temporary Work Force,” Ph.D. dissertation in history and East Asian languages, Harvard University, 1982, p. 38.

66 “shaking, toothless wrecks”: Edwin Clausen and Jack Bermingham, Chinese and African Professionals in California: A Case Study of Equality and Opportunity in the United States (Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1982), p. 14.

67 austere Chinese work ethic all but disappeared: Madeline Y. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home, p. 42.

67 “when the ships occasionally cannot [sail]”: Madeline Y. Hsu, p. 42.

67 “simple, reverential, and thrifty”: Zhiqiu Pan, Ningyang Cundu (Ningyang deposited letters) (Toishan: n.p., 1898), as cited in Madeline Y. Hsu, p. 40.

68 “In a flash”: Ibid.

68 “various charities are everywhere”: Madeline Y. Hsu, pp. 41—42.

68 beheaded some seventy-five thousand suspected participants: Jack Chen, p. 16.

69 clashes killed two hundred thousand people: Madeline Y. Hsu, p. 27.

70 “red-haired, green-eyed foreign devils”: R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee, eds., Land Without Ghosts: Chinese Impressions of America from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), p. 16; Lee Chew, “The Life Story of a Chinaman,” in Hamilton Holt, ed., The Life Stories of Undistinguished Americans (New York: J. Pott, 1906), p. 285.

70 “[A]s we walked along the streets”: “Life History and Social Document of Mr. J. S. Look,” Seattle, August 13, 1924 by C. H. Burnett, p. 1. Major Document 182, Box 27, Survey of Race Relations, archives of the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University. (The hair color, clothes, and courtship rituals of white Americans provoked the most interest among Chinese immigrants, judging from their memoirs.)

70 “barbarian women”: R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee, p. 34.

70-71 “cacophony of dingdang noises”: Ibid., p. 34.

71 “a great bother”: Ibid., pp. 35-36.

71 “ritual of touching lips together”: Ibid., p. 38.

71 “requires making a chirping sound”: Ibid., p. 38.

72 only one in ten California farm laborers was Chinese: Betty Lee Sung, The Story of the Chinese in America (New York: Collier, 1971), pp. 35-36. Carey McWilliams, California, the Great Exception (New York: Current Books, 1949), p. 152.

72 one in two: Ibid.

72 almost nine in ten: By 1886, the Chinese comprised 85.7 percent of the California agricultural force. Susan Auerbach, Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, Vol. 2 (New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1994), p. 372.

72 two-thirds of the vegetables: Jack Chen, The Chinese of America, p. 84; Origins & Destinations, p. 437.

72 reclamation of the Sacramento-San Joaquin delta: C. D. Abbott, a landowner who employed Chinese laborers, asserted that “white men refused to work up to their knees in the water, slime and filth”; Sandy Lydon, Chinese Gold: The Chinese in the Monterey Bay Region (Capitola, Calif.: Capitola Book Company, 1985), p. 286.

73 left the Chinese behind, to scream out at passing ships: Julian Dana, The Sacramento: River of Gold (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1939), pp. 160-64, as cited in Sucheng Chan, “The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1860-1900,” in Genny Lim, ed., The Chinese American Experience: Papers from the Second National Conference on Chinese American Studies (1980), p. 71.

73 “tule shoe”: Sylvia Sun Minnick, Samfow: The San Joaquin Chinese Legacy (Fresno, Calif.: Panorama West Publishing, 1988), p. 69; Jack Chen, p. 87.

73 two or three dollars an acre: Tzu-Kuei Yen, p. 103.

73 seventy-five dollars an acre: Ibid.

73 hundreds of millions: The value of Chinese labor to the construction of the railroad and the reclamation of the tule land was estimated to be $289,700,000 in 1876-1877 dollars. Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, eds., A History of the Chinese in California: A Syllabus(San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1969), p. 56. Also Jeff Gillenkirk and James Motlow, Bitter Melon: Inside America’s Last Rural Chinese Town (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1987), p. 9.

73 lice and fleas: Robert A. Nash, “The ‘China Gangs’ in the Alaska Packers Association Canneries, 1892-1935,” The Life, Influence and the Role of the Chinese in the United States, 1776-1960, Proceedings/Papers of the National Conference held at the University of San Francisco, July 10, 11, 12, 1975, sponsored by the Chinese Historical Society of America (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1976), p. 273.

74 more than three thousand Chinese: Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, p. 42. By 1881, 3,100 Chinese cannery workers were employed by Columbia River canneries.

74 “Only Chinese men were employed in the work”: Rudyard Kipling, From Sea to Sea: Letters of Travel (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1923), pp. 33-34, as cited in Chris Friday, Organizing Asian American Labor: The Pacific Coast Canned-Salmon Industry, 1870-1942, p. 25.

74 “not so much like men”: Chris Friday, p. 30.

74 “as with the whip”: Ibid., p. 40.

74 debone up to two thousand fish: Ibid., p. 30.

74 “the Iron Chink”: Ibid., p. 84.

75 special four-dollar-a-month fishing license: Jack Chen, p. 100; Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman’s Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 112-14.

75 withhold fishing licenses: Arthur F. McEvoy, pp. 112-13; Sylvia Sun Minnick, p. 74.

75 almost a quarter of all of the Chinese: Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Little, Brown, 1989; reprinted by Penguin Books, 1990), p. 79.

76 Description of San Francisco in the 1870s: Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1997), p. xxxvii.

76 “narrow, revoltingly dirty”: Ibid., p. xxxviii.

77 nearly half of the labor force in the city’s four major industries: Benson Tong, Unsubmissive Women, p. 76.

77 80 percent of the workers in woolen mills: Jack Chen, p. 111. According to Jack Chen, 80 percent of the shirtmakers in San Francisco were also Chinese.

77 90 percent of the cigar makers: Stephan Thernstrom, ed., Ann Orlov, managing ed., Oscar Handlin, consulting ed., Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1980), p. 219.

77 had five thousand highly successful Chinese businessmen: Otis Gibson, The Chinese in America, p. 59.

77 owned half the city’s cigar factories: Ping Chiu, Chinese Labor in California, p. 122.

77 eleven out of twelve slipper factories: Chin-Yu Chen, “San Francisco’s Chinatown,” p. 86; Jack Chen, p. 113; Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, p. 51.

77 gleaming with crystal, porcelain, and ivory: Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor, p. 102.

77 “It is no uncommon thing to find”: Otis Gibson, p. 54.

78 “there were so many of us”: “Life History and Social Document of Mr. J. S. Look,” Seattle, August 13, 1924, by C. H. Burnett, p. 1.

78 crates found on the street: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ’: A Documentary Study of an American Chinatown (New York: Pantheon, 1972), p. 70.

78 slept in shifts: Ibid., p. 69.

78 “scarcely a single ray of light”: Otis Gibson, p. 54.

78 Description of Chinatown informal government: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, pp. 64-66.

78-79 served as unofficial ambassadors: Chin-Yu Chen, p. 35.

79 own guild in San Francisco: Jack Chen, p. 28.

79 Kong Chow Association: Christopher Lee Yip, “San Francisco’s Chinatown: An Architectural and Urban History,” Ph.D. dissertation in architecture, University of California at Berkeley, 1985, p. 37.

79 split into two groups: Ibid., p. 37.

79 offices in prominent neighborhoods: Ibid., p. 94.

79 Description of services of the Six Companies: Chin-Yu Chen, pp. 34, 37.

79 house of worship: B. Lloyd, Lights and Shades in San Francisco (San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft and Company, 1876), pp. 272-74; Pauline Minke, “Chinese in the Mother Lode (1850-1870),” thesis, California History and Government Adult Education, 1960, Asian American Studies Library, University of California at Berkeley.

80 Description of funerals and burials: Linda Sun Crowder, “Mortuary Practices in San Francisco Chinatown,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1999, pp. 33-46; Sylvia Sun Minnick, Samfow, p. 292; B. Lloyd, p. 367, and San Francisco Daily Alta California, September 1, 1868, April 4, 1868, and June 1, 1867, as cited in Christopher Lee Yip, pp. 109-13. As late as 1992, 1,300 sets of bones were still warehoused in San Francisco for future shipment to China (Chin-Yu Chen, p. 18); Sandy Lydon, Chinese Gold, pp. 131-32.

81 “Tonight we pledge ourselves”: Lynn Pan, p. 20.

81 Description of mui tsai: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), pp. 37-39.

81 “death was all around them”: Elizabeth Cooper, My Lady of the Chinese Courtyard (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1914), pp. 13-14, as cited in Benson Tong, p. 18.

82 “Mother was crying”: Victor and Brett de Bary Nee, p. 84.

82 “grand, free country”: “Story of Wong Ah So.” Major Document 146, Box 26, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution of War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University. Wong Ah So was later rescued by Donaldina Cameron, converted to Christianity, learned how to read and write English, and married a Chinese merchant in Boise, Idaho. In 1933, she wrote to Cameron to report that one of her daughters would graduate from the University of Washington, where she was studying bacteriology.

82 “devil American prison”: Benson Tong, Unsubmissive Women, p. 57.

82 Quick-witted girls managed to escape their fate: Ibid., pp. 58-59.

83 audiences that included police officers: Ibid., p. 69.

83 a Chinese theater or even a Chinese temple: Ibid., p. 70.

83 Description of parlor houses and cribs: Stephen Longstreet, ed., Nell Kimball: The Life As an American Madam by Herself (New York: Macmillan, 1970), pp. 226-27; Herbert Ashbury, The Barbary Coast: An Informal History of the San Francisco Underground (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1933), pp. 174-76; Judy Yung, pp. 27-30.

83 “Two bittee lookee”: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 29.

84 both feet frozen: Huping Ling, Surviving on the Gold Mountain: A History of Chinese American Women and Their Lives (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), p. 57.

84 “Chiney ladies”: Ibid., p. 57.

84 nailed shut inside a crate: Ibid., p. 57

84 leased them out to local garment factories to sew by day: Ibid., p. 59.

84 “beats and pounds them with sticks of fire-wood”: Otis Gibson, p. 156.

84 acid thrown in her face: Benson Tong, p. 142.

84 swallowing raw opium: Judy Yung, p. 33.

85 average brothel employed nine women: Huping Ling, p. 59.

85 annual profit of $2,500: Lucie Cheng Hirata, “Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth-Century America,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, Autumn 1979. As cited in Judy Yung, p. 30.

85 paid $40 in insurance: Otis Gibson, p. 137.

85 “Yut Kum consents to prostitute her body”: Benson Tong, p. 201. Original citation: Congressional Record, 43rd Cong., 2d sess., March 1875, 3, pt. 3:41.

86 frightening them to tears: Otis Gibson, p. 208.

86 writs of habeas corpus: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, p. 88.

86 “search the whole house”: Ibid., p. 88.

86 sticks of dynamite: Benson Tong, p. 185.

86 ascending to the rooftops: Lynn Pan, p. 104. For additional sources on Donaldina Cameron, see Mildred Crowl Martin, Chinatown’s Angry Angel: The Story of Donaldina Cameron (Palo Alto: Pacific Books, 1977); Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Carol Green Wilson, Chinatown Quest: One Hundred Years of Donaldina Cameron House 1874-1974 (San Francisco: California Historical Society, 1974); Sarah Refo Mason, “Social Christianity, American Feminism, and Chinese Prostitutes: The History of the Presbyterian Mission Home, San Francisco, 1874-1935,” in Maria Jaschok and Suzanne Miers, eds., Women and Chinese Patriarchy: Submission, Servitude and Escape (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1944); Laurence Wu McClain, “Donaldina Cameron: A Reappraisal,” Pacific Historian, Fall 1985.

86 sophisticated system of alarm bells: “Statement of Chun Ho, Rescued Chinese Slave Girl, at the Presbyterian Rescue Home, Miss Cameron, Matron, in the Matter of Investigation into Chinese Highbinder Societies,” p. 9. File 55374/876, Box 360, Entry 9, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

86 fifteen hundred Chinese women were rescued: Judy Yung, p. 35.

86 “to better her condition”: Huping Ling, p. 24.

87 “gaze upon the countenance of the charming Ah Toy”: Curt Gentry, Madams of San Francisco: An Irreverent History of the City by the Golden Gate (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964), p. 52.

87 three months short of her hundredth birthday: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 34.

87 Description of Suey Him’s life: Ibid.

87 those keeping house grew from 753 in 1870 to 1,145 in 1880: Huping Ling, p. 61.

88 Story of Polly Bemis: Huping Ling, p. 79; Benson Tong, p. 22; Vardis Fisher and Opal Laurel Holmes, Gold Rushes and Mining Camps of the Early American West (Caldwell, Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1990), pp. 273-74.

88 Descriptions of abductions of wives by highbinders: Benson Tong, p. 172.

88 “She would either have to marry one of them men or go back to China”: Major Document #154, Box 26, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

89 physicians in San Francisco lobbied to exclude Chinese prostitutes: The Chinese Hospital of San Francisco (Oakland: Carruth and Carruth, 1899), p. 1; San Francisco Chronicle, July 1, 1871; California Department of Public Health, First Biennial Report of the State Board of Health of California for the Years 1870 and 1871 (San Francisco: D. W. Gelwicks, 1871), p. 46. All three cited in Benson Tong, Unsubmissive Women, p. 105.

89 “death-houses”: Benson Tong, p. 106.

89 “stretched on the floor of this damp, foul-smelling den”: Ibid., p. 107.

90 “My father traveled all over the world”: Origins & Destinations: 41 Essays on Chinese America, p. 83.

90 “When I came to America as a bride”: Rose Hum Lee, The Growth and Decline of Chinese Communities in the Rocky Mountain Region (New York: Arno Press, 1978), p. 252.

91 “Now and then the women visit one another”: Sui Seen [Sin] Far, “The Chinese Woman in America,” Land of Sunshine, January 1897, p. 62.

92 a few hundred Chinese families lived in America, and perhaps one thousand Chinese children: Otis Gibson, The Chinese in America, p. 318.

Chapter Seven. Spreading Across America

93 63,199 Chinese: 1870 U.S. Census. For Chinese census statistics in the United States for the nineteenth century, see Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, eds., A History of the Chinese in California: A Syllabus (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1969),p.19, table II.

93 99.4 percent: 1870 U.S. Census. Table II in Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy gives the statistic of 62,831 Chinese in the western states in 1870. Very few Chinese lived in the East Coast or Midwest during this era. Officially there was only one Chinese person in the entire state of Illinois in 1870, a number that grew to 209 by 1880. Some of the few Chinese in the Midwest had migrated from East Coast cities, not the West Coast. (Douglas Knox, “The Chinese American Midwest: Migration and the Negotiation of Ethnicity,” unpublished paper. Also Adam McKeown, “Chinese Migrants Among Ghosts: Chicago, Peru and Hawaii in the Early Twentieth Century,” Ph.D. dissertation in history, University of Chicago, 1997, p. 241.)

93 78 percent—in California: 1870 U.S. Census. According to table II in Thomas W. Chinn, H. Mark Lai, and Philip P. Choy, 49,277 Chinese lived in California in 1870.

94 “come to the conclusion that we Chinese are the same as Indians and Negroes”: Lai Chun-chuen, Remarks of the Chinese Merchants of San Francisco on Governor Bigler’s Message, translated by W. Speer, Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley, as cited in Charles J. McClain, “California’s First Anti-Chinese Laws,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1995 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1995), p. 102.

94 King Weimah: Gunther Barth, Bitter Strength, p. 145.

95 “If the Chinese were allowed to vote”: Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), p. 447.

95 federal court decision: Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., “Chink!,” p. 14.

96 “Emancipation has spoiled the Negro”: “The Coming Laborer,” Vicksburg Times, June 30, 1869, as cited in James W. Loewen, The Mississippi Chinese: Between Black and White (Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1988; originally published by Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. viii, 22.

96 “Give us five million”: Eric Foner, pp. 419-20.

96 Tye Kim Orr: Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), p. 31.

96 Information on Cornelius Koopmanschap: Andrew Gyory, p. 31. Also, Gunther Barth, pp. 191-95.

97 “All Chinese make much money in New Orleans if they work”: Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor, pp. 53-54.

97 “nice rooms and very fine food”: Ibid.

97 the arrival of about two thousand Chinese in the South: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans, p. 82.

97 some 250 Chinese men came as employees of the Houston & Texas Central Railroad: Ibid., p. 82.

97 a thousand Chinese arrived in Alabama: Ibid., p. 82.

97 staged a strike to protest the whipping: Lucy M. Cohen, “George W. Gift, Chinese Labor Agent in the Post-Civil War South,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1995 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1995), p. 174.

97 attempted to lynch a Chinese agent: Jackson Weekly Clarion, November 20, 1873, as cited in James W. Loewen, p. 31.

97 shot and killed Chinese: Ibid.

98 Information about bilingual interpreters: Lucy M. Cohen, Chinese in the Post-Civil War South: A People Without a History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984), p. 83.

98 press charges against their employers: Lucy M. Cohen, “George W. Gift, Chinese Labor Agent in the Post-Civil War South,” p. 74.

98 U.S. authorities halted Chinese labor recruitment: Ibid., p. 159.

99 By 1915, scarcely a single plantation: Powell Clayton, The Aftermath of the Civil War in Arkansas (New York: Neale, 1915), p. 214, as cited in James W. Loewen, p. 31.

100 Information on strike in North Adams: Andrew Gyory, pp. 39-41.

100 first manufacturer in American history: Andrew Gyory, p. 60.

101 “A large and hostile crowd”: The Nation, June 23, 1870, p. 397.

101 “No scabs or rats admitted here”: Andrew Gyory, p. 41.

101 “there can be nowhere a busier, more orderly group of workmen”: Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, December 1870, p. 138, as cited in Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 98.

101 “labored regularly and constantly”: William Shanks, “Chinese Skilled Labor,” Scrihner’s Monthly, Vol. 2, September 1871, pp. 495-96, as cited in Ronald Takaki, p. 98.

101 Information on James B. Hervey: Ronald Takaki, p. 99; Gunther Barth, pp. 203-6; Renqiu Yu, To Save China, to Save Ourselves: The Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance of New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), pp. 9-10. Arthur Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither? The Chinese in New York 1800-1950 (Cranbury, N.J.: Associated University Presses, 1997), pp. 26-27, 30-32.

101 “shows a manifest attempt to revive the institution of slavery”: Roger Daniels, Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States Since 1850 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), p. 42.

102 10 percent wage reduction: Ronald Takaki, p. 98.

102 “more and more like their white neighbors”: Renqiu Yu, p. 9.

102 discharged all of them: Arthur Bonner, p. 32.

102 peddling and candy making: John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, pp. 77, 81, 227, 233-35.

102 748 Chinese lived in Manhattan: Ibid., p. 225.

102 two thousand Chinese laundries: Renqiu Yu, p. 8.

103 five Chinese youths: Thomas E. LaFargue, China’s First Hundred: Educated Mission Students in the United States 1872-1881 (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1987), p. 166.

103 Ah Lum: Carl T. Smith, “Commissioner Lin’s Translators,” Chung Chi Bulletin, no. 42, June 1967.

103 Information on Yung Wing: Yung Wing, My Life in China and America (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1909); Jack Chen, The Chinese of America, pp. 177-78.

103 “foreign intercourse with China”: Yung Wing, p. 2.

104 “I wanted the utmost freedom of action”: Yung Wing, p. 35.

104 “Knowledge is power”: Yung Wing, p. 50.

105 decapitation of seventy-five thousand people: Jack Chen, p. 16.

105 “If I were allowed to practice my profession”: Yung Wing, p. 60.

106 “the best time to serve their homeland”: Timothy Kao, “Yung Wing (1828-1912): The First Chinese Graduate from an American University.” Paper presented during “Chinese Pioneer Scholars in the Nineteenth-Century U.S.: A Little-Known Aspect of the Chinese Diaspora” conference, Yale University, September 21, 1998, p. 2.

106 adapting to New England life: Ibid., p. 4.

106 played American sports: Ibid., p. 3.

107 Information on Tang Guoan, Tang Shaoyi, and Zhan Tianyou: Ibid., p. 6.

109 Lue Gim Gong: Ruthanne Lum McCunn, Chinese American Portraits: Personal Histories 1828-1988 (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1988), pp. 33-39; Ruthanne Lum McCunn, “Lue Gim Gong: A Life Reclaimed,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1989, pp. 117-35.

110 “With few or no Chinese women available”: Lucy M. Cohen, Chinese in the Post-Civil War South, p. 176.

110 outnumbered Irish male arrivals two to one: Roger Daniels, Coming to America, p. 142.

110 Harper’s Weekly: Harper’s Weekly, October 3, 1857, as cited in Gunther Barth, p. 210.

110 most owners of Chinese boarding houses were married to either Irish or German women: New York Times, June 20, 1859.

111 “handsome but squalidly dressed young white girl”: New York Times, December 26, 1873, as cited in Ronald Takaki, p. 101.

111 Edward Harrigan: John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, pp. 127, 219-20. Original citation: Edward Harrigan papers, Manuscripts and Archives section, New York Public Library.

111 Store windows: John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, p. 128.

111 Yankee Notions: Yankee Notions, March 1858, as cited in John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, p. 124-27.

111 even “whiter” than most of their neighbors: New York World, January 30, 1877, as cited in John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, p. 229.

112 “young and pretty Irish girl”: New York Sun, February 16, 1874.

112 Story about Charles Sun: Interview with Paul Siu in Douglas Knox’s unpublished paper, “The Chinese American Midwest: Migration and the Negotiation of Ethnicity.”

113 only state in the union: Lucy M. Cohen, Chinese in the Post-Civil War South, p. 2.

113 “little half-breed children”: John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, p. 228.

114 Information on the two sons of Yung Wing (Morrison and Bartlet Yung): Provided by Yung Wing’s grandson, Frank Yung, in his correspondence with the author.

114 “pass for what he wants”: Lucy M. Cohen, Chinese in the Post-Civil War South, p. 170.

114 “That made me angry”: Ibid., p. 171.

115 “I have come from a race”: Edith Maud Eaton (pseudonym Sui Sin Far), “Leaves from the Mental Portfolio of an Eurasian,” Independent, January 21, 1909.

115 “Why is my mother’s race despised?”: Ibid.

Chapter Eight. Rumblings of Hatred

116 Information on the depression in the 1870s: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ‘, pp. 46-47.

117 one Chinese and two whites for every job: Victor Low, The Unimpressible Race, p. 29; Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 105.

118 “In the factories of San Francisco”: John Todd, The Sunset Land (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1870), p. 283.

118 History of poem “The Heathen Chinee”: Ronald Takaki, pp. 104-5; Arthur Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither? The Chinese in New York 1800-1950, pp. 33-34.

119 “In all our knowledge”: Arthur Bonner, pp. 33-34.

119 Cubic Air law: Otis Gibson, The Chinese in America, pp. 361-62; Origins & Destinations, pp. 57-58; San Francisco Board of Supervisors, order no. 939, as cited in Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., “Chink!,” pp. 65-66 (see also pp. 13-14).

119 “like brutes”: Otis Gibson, pp. 361-62.

119 “queue ordinance”: Diane Mei Lin Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America, p. 33; Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., “Chink!,” p. 14.

120 “sidewalk ordinance”: Diane Mei Lin Mark and Ginger Chih, p. 33.

120 two dollars a quarter: Ibid.; Otis Gibson, p. 282.

120 Congress deliberately withheld the right of the Chinese to naturalize: Roger Daniels, Asian America, p. 43.

121 “the Chinks are shootin’ ”. Stephen Longstreet, All Star Cast: An Anecdotal History of Los Angeles (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1977), p. 80.

121 “American blood had been shed”: Stephen Longstreet, p. 80.

121 “Hang them! Hang them!”: Ibid.

121 highly respected Chinese doctor: C. P. Dorland, statement delivered at the Historical Society of Southern California, January 7, 1894, as cited in Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., “Chink!,” p. 151.

121 “The little fellow was not above twelve years of age”: David Colbert, ed., Eyewitness to the American West: From the Aztec Empire to the Digital Frontier in the Words of Those Who Saw It Happen (New York: Viking, 1998), p. 172.

122 some ten million acres: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans, p. 31. The number of acres granted ranged from nine to eleven million, depending on how they were counted.

122 “WE WANT NO SLAVES OR ARISTOCRATS”: Roger Daniels, Asian America, p. 38.

123 less than 2 percent of the patients: Otis Gibson, The Chinese in America, p. 364.

123 more than 35 percent: Ibid., p. 364.

123 harbored more Europeans at public expense: Ibid., p. 22.

123 “chasing a phantom”: Ibid., p. 23.

123 Dr. Arthur Stout: John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road, p. 95. Also, Stuart Creighton Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant: The American Image of the Chinese, 1785-1882 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969), p. 161. Arthur Stout’s pamphlet,Chinese Immigration and the Physiological Causes of the Decay of the Nation, asserted that syphilis and “mental alienation” were Chinese characteristics.

123 American Medical Association: Stuart Creighton Miller, p. 163.

123 “Even boys eight and ten years old”: Ibid.

123 “Anglo-Saxon Blood”: Ibid., pp. 164, 237. Original citation: Mary Santelle, “The Foul Contagious Disease. A Phase of the Chinese Question. How the Chinese Women Are Infusing a Poison into the Anglo-Saxon Blood,” Medico-Literary Journal, I (November 1878), pp. 4-5.

123 “the result of thousands of years of beastly vices”: Stuart Creighton Miller, p. 163.

124 huge quantities of bowie knives: Otis Gibson, p. 306.

124 sixty pistols: Otis Gibson, p. 306.

124 the Chinese Six Companies issued a manifesto: Otis Gibson, p. 300.

124 severe drought: Victor Low, The Unimpressible Race, p. 40.

124 output was reduced to a third: Ibid., p. 40.

125 ten thousand unemployed men: Ibid., p. 40.

125 “Before I starve in a country like this”: Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate, p. 115.

125 “tear the masks from off these tyrants”: Ibid., p. 113.

125 suggested exterminating the Chinese population: Betty Lee Sung, The Story of the Chinese in America, p. 43.

126 “A while ago it was the Irish”: Robert Louis Stevenson, The Amateur Emigrant (London: Chatto and Windus, 1895), p. 131, as cited in Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor, p. 93.

126 “running the gauntlet”: Otis Gibson, p. 50.

126 “They follow the Chinaman”: Ibid., p. 51.

126 “When I first came”: “Life History and Social Document of Andrew Kan,” Seattle, Washington, August 22, 1924, by C. H. Burnett, p. 2. Major Document 178, Box 27, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

126 “We were simply terrified”: Huie Kin, Reminiscences (Peiping, 1932), p. 27, as cited in Ronald Takaki, p. 115.

127 “I remember as we walked along the street”: “Life History and Social Document of Mr. J. S. Look,” August 13, 1924. Major Document 182, Box 27, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

127 shot to death five Chinese farm workers: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, p. 22; Andrew Gyory, p. 94.

127 ten thousand agitators: Lynn Pan, p. 95.

127 “On to Chinatown!”: Andrew Gyory, p. 96.

128 “Even CHINAMEN”: Ibid., p. 98.

128 hired a Chinese man just to walk in and out of his factory: Andrew Gyory, p. 99.

128 hired white men to masquerade as Chinese: Ibid.

128 greeted with cries of “Chinamen!”: Ibid.

128 “So we will serve every Chinaman”: Ibid.

128 “Any officer, director, manager”: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, p. 53. Also Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., “Chink!” Anti-Chinese Prejudice in America (New York: World Publishing Company, 1972), pp. 14, 69. The original citation in “Chink!” is Criminal Laws and Practice of California(A. L. Bancroft and Company, 1881). The constitution also prevented the Chinese from voting: “Natives of China, along with idiots, insane persons, and persons convicted in infamous crimes or the embezzlement of public money, shall never exercise the privilege of electors in this state.”

128 mass exodus: Andrew Gyory, p. 177. Newspaper coverage of exodus includes New York Times, March 6, 1880, and St. Louis Globe Democrat, March 5, 1880.

129 former president Ulysses S. Grant: Andrew Gyory, pp. 186-87.

Chapter Nine. The Chinese Exclusion Act

130 Quotes from the debate in Congress: Can be found in Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate, pp. 224-44.

132 “one of the most infamous and tragic statutes”: Ibid., p. 258.

132 mass anti-Chinese rally in Seattle issued a manifesto: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans, pp. 50-51; Ruthanne Lum McCunn, Chinese American Portraits: Personal Histories 1828-1988 (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1988), p. 48.

133 kicked down doors, dragged the occupants outside: Ruthanne Lum McCunn, p. 48; Lorraine Barker Hildebrand, Straw Halls, Sandals and Steel (Tacoma: Washington State American Revolution Bicentennial Commission, 1977), pp. 49-59.

133 two men died from exposure: Ruthanne Lum McCunn, p. 49.

133 one merchant’s wife went insane: Lorraine Barker Hildebrand, p. 50. According to Lum May’s statement about his wife, “From the excitement, the fright, the losses we sustained through the riot she lost her reason. She was hopelessly insane and attacked people with a hatchet or any other weapon if not watched ... she was perfectly sane before the riot.”

133 the secretary of war dispatched troops to Seattle: Doug Chin, “The Anti-Chinese Movement,” The International Examiner, January 6, 1982.

133 “special tax”: Ruthanne Lum McCunn, p. 51.

133 beating up several Chinese: Ibid.

133 Information about the second Seattle riot: Harper’s Weekly, March 6, 1886; Lorraine Barker Hildebrand, pp. 69-74.

133-34 Information about the Rock Springs massacre and indemnities: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 21; R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee, Land without Ghosts, p. 57; Tzu-Kuei Yen, pp. 153-62; Craig Stori, Incident at Bitter Creek: The Story of the Rock Springs Chinese Massacre(Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1991).

134 Chen Lanbing: New York Times, September 10, 1880, as cited in R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee, p. 59; Kim Man Chan, “Mandarins in America: the Early Chinese Ministers to the United States, 1878-1907,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawaii, 1981, p. 127.

134-35 Information on Snake River Massacre: David H. Stratton, “The Snake River Massacre of Chinese Miners, 1887,” in Duane A. Smith, ed., A Taste of the West: Essays in Honor of Robert Athearn, p. 124, as cited in Roger Daniels, Asian America, p. 64.

135 Scott Act: Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., “Chink!,” pp. 82-85.

135 Twenty thousand Chinese: Huping Ling, Surviving on the Gold Mountain, p. 2; Betty Lee Sung, The Story of the Chinese in America, p. 54; Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., “Chink!,” p. 16.

135 State Department ... ignored him: Betty Lee Sung, p. 54.

136 “unwise, impolitic, and injurious”: Roger Daniels, Asian America, p. 57.

136 “it could not be alleged”: Ibid.

136 “considers the presence of foreigners”: Washington Post, June 19, 1999.

136 “residing apart by themselves”: Ibid.

136 “strangers in the land”: Ibid.

136 Geary Act: Victor Low, The Unimpressible Race: A Century of Educational Struggle by the Chinese in San Francisco (San Francisco: East/West Publishing Company, 1982), p. 75; Betty Lee Sung, p. 55; Cheng-Tsu Wu, p. 16; Jack Chen, The Chinese of America, p. 162.

136 A Chinese consul urged his countrymen not to register: Betty Lee Sung, p. 55; Erika Lee, “Enforcing and Challenging Exclusion in San Francisco: U.S. Immigration Officials and Chinese Immigrants, 1882-1905,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1997 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1997), p. 9.

137 Fong Yue Ting v. United States: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans, pp. 91-92.

137 Lem Moon Sing v. United States: Ibid., pp. 91-92.

137 “almost next to impossible to prove the birth”: Erika Lee, p. 7.

137 Wong Kim Ark: Charles Park, “American by Birth: One Hundred Years Ago, a Chinese American Man Won the Right for All American Born People to Claim U.S. Citizenship,” A magazine, March 31, 1998.

138 “acts of Congress or treaties have not permitted”: Ibid.

139 Information on the burning of Honolulu Chinatown: Sucheng Chan, p. 57; L. Eve Armentrout, “Conflict and Contact Between the Chinese and Indigenous Communities in San Francisco, 1900-1911,” The Life, Influence, and the Role of the Chinese in the United States, 1776-1960.Proceedings, papers of the national conference held at the University of San Francisco, July 10, 11, 12, 1975, sponsored by the Chinese Historical Society of America (San Francisco: The Chinese Historical Society of America, 1976), pp. 56-57.

139 Wong Wai: Wong Wai v. Williamson (1900).

140 Information on the attempt to destroy San Francisco Chinatown: Sucheng Chan, p. 57; L. Eve Armentrout in The Life, Influence, and the Role of the Chinese in the United States, 1776-1960, pp. 57-59.

140 “We helped build your railroads”: Petition to President Wilson of the United States, June 1914. File 53620/115 A, Entry 9, Box 229, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

141 “reduced to the status of dogs in America”: Silas K. C. Geneson, “Cry Not in Vain: The Boycott of 1905,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1997 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society, 1997), p. 30; editorial, “The U.S. Government to Extend the Exclusion Agreement, Part 6,” Chung Sai Yat Po, April 2, 1904.

141 United States v. Ju Toy: Silas K. C. Geneson, p. 29.

141 “final and conclusive”: Ibid., p. 29.

142 “to order an alien drawn, quartered and chucked overboard”: Ibid., p. 29.

142 725 of 7,762 Chinese: Ibid., p. 29.

142 rejection rate rose to one in four: Ibid., p. 29.

142 “even the old monks”: R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee, p. 58.

143 some $30 million to $40 million worth of trade: Betty Lee Sung, p. 65.

143 90,000 cases of fuel monthly to 19,000: Silas K. C. Geneson, pp. 40-41.

143 difficult to even give away free cigarettes: Consul General Julius Lay to Acting Secretary of State Francis Loomis, September 28, 1905, Foreign Service, Despatches of United States Consuls in Canton, 1790-1906, Washington, D.C. National Archives microfiles, as cited in Silas K. C. Geneson, p. 34.

143 Theodore Roosevelt issued an executive order: Silas K. C. Geneson, p. 36.

143-44 29 percent of the certificates: Ibid., p. 37.

144 “Much trouble has come”: Ibid., p. 36.

144 8,031 Chinese: Erika Lee, “Enforcing and Challenging Exclusion in San Francisco: U.S. Immigration Officials and Chinese Immigrants, 1882-1905,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives, p. 3.

144 dropped to 279: Ibid., p. 3.

144 in 1885, 22: Ibid., p. 3.

144 a total of ten Chinese people: Ibid., p. 3.

144 103,620 to 85,341: U.S. Census.

144 “They would stab through the rice”: Judy Yung interview with Mr. Chew, file 20, “Angel Island Oral History Project,” Asian American Studies Library, University of California at Berkeley.

145 “My cousin and I”: K. H. Wong, Gum Sahn Yun (Gold Mountain Men) (San Francisco: Fong Brothers, Inc., 1987), p. 187.

145 “It seemed not more than several minutes”: Gladys Hensen, Denial of Disaster (San Francisco: Cameron and Company, 1990), p. 26.

145 “They carried their bundles”: Chung Sai Yat Po, May 10, 1906.

145 robbed by the soldiers: San Francisco Chronicle, June 10, 1906, and

April 29, 1906, as cited in Erica Y. Z. Pan, The Impact of the 1906 Earthquake in San Francisco’s Chinatown (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1995), pp. 43 and 54. 145 ordered by these soldiers to perform physical labor: San Francisco

Chronicle, June 10, 1906. 146 “shoot to kill”: Erica Y. Z. Pan, p. 53.

146 “high railroad officials”: San Francisco Chronicle, April 29, 1906.

146 “the National Guard”: Gordon Thomas and Max Witts, The San Francisco Earthquake (New York: Stein and Day, 1971), p. 259.

146 Between 1855 and 1934: Stanford Lyman, Chinese Americans (New York: Random House, 1974), p. 110.

147 the ratio of Chinese sons to daughters: Betty Lee Sung, p. 99.

147 “if the stories told in the courts”: U.S. Treasury Department, Annual Report 1903, p. 98, as cited in Madeline Y. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home, p. 75. The quote in the report comes from p. 51 in “Report of Proceedings of a Chinese-Exclusion Convention,” which was held in San Francisco, November 21-22, 1901.

147 “overrun with vermin”: Silas K. C. Geneson, “Cry Not in Vain,” p. 29.

147 “a race of pigs”: Ibid.

147 Description of Angel Island: Him Mark Lai, Genny Lim, and Judy Yung, Island: Poetry and History of Chinese Immigrants on Angel Island, 1910-1940 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991).

147 “prevalent among aliens from oriental countries”: Ibid., p. 13.

147 some 175,000 Chinese immigrants: Ester Wu, “Chinese Immigrants Remember Detention at Angel Island,” Dallas Morning News, May 21, 2000.

148 75 to 80 percent: Unpublished paper given to author by Bob Barde, Academic Coordinator of the Institute of Business and Economic Research at Berkeley.

148 “dumped together as so many animals”: “The History and Problem of Angel Island,” p. 3. Major Document #150, Box 26, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

148 “There is no privacy whatsoever”: Ibid., p. 1.

148 “veritable firetrap”: Letter from the Special Immigration Inspector in Meredith, New Hampshire, to the Commissioner General of Immigration in Washington, D.C., August 21, 1915. File 53438-54, Box 208, Entry 9, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

149 pitched a tent for him: Ibid.

149 “a prison with scarcely any supply of air or light”: Letter from L. D. Cio to F. S. Brockman, July 19, 1913, p. 2. File 53620/211, Entry 9, Box 230, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

149 “cattle”: Letter from J. C. Huston, American Consul in Charge at American Consulate General in Tientsin, China, to the Secretary of State, April 10, 1923. File 53620/115C, Entry 9, Box 229, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

149 customary for the Chinese to eat only twice a day: Letter, Office of the Commissioner, Chinese Division in Boston, Massachusetts, to Commissioner General of Immigration, June 5, 1915. No. 2513, File 53775-139 and 139 A, Box 235, Entry 9, Stack Area 17W3, Row 2, Compartment 17, Shelf 1, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

149 angry demonstrations in the dining room: Him Mark Lai, Genny Lim, and Judy Yung, Island, p. 19. In an oral history interview, Law Shee Low described the food served at Angel Island: “The bean sprouts were cooked so badly you wanted to throw up when you saw it. There was rice but it was cold ... The food was steamed to death; it smelled bad and tasted bad. The vegetables were old and the fatty beef was of poor quality. They must have thought we were pigs.” Judy Yung, Unbound Voices: A Documentary History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), p. 216.

149 post a sign in Chinese: Him Mark Lai, Genny Lim, and Judy Yung, Island, p. 19.

149 troops to Angel Island: Ibid.

150 “Is your house one story or two stories”: Betty Lee Sung, p. 102.

150 “There are many cases”: “Life History and Social Document of Mr. J. S. Look,” Seattle, August 13, 1924, by C. H. Burnett.” p. 3. Major Document #182, Box 27, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

151 tiny windowless closet three feet square: Origins & Destinations, p. 82.

151 “calm down”: Ibid., p. 82.

151 “chopsticks slaying case”: Case 4139/11-29, Record Group 85, National Archives, Pacific Sierra Region, San Bruno, California.

151 Leong Bick Ha: Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Women and Men: Labor, Laws and Love (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1997), p. 55.

151 “Wait till the day I become successful”: Him Mark Lai, Genny Lim, and Judy Yung, Island, p. 94.

151 “Leaving behind my writing bush”: Ibid., p. 84.

152 “Now poor Wong Fong”: Letter, Collector of Customs, Port of San Francisco, to Mr. H. A. Ling, Attorney, August 21, 1895, National Archives, Pacific Sierra Region, San Bruno, California. Given to author from the personal files of Neil Thomsen, archivist at NARA San Bruno.

152 Information on Elsie Sigel murder: Arthur Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither? The Chinese in New York 1800-1950, pp. 120-22.

153 draperies to be removed from each room, stall, and both: Providence Daily Journal, June 25, 1909, and Providence Sunday Journal, June 20, 1909, as cited in Origins & Destinations, p. 423.

153 90 percent of such raids: Letter written on behalf of United Chinese Association of Ohio and the Chinese Merchants Association of Cleveland, Ohio, to William B. Wilson, Secretary of Labor, March 30, 1916. File 53775/139, Entry 9, Box 235, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

153-54 Description of arrests and imprisonment: Petition to President Wilson, stamped June 1, 1914. File 53620-115A, Box 229, Entry 9, Stack Area 17W3, Row 2, Compartment 1, Shelf 6, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

154 “solitary, dark confinement”: “Report of the Special Committee in Charge of the Investigation of the Treatment of Chinese Residents and Immigrants by U.S. Immigration Officers.” By the Special Committee appointed by the Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Chinese-American League of Justice of Los Angeles, California, January 4, 1913. File 53620/115, Entry 9, Box 228, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

154 “unfit for the transportation of cattle”: Ibid.

155 “This business had been going on for a number of years”: Letter to the Attorney General, December 16, 1917. File 54184/138, Box 259, Entry 9, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

155 as much as $100,000 a year: San Francisco Examiner news clip, October 1917. File 54184/138B, Box 259, Entry 9, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; Valerie Natale, ”Angel Island ’Guardian of the Western Gate,’” Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives Record Administration 30:2 (Summer 1998).

155 charging $1,400: Valerie Natale, “Angel Island ‘Guardian of the Western Gate.’”

155 Description of the extent of Immigration Service corruption: Letter, John Densmore to the Secretary of Labor, May 1, 1919. File 54184/138-B, Box 259, Entry 9, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C; Valerie Natale, “Angel Island ‘Guardian of the Western Gate.’”

155 discharge of some forty people: Letter, John Densmore to Alfred Hampton, Assistant Commissioner-General of Immigration, May 14, 1917, National Archives. Also, research of Bob Barde, academic coordinator of the Institute of Business and Economic Research, University of California, Berkeley, provided to author.

156 “May 27 10:20 p.m. Chink called McCall”: Page 16, “Copy of Complete Telephone Conversations; May 23, 1917 to July 4, 1917. Inclusive.” File 54184/138B, Box 259, Entry 9, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

156 Chen Ke: Renqiu Yu, p. 23.

156 “Whenever my mother would mention it”: Donald Dale Jackson, “Behave Like Your Actions Reflect on All Chinese,” Smithsonian, February 1991.

Chapter Ten. Work and Survival in the Early Twentieth Century

158 Biographical details on Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, and Sun Yat-sen: See Eugene Anschel, Homer Lea, Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Revolution (New York: Praeger, 1984); Michael Gasster, Chinese Intellectuals and the Revolution of 1911: The Birth of Modern Radicalism (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1969); Jane Leung Larson, “New Source Materials on Kang Youwei and the Baohuanghui: The Tan Zhangxiao (Tom Leung) Collection of Letters and Documents at UCLA’s East Asian Library,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1993; Jung-Pang Lo, ed., K’ang Yu-wei: A Biography and a Symposium (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1967); L. Eve Armentrout Ma, Revolutionaries, Monarchists and Chinatowns: Chinese Politics in the Americas and the 1911 Revolution (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990); Franklin Ng, “The Western Military Academy in Fresno,” Origins & Destinations: 41 Essays on Chinese America; Young-tsu Wong, “Revisionism Reconsidered: Kang Youwei and the Reform Movement of 1898,” Journal of Asian Studies, August 1992; Robert Worden, “A Chinese Reformer in Exile: The North American Phase of the Travels of K‘ang Yu-wei, 1899-1909,” Ph.D. dissertation, Georgetown University, 1971.

161 1913 Alien Land Act: Sandy Lydon, Chinese Gold, pp. 408-11.

162 “The whites treated us Chinese like slavesc;”: Jeff Gillenkirk and James Motlow, Bitter Melon: Inside America’s Last Rural Chinese Town (Seattle : University of Washington Press, 1987) p. 89.

162 Lum Yip Kee: Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor, p. 73.

162 Chun Afong: Ibid., p. 73.

162 Thomas Foon Chew: J. C. Wright, ”Thomas Foon Chew: Founder of Bayside Cannery, in Gloria Sun Hom, ed., Chinese Argonauts: An Anthology of the Chinese Contributions to the Historical Development of Santa Clara County (San Jose, Calif.: Foothill Community College, 1971), pp. 20-41; Thomas W. Chinn, Bridging the Pacific: San Francisco Chinatown and Its People (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1989), pp. 105-7; Eric A. Carlson, ”Fortunes in Alviso,” Metro, April 12-18, 2001, p. 15.

162 Chin Lung: Ruthanne Lum McCunn, Chinese American Portraits: Personal Histories 1828-1988 (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1988), pp. 89-97. For more details on his life, see Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1860-1910 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986), pp. 206-12.

163 roughly a quarter of all Chinese workers: Out of 45,614 Chinese, 11,438 worked in restaurants. Asians in America: Selected Student Papers, Asian American Research Project, University of California at Davis, Working Publication #3, p. 31.

163 Chow mein: Imogene L. Lim and John Eng-Wong, “Chow Mein Sandwiches: Chinese American Entrepreneurship in Rhode Island,” Origins & Destinations, pp. 417-35; Peter Kwong, The New Chinatown (New York: Hill and Wang, 1987, first edition, and 1996, revised edition), p. 34.

163 David Jung: Chicago Tribune, February 17, 1988.

164 “as a rule Caucasians”: Tan Fuyuan, The Science of Oriental Medicine, Diet and Hygiene (Los Angeles, 1902), p. 11, as cited in Haiming Liu, “Between China and America,” Ph.D. thesis provided to author, p. 96.

164 Hu Yunxiao: Haiming Liu, p. 89.

164 ran advertisements in English-language newspapers: Ibid., p. 94.

164 twenty-eight Chinese herb doctors: International Chinese Business Directory Co., Inc., Wong Kin, President, International Chinese Business Directory for the World for the Year 1913 (San Francisco, 1913). As cited in Haiming Liu, p. 90.

164 Chang Yitang: Haiming Liu, pp. 97-99.

165 believes he invented those credentials: Louise Leung Larson, Sweet Bamboo: Saga of a Chinese American Family (Los Angeles: Chinese Historical Society of Southern California, 1990), p. 19.

166 “The [more] he was arrested”: Ibid., p. 71.

166 Joe Shoong: Thomas W. Chinn, Bridging the Pacific, pp. 185-86; “Joe Shoong, Chinese Merchant King, Dies,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 15, 1961; Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 252.

166 “the richest, best-known Chinese businessman”: Time, March 28, 1938, p. 56.

166 Ray Joe: Oral history conducted by Sam Chu Lin and provided to author.

166 “I sleep on two trucks pulled together for bed”: Ibid.

167 kept a stick in their stores: James W. Loewen, p. 33.

167 earn on average twice the white median income: Ibid., p. 53.

168 almost 30 percent of all employed Chinese worked in laundries: Betty Lee Sung, The Story of the Chinese in America (New York: Collier, 1971), p. 188.

168 out of a total of 45,614 Chinese workers, 12,559 were laundry people: Asians in America: Selected Student Papers. Asian American Research Project, University of California at Davis, Working Publication #3, p. 31.

168 scrub board, soap, and an iron: Betty Lee Sung, p. 190.

168 “In the old days, some of those fellows were really ignorant”: Paul C. P. Siu, Chinese Laundryman: A Study of Social Isolation (New York: New York University Press, 1987), p. 52.

168 charged at least 15 percent less: Interview with Danny Moy, New York Chinatown History Project, archived in Museum of Chinese in the Americas, 70 Mulberry Street, New York City.

169 “My father used to joke”: Judith Luk oral history interview with Tommy Tom, assistant manager of Wah Kue wet wash, January 9, 1981, New York Chinatown History Project, Museum of Chinese in the Americas, New York.

169 “I heard that some of them used a string to hang a piece of bread from the ceiling”: Renqiu Yu, To Save China, to Save Ourselves, p. 26.

169 “In China in the old days”: Interview with Loy Wong, April 26, 1982, New York Chinatown History Project, Museum of Chinese in the Americas, New York.

169 “became like balls”: Ruthanne Lum McCunn, p. 155.

169 in the thirty-eight years she worked in a laundry, she left it only three times: Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Women and Men, p. 38.

169-70 “Some of these old-timers”: James Dao interview with Andy Eng, manager of the Wing Gong laundry, New York Chinatown History Project, Museum of Chinese in the Americas.

170 enjoyed an astounding 90 percent literacy rate: Renqiu Yu, p. 38.

170 yishanguan: Renqiu Yu, p. 28.

170 1920s correspondence between Hsiao Teh Seng: Translated by Paul C. P. Siu and archived in the Ernest Burgess Papers, Regenstein Library Special Collections, University of Chicago. An excellent description of these letters can be found in Adam McKeown, “Chinese Migrants Among Ghosts: Chicago, Peru and Hawaii: The Early Twentieth Century,” Ph.D. dissertation in history, University of Chicago, 1997, pp. 80-86.

172 L. C. Tsung’s The Marginal Man: Jack Chen, The Chinese of America, pp. 158-59.

Chapter Eleven. A New Generation Is Born

173 100,686 men and 4,779 women: 1880 U.S. Census.

173 seven Chinese men for every Chinese woman: Diane Mei Lin Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America, p. 173. According to the 1920 U.S. Census, there were 53,891 Chinese males and 7,748 Chinese females.

174 only about one hundred fifty Chinese women: Origins & Destinations, p. 89.

174 not a single Chinese woman: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ’, p. 25; Jack Chen, The Chinese of America, p. 176.

175 “My parents wanted us to become professionals”: Interview with Herbert Leong, interview #141, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project, sponsored by the Asian American Studies Center at the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Chinese Historical Society of Southern California.

175 “You can make a million dollars”: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, p. 151.

175 “baboons”: Victor Low, The Unimpressible Race, p. 15.

175 shut down a public school for Chinese children: Victor Low, p. 14.

175 segregate Asians, American Indians, and blacks: Ibid., pp. 20-21. For instance, the 1864 School Law stated, “Negroes, Mongolians, and Indians shall not be admitted into the public schools; provided, that upon the application of the parents or guardians of ten or more such colored children, made in writing to the Trustees of any such district, said Trustees shall establish a separate school for the education of Negroes, Mongolians, and Indians, and use the public school funds for the support of the same.”

176 new California state law granted separate public education for blacks and Indians: Ibid., pp. 26-27.

176 Chinese children were the only racial group to be denied a state-funded education: Victor Low, pp. 37, 49.

176 “the association of Chinese and white children”: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 48.

176 “filthy or vicious habits”: Victor Low, p. 50.

176 “dangerous to the well-being of the state”: Ibid., p. 60.

176 rather go to jail: Ibid., p. 61.

177 adopted a resolution: Ibid., p. 61.

177 punish the board members with contempt citations: Ibid., p. 63.

177 “urgency provision”: Ibid., p. 66.

177 “May you Mr. Moulder”: Ibid., p. 71. The letter, dated April 8, 1885, was published in the San Francisco Daily Alta California newspaper on April 16, 1885.

177 Lum Gong: James Loewen, pp. 65-68; Sucheng Chan, p. 58.

177 A few Chinese American children managed to find ways to attend Caucasian schools: In places like San Jose, California, and Hawaii, Chinese American children were integrated into white schools. There, the law stipulated that they could attend white schools as long as no white parents complained. Darlene T. Chan, “San Jose’s Old Chinatown, Heinlenville, 1850-1930: A Historical Study,” Ph.D. dissertation in education, University of San Francisco, 1994, p. 26.

178 a group of white parents at Washington Grammar School: Victor Low, pp. 109-10.

178 a Chinese boy graduated at the top of his class: Author interview with Sam Chu Lin, November 2002; Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., “Chink!,” p. 147.

179 “I remember rushing home from school”: Ruthanne Lum McCunn, Chinese American Portraits, p. 133.

179 Bernice Leung: Interview with Bernice Leung, interview #137, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

179 “I was brought up purely Caucasian”: Huping Ling, Surviving on the Gold Mountain, p. 78. Original citation: Arthur Dong, Forbidden City, U.S.A., color video, 56 minutes, 1989, in The American Experience.

179 “There was endless discussion”: Victor Wong, ”Childhood II,“ in Nick Harvey, ed., Ting: The Caldron: Chinese Art and Identity in San Francisco (San Francisco: Glide Urban Center, 1970), p. 71.

180 “We have never lived in Chinatown”: “Interview with Lillie Leung,” by Wm. C. Smith, Los Angeles, August 12, 1924. Major Document #76, Box 25, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

180 “Well, you read all right”: ”Story of a Chinese College Girl,” p. 4, Major Document 54, Box 24, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University. Also Judy Yung, Unbound Voices, p. 301.

180 “In grade school I was fairly successful”: Interview conducted October 13, 1924, in Los Angeles, unnamed participant. Major Document #233, Box 28, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

180 “When we came to the study of China”: Ibid.

181 “Mother watched us like a hawk”: Oral history interview with Alice Sue Fun, in Judy Yung, Unbound Voices, p. 269.

181 “a lot of housework”: Ibid.

181 “When we grew up”: Grace Pung Guthrie, A School Divided: An Ethnography of Bilingual Education in a Chinese Community (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1985), p. 63.

182 Some fifty Chinese-language elementary schools and a half dozen Chinese-language high schools: Haiming Liu, p. 19.

182 “an ordeal that I grew to hate”: Louise Leung Larson, Sweet Bamboo, p. 65.

182 “totalitarian attitude”: Interview with Rodney Chow, interview #149, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project. Sponsored by the Asian American Studies Center at the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Chinese Historical Society of Southern California.

183 “It was not that I was entirely unwilling to learn”: Pardee Lowe, Father and Glorious Descendant (Boston: Little, Brown, 1943), p. 140.

183 “I had to learn the Chinese language”: “Interview with Mrs. C. S. Machida,” by Wm. C. Smith, Los Angeles, August 13, 1924. Major Document #73, Box 25, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

183 almost all of the Chinese American children in San Francisco: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 151.

184 very first Boy Scout troop: Thomas W. Chinn, Bridging the Pacific: San Francisco Chinatown and Its People (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1989), pp. 122-25.

184 “Take it all in all”: Victor Low, pp. 112-13.

185 “It is almost impossible to place a Chinese or Japanese”: Betty Lee Sung, p. 236.

185 “You Chinee boy or Jap boy?”: Pardee Lowe, Father and Glorious Descendant (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1943), pp. 191-92.

186 “Everywhere I was greeted with perturbation”: Ibid., pp. 146-47.

186 “‘Sorry,’ they invariably said”: Ibid., p. 147.

186 “Recently two friends of mine”: “Life History and Social Document of Fred Wong,” p. 6. Date and place given on document, August 29, 1924, Seattle, Washington. Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

187 a Los Angeles bank: Interview with Clarence Yip Yeu, interview #102, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

187 “Don’t you have an accent?”: Victor Low, p. 170.

187 Information on Frank Chuck: Connie Young Yu, Profiles in Excellence: Peninsula Chinese Americans (Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford Area Chinese Club, no date listed, possibly 1986), pp. 19-23.

188 Information on Chan Chung Wing; found it very difficult to defend my clients“: Lillian Lim, “Chinese American Trailblazers in the Law,” unpublished paper presented at the Sixth Chinese American Conference, July 9-11, 1999.

189 graduate from high school in numbers equal to Chinese boys: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, pp. 126-27.

189 refused to finance her college education: Jade Snow Wong, Fifth Chinese Daughter (original publication, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1945; reprint edition, 1997), p. 109.

189 a total of four Chinese female students: Huping Ling, p. 45.

189 not until the 1920s that the San Francisco public school system began hiring female Chinese schoolteachers: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 129.

190 Chinatown Telephone Exchange: Ibid., p. 139.

191 Alice Fong Yu: Ibid., p. 129; Thomas W. Chinn, Bridging the Pacific, pp. 236-38.

191 Information on Martha, Mickey, and Marian Fong: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 131.

191 Faith So Leung: Ibid., p. 133. Also Thomas W. Chinn, Bridging the Pacific, pp. 187-89.

191 Dolly Gee: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, pp. 138-39.

192 Information on Bessie Jeong: Interview with Bessie Jeong, interview #157, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project; ”Story of a Chinese Girl Student,” Major Document #5, Box 24, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University; Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, pp. 131-33, 142, 165-66.

193 ”My parents wanted to hold onto the old idea”: ”Interview with Lillie Leung,” by Wm. C. Smith, Los Angeles, August 12, 1924. Major Document #76, Box 25, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

193 ”spooning”: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 166.

193 One San Francisco ABC couple: Description of Daisy Wong Chinn and Thomas W. Chinn in Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 167.

194 founded Pi Alpha Phi: A magazine, February/March 1995, p. 14.

194 Sigma Omicron Pi: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 128.

194 ”Chinese Collegiate Shuffle!”: Ronald Riddle, Flying Dragons, Flowing Streams: Music in the Life of San Francisco’s Chinese (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983), p. 145, as cited in Huping Ling, p. 104.

194 ”our parents always preached”: Diane Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America, p. 86.

195 Expatriation Act of 1907: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, pp. 168-69.

195 1922 Cable Act: Sucheng Chan, ”The Exclusion of Chinese Women,” in Chinese Historical Society of America, Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1994, p. 124.

195 ”My Most Embarrassing Moment”: Interview with Yu-Shan Han, interview #152, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

195 ”Chinese women who are born here are regular flappers”: “Mr. Mar Sui Haw,” Seattle, Washington, by C. H. Burnett, August 28, 1924, p. 11. Major Document #244, Box 29, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

196 ”It is not right for Chinese man born in China”: ”Life History and Social Document of Andrew Kan,“ Seattle, Washington, August 22, 1924, by C. H. Burnett, p. 12. Major Document #178, Box 27, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.

196 ”Don’t get married in the United States!”: Lee family oral history project, 1991, p. 21, as cited in Erika Lee, ”The Chinese American Community in Buffalo, New York 1900-1960,” honors thesis at Tufts University, 1991.

196 did not want any of their offspring to marry outside their own dialect: Interview with Rodney H. Chow, interview #149, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

196 Milton L. Barron surveyed 97 Chinese marriages: Milton L. Barron, People Who Intermarry (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1946), pp. 11-19, as cited in Betty Lee Sung, The Story of the Chinese in America, p. 258.

197 ”foreign devil child”: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 170.

197 ”disapprove very much”: Tye Leung Schulze, ”Ting,” in Louise Schulze Lee private collection, as cited in Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 170.

198 killing or wounding more than seven thousand people: Him Mark Lai, ”Roles Played by Chinese in America During China’s Resistance to Japanese Aggression and During World War II,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives, 1997, p. 76.

Chapter Twelve. Chinese America During the Great Depression

201 ”I remember wearing sneakers with holes in them”: Interview with Lillian Louie, p. 4, New York Chinatown History Project, Museum of Chinese in the Americas.

202 2,300, or 18 percent: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 183.

202 22 percent: Ibid.

202 ”During the Depression”: Interview with Mark Wong, in Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ‘, p. 168.

202 ”tens of thousands of Chinese laundry men”: Chinese Nationalist Daily, April 24, 1933, p. 1, as cited in Renqiu Yu, To Save China, to Save Ourselves, p. 35.

202 3,200 members: Renqiu Yu, p. 55.

203 Lillian Lee Kim story: Lillian Lee Kim, ”An Early Baltimore Chinese Family: Lee Yick You and Louie Yu Oy,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1994 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1994), pp. 155-74.

203 ”thoroughly modern”: Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 247.

204 ”the looks that made China’s beauties so fascinating”: Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, ”The Loveliest Daughter: A Melting Pot of the East and the West,” Journal of Social History, Fall 1997, p. 7.

204 almost one-fifth of the city’s tourist trade: Ronald Takaki, p. 248.

204 ”Make tourists WANT to come”: Ibid., p. 249.

204 pulling rickshaws for white sightseers: Interview with Rodney H. Chow, interview #149, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project. In Los Angeles, China City opened in 1938 but burned down the following year. Later, it was rebuilt but was again destroyed by fire in 1949. Source: Asian American Studies Center at the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Chinese Historical Society of Southern California, Linking Our Lives: Chinese American Women of Los Angeles (Los Angeles: Chinese Historical Society of Southern California, 1984), p. 16.

204 guides warned visitors to hold hands: Betty Lee Sung, p. 130.

204 ”opium-crazed”: Ronald Takaki, p. 251.

205 ”a joint stock company”: Adam McKeown, ”Chinese Migrants Among Ghosts,” p. 284.

205 Information on Forbidden City: Huping Ling, Surviving on the Gold Mountain, pp. 119-20; Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, pp. 202-3; author interviews with Chinatown residents.

205 suggested having naked girls jump out of a cake: Gloria Heyung Chun, Of Orphans and Warriors: Inventing Chinese American Culture and Identity (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2000), p. 35.

206 ”Every day and all year round”: Letter to New York Times, October 1, 1922, from S. J. Benjamin Cheng, a Columbia University student, as cited in Arthur Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, p. 107.

206 ”I never saw an underground tunnel”: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, p. 71.

206 so that chickens could be raised there: Interview with Rose Wong, interview #80, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

206 ”We hated them!”: The Life and Times of Lung Chin: A Story of New York Chinatown, manuscript in folder labeled ”Chinatown 19[15]-? Restaurants, Tongs, Opium, Sports, basketball, social culture,” Museum of Chinese in the Americas.

207 ”the great and evil man”: Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., ”Chink!,” pp. 136-38. Original citation: Sax Rohmer, The Return of Dr. Fu-Manchu (New York: McKinlay, Stone and MacKenzie, 1916).

207 ”green eyes gleamed upon me”: Ibid.

209 ”You’re asking me”: Los Angeles Times, July 12, 1987.

209 ”Because I had been the villainess”: Hollywood Citizen News, 1958, as cited in Judy Chu, ”Anna May Wong,” in Emma Gee et al., eds., Counterpoint: Perspectives on Asian America (Los Angeles: Asian American Center, University of California at Los Angeles, 1976), p. 287.

210 did little more than provide exotic background: Interview with Lillie Louie, interview #135, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

210 Information on Tom Gubbins: Interviews with Eddie E. Lee (#17), Gilbert Leong (#19), Mabel L. Lew (#22), Lillie Louie (#35), Bessie Loo (#38), Ethel Cannon (#64), and Gim Fong (#89), Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

210 ”the closest we would ever get to China” Louise Leung, ”Night Call in Chinatown,” Los Angeles Times Sunday Magazine, July 26, 1936, pp. 3-4.

211 ”the older people, they were always talking about going back home“: Victor Wong, ”Childhood II,” in Nick Harvey, ed., Ting: The Caldron, p. 70.

211 ”If your uncle comes back to America”: Letter, Sam Chang to Tennyson Chang, January 4, 1925, as cited in Haiming Liu, unpublished manuscript, p. 205; Origins & Destinations, p. 260.

211 more than 90 percent of their placements: Hsien-ju Shih, ”The Social and Vocational Adjustments of the Second Generation Chinese High School Students in San Francisco,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1937, p. 72. As cited in Gloria Heyung Chun, Of Orphans and Warriors, p. 17.

211 ”Father used to tell me”: Interview with James Low, in Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, p. 169.

212 ”Oh, you couldn’t get a job”: Grace Pung Guthrie, A School Divided, p. 35.

212 Chung Sai Yat Po openly urged young Chinese Americans: Haiming Liu, p. 20.

212 dreaming about going ”back” to China: Interview with Rodney H. Chow, interview #149, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

212 75 percent of the attendees: Chinese Digest, July 3, 1936, p. 14.

212 ”ever since I can remember”: Robert Dunn, ”Does My Future Lie in China or America?,” Chinese Digest, May 15, 1936.

213 ”built on the mound of shame” Kaye Hong, ”Does My Future Lie in China or America?,” Chinese Digest, May 22, 1936.

213 The careers of Robert Dunn and Kaye Hong: Gloria Heyung Chun, p. 31.

213 one in five ABCs migrated to work in China: Gloria Heyung Chun, Of Orphans and Warriors, p. 26; Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 159.

214 Recruitment of ABCs by organizations in China: Gloria Heyung Chun, p. 26.

214 Information on Flora Belle Jan: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, pp. 143, 169.

Chapter Thirteen. ”The Most Important Historical Event of Our Times”: World War II

216 some 250,000 casualties: Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990), p. 447.

216 locals simply starved to death: Madeline Y. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home, p. 179.

217 pawned first their jewelry and furniture: Ibid.

217 at least 150,000 Toishanese—about one in four—had either died or disappeared: Ibid., p. 180. Also June Y. Mei, ”Researching Chinese-American History in Taishan: A Report,” in Genny Lim, ed., The Chinese American Experience: Papers from the Second National Conference in Chinese American Studies (1980), p. 58. As James Low recalled of those years, ”I saw other families starve during the Japanese war and World War II. The mothers had used all the money for gambling, for jewelry, for eating.” (Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ’, p. 173.)

217 distributed thousands of English-language flyers: Renqiu Yu, To Save China, to Save Ourselves, pp. 101-2.

217 fewer than ninety planes in safe working condition: Iris Chang, Thread of the Silkworm (New York: Basic Books, 1995), p. 31.

217 two thousand in the Japanese military: Ibid.

217 aviation schools or clubs: Him Mark Lai, ”Roles Played by Chinese in America During China’s Resistance to Japanese Aggression and During World War II,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1997 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1997), pp. 79-81.

218 Information on Ouyang Ying and Katherine Cheung: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 162.

218 Stanley Lau: Ibid., p. 99.

218 Clifford Louie: Ibid., p. 98.

218 thirty-nine Chinese sailors: Ibid., p. 110.

218 demonstrated in front of the Spyros: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 241.

218 ”spattered with blood and tears”: Chung Sai Yat Po, December 19, 1938, as cited in Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 242.

219 ”100 percent opposed to passing the picket line”: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 242.

219 ”Rice Bowl” parties: Huping Ling, Surviving on the Gold Mountain, p. 107; Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, pp. 239-40.

219 American Bureau for Medical Aid to China: This organization, with the support of prominent Caucasian Americans, provided more than $10 million worth of aid to China during the war. Madame Chiang served as the honorary chair of the bureau. The archival papers of ABMAC are available in Columbia University’s Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

219 blood bank in New York: Huping Ling, p. 108.

220 relief-fund boxes on their counters: Renqui Yu, pp. 101-2.

220 garment workers sewed thousands of winter garments: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 244.

220 collecting tin cans, foil, and other scrap metal: Florence Gee, ”I am an American—How can I help win this war?,” Chinese Press, May 15, 1942, as cited in Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 373.

220 $20 million for the Chinese War Relief Association: Him Mark Lai, ”Roles Played by Chinese in America During China’s Resistance to Japanese Aggression and During World War II,” p. 94.

220 $25 million: Him Mark Lai, ”China and the Chinese American Community,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1999, p. 6.

220 about 75,000 at the start of the 1930s: 1930 U.S. Census (74,954 Chinese). Also Diane Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America, p. 179.

220 $300 for every Chinese in the country: Him Mark Lai, ”Roles Played by Chinese in America During China’s Resistance to Japanese Aggression and During World War II,” p. 94.

220 some gave almost every cent: Renqiu Yu, p. 100.

220 Montgomery Hom: Author interview with Montgomery Horn in Los Angeles.

221 percentage of U.S.-born Chinese Americans surpassed: L. Ling-chi Wang, ”Politics of Assimilation and Repression: History of the Chinese in the United States, 1940 to 1970,” unpublished manuscript, Asian American Studies Collection, Ethnic Studies Library, University of California at Berkeley, p. 288.

223 ”hardworking, honest, brave”: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretative History (Boston: Twayne, 1991), p. 121.

223 ”Virtually all Japanese are short”: Time, December 22, 1941, p. 33.

224 used jujitsu: Interview with Rodney Chow, interview #149, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

224 carried identification cards: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 250; Jules Archer, The Chinese and the Americans (New York: Hawthorne Books, 1976), p. 106. It appears that the Chinese embassy also issued identification cards for people of Chinese ethnicity in the United States. One such card can be found in File #5608-505, Box 2168, Accession #58734, Stack Area 17W3, Row 13, Compartment 15, Shelf 1, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C. The card reads: ”Chinese Embassy Washington, D.C. Chinese Identification Card. The bearer of this CHINESE Identification card, whose photograph appears heron, is a member of the CHINESE race.”

225 Yu-shan Han: Interview with Yu-shan Han, interview #152, p. 19, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

225 ”You damn Jap”: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 256.

225 Citizens Committee to Repeal Chinese Exclusion: Diane Mark and Ginger Chih, p. 98; Harry H. L. Kitano and Roger Daniels, Asian Americans: Emerging Minorities (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1988), p. 38.

225 ”enemies of the American people”: H. Brett Melendy, p. 28.

226 first Chinese woman and second woman ever invited to address a joint session of Congress: Mur Wolf, ”Madame Chiang Kai-shek; Week of August 14, 2000; Mayling Soong, who became Madame Chiang Kai-Shek, is the Wellesley Person of the Week.” Wellesley College 125th Anniversary Person of the Week. Office for Public Information, Wellesley College.

226 ”Goddamnit, I never saw anything like it”: Time, March 1, 1943, p. 23.

227 ”To men of our generation”: Charlie Leong quote, in Victor and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ‘, pp. 154-55. For a description of Leong’s life, see Sandy Lydon, p. 483. A journalism graduate of San Jose State College and Stanford University, Leong was the first Chinese American editor of a college newspaper and the first Asian American to join the San Francisco Press Club.

227 Colonel Won-Loy Chan: Author interview with Montgomery Hom, documentary filmmaker of They Served with Pride.

228 15,000 to 20,000 Chinese served in the military: Thomas Chinn, ed., Bridging the Pacific, p. 147; Him Mark Lai, ”Roles Played by Chinese in America During China’s Resistance to Japanese Aggression and During World War II,” p. 99; Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 252. (About 13,499, or 22 percent, of adult Chinese men enlisted in the army. Source: Ronald Takaki, p. 374; Gloria Chun, p. 44.)

228 20 percent of the Chinese population: Him Mark Lai, ”Roles Played by Chinese in America During China’s Resistance to Japanese Aggression and During World War II,” p. 99.

228 8.6 percent: Ibid., p. 99.

228 40 percent: Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Women and Men: Labor, Laws and Love, p. 50.

228 ”New York’s Chinatown cheered itself hoarse”: Rose Hum Lee, ”Chinese in the United States Today: The War Has Changed Their Lives,” Survey Graphic, October 1942, p. 4444.

228 ”I remember Sunday, December 7th, vividly”: Richard V. Lee, M.D., ”A Brief Lee Family History,” paper presented at the conference on Yung Wing and the Chinese Educational Mission, 1872-1881, at Yale University, September 28-29, 2001.

229 ”I had never felt so happy and proud”: Gloria He-Yung Chun interview with David Gan, former soldier with the U.S. Army. Gloria He-Yung Chung, Of Orphans and Warriors, p. 85.

229 asked if they were part of the Chinese army: Christina M. Lim and Sheldon H. Lim, ”In the Shadow of the Tiger: The 407th Air Service Squadron, Fourteenth Air Force, CB1, World War II,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1993, p. 27.

229 ”goddamn Chink”: Peter Phan, ”Familiar Strangers: The Fourteenth Air Service Group; Case Study of Chinese American Identity During World War II,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1993, p. 85.

229 all his possessions thrown out the window: Ibid.

229 ”I was told that ‘no Chinaman will ever fly in my outfit’ ”: Oral history interview with William Der Bing in 1979, in Diane Mei Lin Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America, p. 96.

230 ”I was so damn surprised”: Peter Phan, ”Familiar Strangers,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1993, p. 87.

230 Gordon P. Chung-Hoon: ”Navy Names Destroyer to Honor Rear Adm. Chung-Hoon,” Department of Defense press release, October 10, 2000; ”Navy Ship Named for Isle World War II Hero,” Associated Press, October 12, 2000.

231 ”China is your home”: Peter Phan, ”Familiar Strangers,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1993, p. 78.

231 Nationalist soldiers marching in straw sandals: Ibid., p. 91.

231 John Chuck: Ibid., p. 90.

231 ”behind time”: Ibid., p. 93.

232 ”Except for the uniforms”: Christina M. Lim and Sheldon H. Lim, ”In the Shadow of the Tiger,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1993, p. 62.

233 Information on Air WACs: Author interview with Judith Bellafaire, Ph.D., curator of the Women in Military Service for America Memorial, Inc., January 27, 2003; Judith Bellafaire, ”Asian-American Servicewomen in Defense of the Nation,” 1999 article available online from http://www.womensmemoriaI.org/APA.html and included in the Women in Military Service for American Memorial exhibit, Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia; Rudi Williams, ”Asian Pacific American Women Served in World War II, Too,” American Forces Press Service, May 1999.

233 Helen Pon Onyett: Judith Bellafaire, ”Asian-American Servicewomen in Defense of the Nation”; Huping Ling, Surviving on the Gold Mountain, p. 120.

234 as long as the marriage had occurred before May 26, 1924: Roger Daniels, Asian America, pp. 96-97.

234 only about sixty Chinese women a year: Origins & Destinations: 41 Essays on Chinese America, p. 89; Roger Daniels, Asian America, p. 97.

234 male-female ratio was three to one: Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Women and Men, p. 55.

234 almost six thousand Chinese American soldiers: Ibid.

234 One soldier on leave flew to China: Rose Hum Lee, ”The Recent Immigration Chinese Families of the San Francisco-Oakland Area,” Marriage and Family Living 18 (1956), pp. 14-24. As cited in Huping Ling, p. 114.

234 80 percent of all new Chinese arrivals: Peter Kwong, The New Chinatown, p. 20.

234 an average of two births a day: L. Ling-chi Wang, ”Politics of Assimilation and Repression,” p. 284.

234 many had to sleep in the hallways: Author interview with Him Mark Lai, March 16, 1999, San Francisco.

234 soared from 77,000 to 117,000: Yen Le Espiritu, p. 55.

Chapter Fourteen. ”A Mass Inquisition”: The Cold War, the Chinese Civil War, and McCarthyism

237 fewer than one in four survived: J. A. G. Roberts, A Concise History of China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), p. 239.

238 ”its readiness to conclude”: A Decade of American Foreign Policy: Basic Documents, 1941-49, prepared at the request of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations by the Staff of the Committee and the Department of State. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1950, produced online by the Avalon Project at Yale Law School: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/wwii/yalta.htm

240 ”When a Chinese with some influence”: Murray A. Rubinstein, ed., Taiwan: A New History (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), p. 284.

240 10,000 billion Chinese dollars: Tiejun Zhang, Chu Ran Meng Jue Lu, vol. 2 (Taipei, Taiwan: Xue Yuan Publishers, 1974), p. 211.

240 factor of 85,000: Leslie Chang, Beyond the Narrow Gate: The Journey of Four Chinese Women from the Middle Kingdom to Middle America (New York: Dutton, 1999), pp. 18-19.

240 63 million yuan: Leslie Chang, p. 19.

240 ”eight hundred cases of notes”: Stella Dong, Shanghai, 1842-1949 (New York: William Morrow, 2000), p. 282.

241 Houston businessman: L. Ling-chi Wang, ”Politics of Assimilation and Repression,” p. 306.

241 scarcely enough to buy a postage stamp: Ibid., p. 307. During this era, my maternal grandfather had received an advance from the Nationalist government to write a book for the political department of the Chinese air force. By the time he finished writing the book and withdrew the money from the bank, the advance was worth less than the price of a shirt. (Tiejun Zhang, p. 212.)

241 1.5 million troops: J. A. G. Roberts, A Concise History of China, p. 250.

243 five thousand foreign Chinese intellectuals marooned: Peter Kwong, The New Chinatown, p. 59; Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 417; Kitano and Daniels, Asian Americans, p. 42; Ting Ni, ”Cultural Journey: Experience of Chinese Students of the 1930s and the 1940s,” Ph.D. dissertation in history, Indiana University, April 1996, p. 142.

243 4,675: Ting Ni, p. 81.

243 ”We joked about getting gold-plated”: Author interview with Linda Tsao Yang.

244 ”We came to a fork in our lives”: Ibid.

244 more than 2,500 Chinese students lacked basic funds: Time, February 28, 1949.

245 more than $8 million: The Committee on Educational Interchange Policy, Chinese Students in the United States, 1948-1955 (New York, 1956), as cited in Ting Ni, pp. 24, 94.

245 ”Guomingdang-hired goon squad”: L. Ling-chi Wang, p. 394.

246 ”Communist bandits”: Ibid.

246 ”understanding” between the races: Gloria Heyung Chun, p. 84.

248 bugged the headquarters of the Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance: Renqiu Yu, p. 191.

249 white mob tore apart a Chinatown restaurant: L. Ling-chi Wang, p. 333.

249-50 subpoenaed several staff members of the China Daily News: Renqiu Yu, To Save China, to Save Ourselves, p. 187.

250 Information on Eugene Moy: Renqiu Yu, p. 188; Andrew Hsiao, ”100 Years of Hell-Raising,” Village Voice, June 23, 1998; L. Ling-chi Wang, pp. 439, 443; Him Mark Lai, ”China and the Chinese Community: The Political Dimension,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1999,p. 11.

250 interrogated Tan Yumin: Renqiu Yu, p. 191.

250 ”The FBI guy shouted back”: Ibid., p. 187.

250 ”fantastic system”: Kitano and Daniels, Asian Americans, p. 43.

251 ”destroy that system”: L. Ling-chi Wang, p. 425.

251 J. Edgar Hoover: L. Ling-chi Wang, p. 406; Roger Daniels, Asian America, p. 305.

251 ”Only once before in modern times”: L. Ling-chi Wang, p. 423.

251 ” ‘criminal conspiracy’ ”: Report from Drumwright on visa fraud. File 122.4732/12-955, Location 250/1/05/05, Box 720, Record Group 59, National Archives, Washington, D.C; L. Ling-chi Wang, pp. 422, 423. Wang provides an excellent summary of Drumwright’s charges.

251 ”Chinatown was hit like an A-bomb fell”: Ibid., p. 418.

252 ”mass inquisition”: Ibid., p. 422. It should be noted that during the Korean War, the Chinese American community lived under the threat of mass incarceration. In 1952, the federal government allocated $775,000 to establish six internment camps, in the states of California, Arizona, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, and Florida. (L. Ling-chi Wang, p. 368.)

252 ten thousand Chinese confessed: Ronald Takaki, p. 416.

253 some 120 Chinese intellectuals were detained: Yelong Han, ”An Untold Story: American Policy Towards Chinese Students in the United States,” The Journal of American-East Asian Relations, Spring 1993. As cited in Ting Ni, p. 25.

253 Biographical details on Tsien Hsue-shen: Iris Chang, Thread of the Silkworm (New York: Basic Books, 1995).

256 ”That this government permitted this genius”: ”Made in the U.S.A.?,” 60 Minutes, October 27, 1970, CBS Archives.

256 Information on Cameron House in the 1950s: Author interview with Harry Chuck at Cameron House, March 17, 1999.

257 ”many of my peers strove to be all-American”: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 287.

257 passed an anti-gambling law: Ben Fong-Torres, The Rice Room: Growing Up Chinese-American: From Number Two Son to Rock’n‘Roll (New York: Plume, 1995), p. 53.

257 New York State Housing Survey: L. Ling-chi Wang, p. 515.

257 Information on William Chew: Author interview with Bill Chew; Chew’s unpublished manuscript in his private collection.

258 the ”Chinese Rockefeller of Hawaii”: Burt A. Folkart, ”Known as ‘Chinese Rockefeller’ of the Islands; Hawaii Multimillionaire Chinn Ho Dies,” Los Angeles Times, May 14, 1987.

258 Information on Delbert Wong: Interview with Delbert Wong, interview #59, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project; Sam Chu Lin, ”Historical Society Commemorates WWII 50th Anniversary,” Asian Week, November 11, 1994; K. Connie Kang, ”From China to California, a Six-Generation Saga: One Family’s Milestones and Challenges Tell the Story of a Changing World,” Los Angeles Times, June 29, 1997; Lillian Lim, ”Chinese American Trailblazers in the Law.”

258 Median family income of $6,207: Betty Lee Sung, p. 128.

259 $5,660: Ibid., p. 128.

259 ruled unconstitutional the real estate convenants: Ben Fong-Torres, p. 52. Yet many of the social barriers would remain. When future Nobel laureate C. N. Yang tried to purchase a house in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1954, the seller abruptly returned his down payment, telling Yang that the transaction would hurt his business. (Zhenning Yang, Forty Years of Learning and Teaching [Hong Kong: Sanlian Publishing House, 1985], pp. 11-12.)

259 moved in furtively: Rodney Chow interview, interview #149, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

259 ”The first night, they broke my windows”: Interview with Lancing F. Lee, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

260 ”the only Asian family”: Interview with Alice Young, Nightline, ABC News, June 28, 1999.

260 nationwide study recorded twenty-eight American cities with Chinatowns: Betty Lee Sung, The Story of the Chinese in America, p. 144.

260 fallen to sixteen: Ibid., p. 144.

Chapter Fifteen. New Arrivals, New Lives: The Chaotic 1960s

263 seventy thousand people: Nicholas D. Kristof, ”Hong Kong, Wary of China, Sees Its Middle Class Fleeing,” New York Times, November 9,1987.

264 only a token 105 Chinese: H. Brett Melendy, Chinese and Japanese Americans, p. 66.

264 Thanks to special legislation: For details of the Refugee Relief Act of 1953 and legislation for immigrants with special skills, see L. Ling-chi Wang, ”Politics of Assimilation and Repression: History of the Chinese in the United States, 1940-1970,” unpublished manuscript, Asian American Studies Collection, Ethnic Studies Library, University of California at Berkeley.

264 threw up barbed wire: Betty Lee Sung, pp. 92-93.

264 presidential directive: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ‘, p. 254.

264 some fifteen thousand Chinese refugees: Betty Lee Sung, p. 93.

265 ”no basis in either logic or reason”: John F. Kennedy, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 594-97.

265 Statistics and political quotes regarding the Hart-Celler Act, or 1965 Immigration Act: ”Three Decades of Mass Immigration: The Legacy of the 1965 Immigration Act,” Immigration Review, No. 3-95, September 1995.

266 Lillian Sing: Testimony of Lillian Sing, ”Chinese in San Francisco—1970.” Employment Problems of the Community as Presented in Testimony Before the California Fair Employment Practice Commission, December 1970, p. 15. As cited in Stanford Lyman, Chinese Americans, p. 143.

266 1969 San Francisco Human Rights Commission: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, pp. 302-3; Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., ”Chink!,” p. 241.

267 ”It’s really amazing how the Chinese exploit themselves”: Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 428. ”Here we are like the disabled,” one Chinese woman said of immigrant vulnerability. ”We’re deaf because we cannot understand the language. We’re dumb because we cannot speak it. We’re blind because we cannot read it. And we’re lame because we cannot find our way around.” (Ruthanne Lum McCunn, Chinese American Portraits, p. 151.)

267 ”Your father has to work a long time”: M. Elaine Mar, Paper Daughter (New York: HarperCollins, 1999), p. 98.

267 ”We each slept on a small piece of plywood”: Grace Pung Guthrie, A School Divided, p. 71.

268 greatest tuberculosis rate in the country: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, p. xxv; L. Ling-chi Wang, p. 509.

268 highest suicide rate: Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, pp. xxv, 260.

268 labor in sweatshops for at least eight to ten hours a day: Victor Low, The Unimpressible Race, p. 143.

268 ”They work half the night”: Ibid., p. 144.

268 ”It began with the newcomers getting hassled”: Bill Lee, Chinese Playground: A Memoir (San Francisco: Rhapsody Press, p. 1999), pp. 64-65.

269 ”It was payback time”: Ibid., p. 5.

269 Dressed in black from head to toe: Stanford Lyman, Chinese Americans, p. 163; Bill Lee, Chinese Playground, p. 128.

269 ”delinquency was too clinical a word”: Ben Fong-Torres, The Rice Room, p. 193. The worst outbreak of gang violence occurred on September 4, 1977, when three masked men armed with shotguns and automatic weapons burst into the Golden Dragon restaurant in San Francisco Chinatown and fired randomly on customers, killing five people and wounding eleven.

269 asked for a community clubhouse: Chiou-Ling Yeh, ”Contesting Identities: Youth Rebellion in San Francisco’s Chinese New Year Festival, 1953-1967,” in Susie Lan Cassel, ed., The Chinese in America: A History from Gold Mountain to the New Millennium, p. 336.

270 ”They have not shown that they are sorry”: EastlWest, March 13, 1968, as cited in Chiou-Ling Yeh, ”Contesting Identities,” p. 336.

270 ”Some of these kids are talking about getting guns and rioting”: Ibid., p. 337.

270 Inter-Collegiate Chinese for Social Action: Ibid.

270 Concerned Chinese for Action and Change: Ibid., p. 338; L. Ling-chi Wang, p. 576; Nick Harvey, ed., Ting: The Caldron, p. 101.

270 ”I knew to expect stories about China”: Ben Fong-Torres, p. 59.

271 ”I was nine years old when the letters made my parents, who are rocks, cry”: Maxine Hong Kingston, The Woman Warrior. Memoirs of a Girlhood Among Ghosts (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1976; Vintage international edition, 1989), p. 50.

271 ”The aunts in Hong Kong”: Ibid., p. 50.

272 ”PIG INFORMERS DIE YOUNG”: Ben Fong-Torres, p. 209.

273 ”It seems obvious”: Supreme Court opinion, delivered by Justice Douglas. Lau v. Nichols, No. 72-6530, Supreme Court of the United States, 414 U.S. 56, Argued December 10, 1973, Decided January 21, 1974.

273 Third World Liberation Front: Nick Harvey, ed., Ting: The Caldron, p. 103; William Wei, The Asian American Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993).

274 Red Guard Party: Nick Harvey, ed., Ting: The Caldron, p. 103; Stanford Lyman, Chinese Americans, p. 165.

274 I Wor Kuen: Lori Leong, East Wind magazine 1:1 (1982); author interview with Corky Lee, November 2002; Rocky Chin, ”New York Chinatown Today: Community in Crisis,” in Amy Tachiki, Eddie Wong, Franklin Odo, and Buck Wong, eds., Roots: An Asian American Reader. A Project of the UCLA Asian American Studies Center (Regents of the University of California, 1971). ).

275 ”the blushing dawn of ethnic awareness”: Gish Jen, Mona in the Promised Land (New York: Vintage, 1996), p. 3.

275 “‘You know, the Chinese revolution was a long time ago’”: Ibid., p. 118.

276 Fred Ho: Wei-hua Zhang, ”Fred Ho and Jon Jang: Profiles of Two Chinese American Jazz Musicians,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1994 (Brisbane, Calif.: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1994), pp. 175-99.

276 Grace Lee Boggs: Grace Lee Boggs, Living for Change: An Autobiography (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998).

277 ”Afro-Chinese Marxist”: Frank H. Wu, Yellow: Race in America Beyond Black and White (New York: Basic Books, 2002), p. 331.

277 ”Through sheer will”: Letter, Louis Tsen to Grace Lee Boggs, May 22, 1996, in Grace Lee Boggs, Living for Change, p. xv.

277 Information on the social rise of the Chinese in the South comes from James W. Loewen, The Mississippi Chinese: Between Black and White (Prospect Heights, III.: Waveland Press, 1988, 1971).

278 Black civil rights leaders asked Chinese grocers for financial donations: Ibid., p. 171.

278 Sam Chu Lin: Author interview with Sam Chu Lin.

279 ”I didn’t go to the Chinese dances”: James W. Loewen, p. 160.

279 Sam Sue: Joann Faung Jean Lee, Asian American Experiences in the United States: Oral Histories of First to Fourth Generation Americans from China, the Philippines, Japan, India, the Pacific Islands, Vietnam and Cambodia (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company, 1991), pp. 3-9.

281 ”I had the impression that anything I wanted, I could get”: Carter Wiseman, I. M. Pei: A Profile in American Architecture (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1990), p. 32.

281 ”I had heard that there was discrimination against Chinese”: Dr. An Wang with Eugene Linden, Lessons: An Autobiography (Boston: Addison-Wesley, 1986), p. 32.

281 ”Frankly the United States seemed a lot like China to me”: Ibid., p. 33.

281 ”Science is the same the world over”: Ibid., p. 31.

281 started Wang Laboratories in 1951 with only $600: Ibid., p. 75.

281 took his company public in 1967: Charles Kenney, Riding the Runaway Horse: The Rise and Decline of Wang Laboratories (Boston: Little, Brown, 1992), p. 48.

281 Chin Yang Lee: Author interview with Chin Yang Lee; Heidi Benson, ”C. Y. Lee, Fortunate Son: Author of the Enduring ‘Flower Drum Song’ Is Grateful for ‘Three Lucks in My Life,’” San Francisco Chronicle, September 18, 2002.

281 Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-ning Yang: New York Times, January 15, 1957.

282 Chien-Shiung Wu: New York Times, February 18, 1997; The Guardian, May 13,1997.

282 Shing-Shen Chern: McGraw-Hill Modern Scientists and Engineers, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980), p. 201.

282 Chia-Chiao Lin: Chia-Chiao Lin and Frank H. Shu, ”On the Spiral Structure of Disk Galaxies,” Astrophysical Journal, no. 140, 1964; ”On the Spiral Structure of Galaxies II: Outline of a Theory of Density Waves,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, no. 55, 1966.

282 Tung-Yen Lin: MaryLou Watts, ”Prestressed Concrete Pioneer T. Y. Lin Named Cal’s Alumnus of Year,” CM (Construction Management) Magazine, March 16, 1995; David Pescovitz, ”Berkeley Engineers Changing Our World,” Lab Notes: Research from the College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, vol. 2, issue 6, August 2002; ”Builder of Bridges: Alumnus of the Year T. Y. Lin,” California Monthly, December 1994; files and correspondence from T. Y. Lin to author; ”Top People in the Past 125 Years,” Engineering News-Record 243:9, p. 27; ”Famed Structural Engineer T. Y. Lin Named Cal Alumni Association’s Alumnus of the Year,” Business Wire, December 19, 1994.

282 Min-Chueh Chang: Amy Zuckerman, ”M. C. Chang,” Worcester Magazine, July 27, 1988; Times (London), June 14, 1991; New York Times, June 7, 1991; Roy O. Greep’s comments at the memorial service for Min-Chueh Chang, October 10, 1991; letter from Isabelle C. Chang, widow of Min-Chueh Chang, to author, July 6, 1999. According to Ms. Chang, her husband was nominated for the Nobel Prize six times.

Chapter Sixteen. The Taiwanese Americans

283 ”number three” choice: Murray A. Rubinstein, ed., Taiwan: A New History (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), p. 299.

283 between one million and two million refugees: Franklin Ng, p. 10.

285 ”desolate place both in literary and cultural terms”: Anna Chennault, The Education of Anna (New York: Times Books, 1980), p. 92.

286 about two thousand students were leaving Taiwan: Ronald Skeldon, ed., Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1974), p. 45.

286 T. V. Soong: Leslie Chang, Beyond the Narrow Gate, p. 18; Stella Dong, Shanghai, 1842-1949, p. 288; Him Mark Lai, ”China and the Chinese American Community: The Political Dimension,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1999, p. 10.

287 U.S. News and World Report: U.S. News and World Report, July 24, 1995.

287 suspended all national-level elections: Murray A. Rubinstein, ed., Taiwan: A New History, p. 326.

287 ”the period of Communist rebellion”: Ibid., p. 327.

288 reign of ”White Terror”: Ibid., pp. 145, 330.

288 ”By grade school”: Author interview of Dick Ling, December 27, 2000.

289 ”That student got into deep, deep trouble”: Author interview of Carl Hsu, February 28, 2001.

289 ”You couldn’t even buy vacuum tubes then”: Author interview of Ching Peng, December 27, 2000.

291 Sayling Wen: Sayling Wen and Chin-chung Tsia, Taiwan Experience: How Taiwan Transformed Herself from Economic Difficulty to Economic Boom (Taipei, Taiwan: Locus Publishing Company, 1998), pp. 24-25.

291 40 percent of Taiwan’s income: Murray A. Rubinstein, ed., Taiwan: A New History, p. 328.

291 $100 million: Ibid., p. 325.

291 ”Turn your living room into a factory”: Sayling Wen and Chin-chung Tsia, p. 58.

292 The story of Taiwan’s economic miracle: Murray A. Rubinstein, ed., Taiwan: A New History, p. 374; Chun-Chieh Huang and Feng-fu Tsao, eds., Postwar Taiwan in Historical Perspective (Bethesda: University Press of Maryland, 1998).

293 ”In schools, teachers taught us about the task”: Sayling Wen and Chin-chung Tsia, p. 45.

295 ”White people all looked alike”: Author interview with Ying-Ying Chang.

296 ”the sight of a hot dog”: Cai Nengying, ”Lu Meizhufu huajiachang (A Housewife Staying in America Talks About Household Matters),” in Huang Minghui, ed., Lu Mei Sanji (Notes on Staying in America) (Taipei: Zhengwen, 1971), pp. 34-35. As cited in R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee, Land without Ghosts, p. 219.

297 dared not spend even a few cents: Interview with Cheng-Cheng Chang in Palo Alto, California.

297 ”As I grew up in Taiwan”: E-mail from Albert Yu to author, March 13, 2000.

298 Huang Qiming: Him Mark Lai, ”China and the Chinese American Community: The Political Dimension,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1999, p. 15.

298 Chen Yuxi: Ibid., p. 15.

298 only one in four students returned: Ronald Skeldon, ed., Reluctant Exiles?, p. 45.

299 Chia-ling Kuo: Chia-ling Kuo, ”The Chinese on Long Island: A Pilot Study,” Phylon 31:28 (1970), pp. 80-89, as cited in Ting Ni, ”Cultural Journey,” p. 185.

299 ”I would not let those ignorant people bother me”: Chia-ling Kuo, p. 286; Ting Ni, pp. 186-87.

299 ”great majority of Chinese- and Japanese-Americans”: ”Orientals Find Bias Is Down Sharply in U.S,” New York Times, December 13, 1970, as cited in Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., ”Chink!,” p. 220.

300 Biographical information on Chang-Lin Tien: Kate Coleman, ”Reluctant Hero,” San Francisco Focus, December 1996.

303 Biographical information on David Lee: Author interview of David Lee.

305-6 ”Orientals are inordinately industrious”: James W. Chinn, EastlWest, December 2, 1970, as cited in Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., ”Chink!,” pp. 231-37.

306 one in four Chinese American men sixteen years or older: L. Ling-chi Wang, ”Politics of Assimilation and Repression,” p. 472. By 1970, one-fourth of Chinese American men had college degrees, which was twice the national average. (Him Mark Lai, in Encyclopedia of the Chinese Overseas, p. 266.)

306 only 55 percent of that of white men: Ibid., p. 472.

306 five Asian American health inspectors: Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., ”Chink!,” pp. 215, 232, 233.

307 ”he presumably lacked the ability to deal with the public”: Thomas Yang Chin and Shirley Takemorei, Third World News, December 7, 1970. As cited in Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., ”Chink!,” p. 232.

307 ”I suppose you like to play the lotteries like all good Chinese”: Cheng-Tsu Wu, ed., ”Chink!,” p. 237. Original citation: Kai M. Lui, letter, East/West: The Chinese American Journal, September 1, 1970.

307 ”Oriental women had been trained to be subservient”: Frank Quinn, Fair Employment Practices Commission hearing transcript, December 10, 1970, p. 38.

307 only 2.5 percent: Pauline L. Fong, ”The Current Social and Economic Status of Chinese American Women,” paper presented at the National Conference on Chinese American Studies, October 9-11, 1980, San Francisco.

307 ”In fact, the better educated we became”: Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 288.

308 in-house study at Bell Labs: Author interview of Carl Hsu, co-founder of 4A, Asian Americans for Affirmative Action; ”The Founding of 4A,” 4A Newsletter 1:1 (January 1979); correspondence of Ron Osajima, co-founder of 4A, to author, February 18, 2001; ”Request for a Comparison Study of White Males and Asian Americans,” Bell Labs memorandum, July 22, 1977.

308 ”Most of us had very deep fears about retribution”: Author interview with Carl Hsu.

309 ”worse than the betrayal of a loyal ally”: New York Times, January 5, 1981; Anna Chennault, The Education of Anna, p. 242.

309 ”Mr. President”: Anna Chennault, p. 236.

310 ”During Watergate, we didn’t understand why Nixon had to resign”: Jennie Yabroff, ”Stranger in a Strange Land,” Salon, October 17, 1997.

Chapter Seventeen. The Bamboo Curtain Rises: Mainlanders and Model Minorities

312 ”the news filled me with such euphoria”: Jung Chang, Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), p. 495.

313 partly or completely illiterate: Jasper Becker, The Chinese (New York: Free Press, 2000), p. 210.

314 ”study abroad fever”: Leo A. Orleans, Chinese Students in America: Policies, Issues and Numbers (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988), p. 28.

314 doubled the immigration slots: Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor, p. 276.

315 more than 80,000 PRC intellectuals: Los Angeles Times Magazine, March 25, 1990; Jing Qiu Fu, ”Broken Portraits: The Dilemma of Chinese Student Leaders in the U.S. After the Tiananmen Square Incident,” master’s thesis, Asian American Studies, University of California at Los Angeles, 1999, p. 1.

315 freed Deng Jiaxian: Ting Ni, pp. 190-91.

315 Yuan Jialiu: Ibid., p. 190.

316 Yuan’s family: Ibid., p. 190.

316 roughly half the Chinese foreign students: Dr. An Wang with Eugene Linden, Lessons: An Autobiography (Boston: Addison-Wesley, 1986), p. 42.

316 ”regret in their eyes”: Author interview of Linda Tsao Yang.

316 Let Keung Mui: Interview with Let Keung Mui by Se Wai Mui, his son. Manuscript entitled ”Our Lives, Our Stories, Our Neighborhood. Vol. V Oral Histories compiled by the students of the class. Our Neighborhood: The Lower East Side Experience. Seward Park High School, June 1988,” New York Chinatown History Project, Museum of Chinese in the Americas.

317 ”Why would one person need so many lights?”: Liu Zongren, Two Years in the Melting Pot (San Francisco: China Books and Periodicals, 1988), p. 16.

317 ”A hundred dollars”: Ibid., p. 20.

318 ”I liked E.T. ”: Ibid., p. 20.

318 wealthiest one percent of Americans: James D. Torr, ed., The 1980s (San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2000), p. 54.

318 four hundred richest Americans: Ibid.

319 ”Many of Detroit’s corporate heads”: Ronald Takaki, ”Who Killed Vincent Chin?,” in Grace Yun, ed., A Look Beyond the Model Minority Image (New York: Minority Rights Group, 1989), pp. 26-27.

320 ”In Detroit, the bumper stickers say it all”: Ibid., p. 27.

320 ”What kind of law is this?”: Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 482.

321 ”Three thousand dollars can’t even buy a good used car”: Ibid.

321 ”I don’t understand how this could happen in America”: Ibid.

321 ”My blood boiled”: Ibid., p. 484.

321 ”The killing of Vincent Chin happened in 1982”: Ibid., p. 483.

321 Additional sources on Vincent Chin: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans, pp. 176-78; Christine Choy and Renee Tajima, Who Killed Vincent Chin?, color documentary, 90 minutes, 1988.

322 Sources on the Jim Loo murder: Sucheng Chan, p. 178; United States Commission on Civil Rights, Civil Rights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the 1990s: A Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights, February 1992, pp. 26-28.

322 “I don’t like you because you’re Vietnamese”: Seth Effron, “Racial Slaying Prompts Fear, Anger in Raleigh,” Greensboro News and Record, September 24, 1989.

323 Chen Wencheng: Him Mark Lai, “China and the Chinese American Community: The Political Dimension,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1999, p. 16; Newsweek, August 3, 1981; British Broadcasting Corporation, August 4, 1981.

323 Henry Liu: For a detailed account and analysis of the events that led to the Liu murder, see David E. Kaplan, Fires of the Dragon: Politics, Murder and the Kuomintang (New York: Atheneum, 1992.)

324 David Lam: Chris Rauber, “Tech Pioneer Signs On as CEO of Startup,” San Francisco Business Times, May 9, 1997; “David Lam Joins Tru-Si Technologies, Inc. as Chairman of the Board,” Business Wire, April 28, 1999; interview with David Lam by Joyce Gemperlein and Sandra Ledbetter for the Tech Museum of Innovation’s “The Revolutionaries” series, a joint project with the San Jose Mercury News in 1997.

324 David Wang: Author interview of David Wang; Applied Matters, April 1993; Kristin Huckshorn, “If It’s Here, It Must Be History; Smithsonian Enshrines 1987 Chip Machine,” San Jose Mercury News, March 4, 1993.

324 John Tu and David Sun: Michael Lyster, “$1 Billion and Counting,” Orange County Business Journal, January 1-7, 1996; “Doing the Right Thing,” The Economist, May 20, 1995; Greg Miller, “Memory Makers,” Los Angeles Times, October 16, 1995.

324 Pehong Chen: “8 of 9 Newbies to Forbes 400 Super-Rich List Are Asians,” Business Times, September 20, 2000; “Code Warriors: The Forbes 400,” Forbes, October 9, 2000.

324 Charles Wang: Dan Barry, “Computer Mogul Refines His Game; Facing Rough Times, Charles Wang Tries a New Style,” New York Times, February 4, 1997; John Teresko, “The Magic of Common Sense: How CEO Charles Wang Took Software Maker Computer Associates from Start-up to $3.5 Billion,” Industry Week, July 15, 1996; Amy Cortese, “Sexy? No. Profitable? You Bet. Software Plumbing Keeps Computer Associates Hot,” Business Week, November 11, 1996.

324 “ethnoburbs”: Wei Li, “Building Ethnoburbia: The Emergence and Manifestation of the Chinese Ethnoburb in Los Angeles’ San Gabriel Valley,” Journal of Asian American Studies, February 1999.

325 “Say I am Chinese”: Origins & Destinations, pp. 220-21.

325 more than one-third of Monterey Park’s population: San Diego Union Tribune, January 10, 1999.

325 more than one-quarter in the nearby communities: Ibid.

325 largest suburban concentration of ethnic Chinese: Wei Li, “Anatomy of a New Ethnic Settlement: The Chinese Ethnoburb in Los Angeles,” Urban Studies 35:3 (1998), p. 480.

325 “I feel like I’m in another country”: Mark Arax, “Selling Out, Moving On,” Los Angeles Times, April 12, 1987.

325 “I feel like a stranger in my own town”: Ibid.

325 “Will the Last American”: “English Spoken Here, OK?,” Time, August 25, 1985; Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 425.

325 Anti-Chinese jokes: Timothy Fong, The First Suburban Chinatown: The Remaking of Monterey Park, California (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), p. 71.

326 vandals attacked Chinese-owned movie theaters: Ibid., p. 69.

326 “First it was the real estate people”: Timothy Fong, p. 48; Andrew Tanzer, “Little Taipei,” Forbes, May 1985, p. 69.

327 “HOW TO BE A PERFECT TAIWANESE KID”: Franklin Ng, The Taiwanese Americans (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1988), p. 42.

328 Newsweek ran a favorable article: Martin Kasindorf with Paula Chin in New York, Diane Weathers in Washington, Kim Foltz in Detroit, Daniel Shapiro in Houston, Darby Junkin in Denver, and bureau reports, “Asian Americans: A ‘Model Minority,’” Newsweek, December 6, 1982.

328 MacNeil/Lehrer... and NBC Nightly News: Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 474.

328 60 Minutes: “The Model Minority,” 60 Minutes, CBS, February 1, 1987.

329 MIT, UCLA, and UCI nicknames: Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 479; Frank H. Wu, p. 48.

329 “Orient Express”: Dana Y. Takagi, The Retreat from Race: Asian American Admissions and Racial Politics (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992 and 1998), p. 60.

329 “What do you think I am, Chinese?”: Frank H. Wu, Yellow: Race in America Beyond Black and White, p. 48.

329 “I am NOT a Chinese American electrical engineer”: Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor, p. 278.

329 “I had never been around so many Asian faces”: Phoebe Eng, Warrior Lessons: An Asian American Woman’s Journey into Power (New York: Pocket Books, 1999), p. 91.

329 “Stop the Yellow Hordes”: Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 479.

330 East Coast Asian Student Union: Dana Y. Takagi, The Retreat from Race, pp. 26-27.

330 Information on Princeton, Brown, Stanford and Harvard: Ibid., pp. 27-29,30,33,39,41-42,67,69.

330 5 percent to 20 percent: Ibid., p. 21.

330 40 percent of the entering freshman class: Wallace Turner, “Rapid Rise in Students of Asian Origin Causing Problems at Berkeley Campus,” New York Times, April 6, 1981.

331 fell 21 percent: Dana Y. Takagi, The Retreat from Race, p. 25.

331 “a red light went on”: Linda Mathews, “When Being Best Isn’t Good Enough: Why Yat-Pang Au Won’t Be Going to Berkeley,” Los Angeles Times Magazine, July 19, 1987.

331 shocked to discover that Berkeley had turned away students with perfect GPAs: Dana Y. Takagi, The Retreat from Race, pp. 94, 109.

331 Yat-Pang Au: Los Angeles Times Magazine, July 19, 1987; Tamara Henry, “UC Revises Admissions Policies Amid Protests,” Associated Press, as printed in the Los Angeles Times, December 10, 1989; Los Angeles Times Magazine, July 19, 1987.

332 “I don’t hold it against them”: NBC Nightly News, July 26, 1989.

332 found UCLA guilty of bias: Dana Y. Takagi, The Retreat from Race, p. 9.

332 Lowell High School: Huping Ling, Surviving on the Gold Mountain, p. 171; Seattle Times, March 26, 1996; Asian Week, March 22, 2000; San Francisco Examiner, November 8, 1999, November 25, 1999, January 8, 2000.

333 “Asian applicants are competing with white applicants”: Daily Californian, October 8, 1987, as cited in Dana Y. Takagi, The Retreat from Race, p. 9.

333 “never been based on meritocratic standards”: A magazine, October /November 1995, p. 87.

Chapter Eighteen. Decade of Fear: The 1990s

336 “individuals from any country who express fear of persecution”: Marlowe Hood, “Dark Passage; Riding the Snake,” Los Angeles Times Magazine, June 13, 1993.

336 “political suicide”: Jing Qiu Fu, “Broken Portraits,” p. 45.

336 “make Chinese intellectuals as scapegoats”: Ibid., p. 42.

336 “China will definitely change”: Ibid., p. 55.

336 Chinese Student Protection Act: Him Mark Lai, “China and the Chinese American Community: The Political Dimension,” Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1999, p. 19.

337 “No sane person”: Ronald Skeldon, ed., Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1974), p. 166.

337 70 percent of Hong Kong’s government doctors: Ibid., p. 35.

337 some 15 to 19 percent of Hong Kong émigrés: Ibid., p. 31.

337 605 Hong Kong residents: Ibid., p. 103.

337 estimated 1.5 million Canadian dollars: Ibid., p. 32.

338 soared from twenty thousand: Ibid., pp. 30, 103.

338 in excess of $30,000: Ibid., p. 55.

339 “empty wife”: Ibid., p. 11.

339 Jimmy Lai, Ronnie Chan, Frank Tsao, Tung Chee-hwa: Evelyn Iritani, “The New Trans-Pacific Commuters,” Sacramento Bee, February 9, 1997.

340 found it difficult to adjust: Ronald Skeldon, ed., Reluctant Exiles?, p. 171.

340 “Hong Kong is a place which is famous for its materialistic glamour”: Alex C. N. Leung, Bulletin of the Hong Kong Psychological Society, No. 28-29, January-July 1992, p. 139.

341 “He starts gambling and smoking”: Ronald Skeldon, ed., Reluctant Exiles?, p. 173.

341 “his marriage, his children”: Alex C. N. Leung, p. 142.

343 “You may be the best in your class”: Min Zhou, “‘Parachute Kids’ in Southern California: The Educational Experience of Chinese Children in Transnational Families,” Educational Policy 12:6 (November 1998).

343 some thirty thousand to forty thousand Taiwanese students: Helena Hwang and Terri Watanabe, “Little Overseas Students from Taiwan: A Look at the Psychological Adjustment Issues,” master’s thesis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1990; Chong-Li Edith Chung, “An Investigation of the Psychological Well Being of Unaccompanied Taiwanese Minors/Parachute Kids in the United States,” Ph.D. dissertation in counseling psychology, University of Southern California, December 1994, p. 1.

344 approximately ten thousand of them: S. Y. Kuo, Research on Taiwanese Unaccompanied Minors in the United States (Taipei: Institute of American Culture, Academia Sinica), as cited in Chong-Li Edith Chung, p. 1.

344 allowances of $4,000 or more a month: Min Zhou, “‘Parachute Kids’ in Southern California.”

344 162 Taiwanese adolescents: Chong-Li Edith Chung, pp. x, 87, 88.

344 “It looks happy on the outside”: Min Zhou, “‘Parachute Kids’ in Southern California.”

345 about $15,000 a year: Ibid.

345 about $40,000: Ibid.

345 “If they’re going to dump me here”: D. Hamilton, “A House, Cash and No Parents,” Los Angeles Times, June 24, 1993, p. A16.

345 “work hard, to focus”: Min Zhou, “‘Parachute Kids’ in Southern California.”

345 fax them copies of report cards: Ibid.

346 detonated a homemade bomb: Min Zhou, “‘Parachute Kids’ in Southern California.”

346 charged with arms smuggling: Ibid.

346 San Marino school district: Chong-Li Edith Chung, p. 47.

346 Kuan Nan “Johnny” Chen: Jeff Wong, “‘Parachute Kids’: Latchkey Kids with Cash Vulnerable to Trouble,” Associated Press, May 15, 1999; NBC Nightly News, January 9, 1999.

346-47 two out of three abductions: San Diego Union-Tribune, January 10, 1999.

347 nine out of ten: Associated Press, May 15, 1999.

347 About 80 percent: Min Zhou, “‘Parachute Kids’ in Southern California.”

347 paid $19,000 each: Maggie Farley, “Shanghai Youths Test Welcome Mat in US,” Los Angeles Times, May 3, 1999, p. A1.

347 “In China, we can have only one child”: Ibid.

Chapter Nineteen. High Tech vs. Low Tech

349 40 percent of the country’s assets: Edward N. Wolff, “Recent Trends in Wealth Ownership,” a paper for the Conference on Benefits and Mechanisms for Spreading Asset Ownership in the United States, New York University, December 10-12, 1998; Edward N. Wolff, Top Heavy: The Increasing Inequality of Wealth in America and What Can Be Done About It (New York: New Press, 1996); “A Scholar Who Concentrates ... on Concentrations of Wealth,” Too Much, Winter 1999.

349 lost 80 percent of their net worth: Edward N. Wolff, “Recent Trends in Wealth Ownership,” table 2, “The Size Distribution of Wealth and Income, 1983-1997.”

351 Sources on Jerry Yang: A magazine, June/July 2000, p. 10. “Yahoo,” (chapter 10), in David Kaplan, The Silicon Boys and Their Valley of Dreams (New York: William Morrow, 1999); “Jerry Yang Yahoo! Finding Needles in the Internet’s Haystack,” (chapter 6), in Robert H. Reid,Architects of the Web: 1,000 Days That Built the Future of Business (New York: John Wiley, 1997).

352 Sources on Morris Chang: Author interview with Morris Chang, March 17, 2000; Mark Landler, “The Silicon Godfather: The Man Behind Taiwan’s Rise in the Chip Industry,” New York Times, February 1, 2000.

353 capped the program at 65,000 visas a year: Denver Post, June 18, 2000.

353 115,000 in 1998: Sara Robinson, “High-Tech Workers Are Trapped in Limbo by I.N.S.,” New York Times, February 29, 2000.

353 195,000: Ibid.

354 “white-collar indentured servitude”: Ibid.

354 Swallow Yan: Author correspondence with Swallow Yan, July 2000; The Scientist, May 29, 2000.

355 “Blue Team”: Robert G. Kaiser and Steven Mufson, “‘Blue Team’ Draws a Hard Line on Beijing: Action on Hill Reflects Informal Group’s Clout,” Washington Post, February 22, 2000.

356 Christopher Cox: The three-volume report, commonly referred to as the “Cox Report on Chinese Espionage” (March 1999), is an unclassified version of the Final Report of the United States House of Representatives Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People’s Republic of China, a Top Secret report issued on January 3, 1999. For details on how the report misused my research, see Perla Ni, “Rape of Nanking Author Denounces Cox Report: Iris Chang Tells Conventioneers That Her Research Was Misused,” Asian Week,June 3, 1999. Jonathan S. Landreth, “Arrested for Spying? Or for Being Chinese? Author Iris Chang on Dr. Tsien Hsue-Shen,” Virtual China News, December 23, 1999.

357 “a paper with Chinese writing on it”: Norman Matloff, “Democracy Begins at Home,” Asian Week, July 14, 1995.

357 “yellow high-tech peril”: Sarah Lubman and Pete Carey, “False Spying Charges Have Happened Before: Valley Chinese-Americans Complain Allegations Have Destroyed Careers,” San Jose Mercury News, June 23, 1999.

358 “It happened so fast”: Correspondence from Chih-Ming Hu to author.

358 “When I went to high-tech company job interviews”: Ibid.

358 “I was scared”: Jonathan Curiel, “Widespread Support for Jailed Scientist: Chinese Americans Eager to Help Lee,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 10, 2000.

358 “I was 100 percent innocent!”: Chih-Ming Hu, March 16, 1999.

359 indicted him for allegedly transferring nuclear secrets: Vernon Loeb and David Vise, “Physicist Lee Indicted in Nuclear Spy Probe,” Washington Post, December 11, 1999.

359 fifty-nine counts: The New Yorker, October 2, 2000.

359 more than 260 agents: Vernon Loeb and David Vise, “Physicist Lee Indicted in Nuclear Spy Probe,” Washington Post, December 11, 1999. Two hundred FBI agents were used just to watch Lee twenty-four hours a day.

359 548 addresses: Vernon Loeb, “Ex-Official: Bomb Lab Case Lacks Evidence,” Washington Post, August 17, 1999.

359 passed it with flying colors: Robert Scheer, “Was Lee Indicted, and Not Deutch? Spy scandal: Look closer and you can see the politics behind the case,” Los Angeles Times, February 8, 2000.

360 “Do you think the press prints everything that’s true?”: Unclassified transcript of FBI interview 004868-004950.

360 “Do you know who the Rosenbergs are?”: Wen Ho Lee with Helen Zia, My Country Versus Me: The First-Hand Account by the Los Alamos Scientist Who Was Falsely Accused of Being a Spy (New York: Hyperion, 2001), p. 81. Also, transcript of FBI interview 004868-004950.

360 “for my convenience, not for any espionage purposes”: Wen Ho Lee with Helen Zia, p. 122. For more details, see pp. 119-22, 323-26.

361 blew a sheaf of documents: William J. Broad, “Files in Question in Los Alamos Case Were Reclassified,” New York Times, April 15, 2000.

361 reclassified the downloaded PARD files: Ibid. It is not illegal to copy PARD files, nor is it a security violation.

361 Deutch had actually removed top-secret files: Daniel Klaidman, “The Nuclear Spy Case Suffers a Meltdown,” Newsweek, August 30, 1999.

361 seventeen thousand pages of documents: James Risen, “CIA Inquiry of Its Ex-Director Was Stalled at Top, Report Says,” New York Times, February 1, 2000.

361 “alien resident” housekeeper: Robert Scheer, “CIA’s Deutch Heedlessly Disregarded Security,” Los Angeles Times, February 29, 2000.

361 neither encryption nor a secure phone line: Ibid.

361 important memory cards: Ibid.

361 deleting more than a thousand files: New York Times, February 1, 2000.

362 refused to give interviews: Ibid.

362 “three crimes we knew were sure-fire violations”: Bill Gertz, “Pentagon Probe Targets Deutch,” Washington Times, February 17, 2000.

362 recommended Nora Slatkin: James Risen, “Deutch Probe Looks at Job,” New York Times, February 12,2000.

362 “Deutch can get away with anything”: Ling-chi Wang, “Wen Ho Lee & John Deutch: A Study of Contrast and Failure of Leadership,” public electronic mail statement, February 9, 2002.

363 “Deutch is a leading member”: Robert Scheer, “Was Lee Indicted, and Not Deutch? Spy scandal: Look closer and you can see the politics behind the case,” Los Angeles Times, February 8, 2000.

363 “built on thin air”: “U.S. Lacks Evidence in China Spy Probe, Ex-Aide Says,” Reuters News Report, August 17, 1999.

363 shackled in chains: “Amnesty International Protests Solitary Confinement, Shackling of Dr. Wen Ho Lee,” public statement of Amnesty International, August 16, 2000; Hendrik Hertzberg, “In Solitary,” The New Yorker, October 2, 2000.

363 “While Deutch has been coddled”: Robert Scheer, “CIA’s Deutch Heedlessly Disregarded Security”; “Spy Scandal: Scientist Wen Ho Lee Is Being Treated Unfairly, Especially as Compared to the Former Intelligence Chief,” Los Angeles Times, February 29, 2000.

363 “This case stinks”: “Wen Ho Lee Reportedly Makes a Deal,” Associated Press, September 11, 2000.

363 Fang Lizhi: San Jose Mercury News, February 2, 2000; George Koo, “Deutch Is Sorry; Lee Is in Jail,” San Francisco Examiner, February 8, 2000.

363 Plato Cacheris: James Glanz, “Scientific Groups Complain About Treatment of Weapons Scientist,” New York Times, March 7, 2000.

363 worked out a plea bargain: James Sterngold, “Wen Ho Lee Will Plead Guilty to Lesser Crime at Los Alamos,” New York Times, September 10, 2000; Marcus Kabel, “U.S., Wen Ho Lee Reach Plea Agreement,” Reuters, September 11, 2000.

364 “terribly wronged”: Wen Ho Lee with Helen Zia, p. 2.

364 “embarrassed our entire nation”: “Lee Free; Federal Judge Apologizes,” Associated Press, September 13, 2000; Vernon Loeb, “Physicist Lee Freed With Apology: U.S. Actions ‘Embarrassed’ Nation, Judge Says,” Washington Post, September 14, 2000, p. A1.

364 “the FBI has been investigating a crime”: San Francisco Chronicle, August 26, 2001.

364 Eddie Liu: E-mail from Eddie Liu, March 14, 1999.

364 “China’s spying, they say”: Vernon Loeb, “China Spy Methods Limit Bid to Find Truth, Officials Say,” Washington Post, March 21, 1999.

365 mysterious $700 withdrawal: Robert Schmidt, “Crash Landing: The New York Times shook the government with its articles on Chinese nuclear-missile espionage. But six months after fingering Wen Ho Lee as a spy, the paper said, in effect, never mind,” Brill’s Content, November 1999.

365 “suspiciously congratulatory”: Ibid.

365 “We’ve got to remember”: Los Angeles Times, May 21, 1999.

365 “He doesn’t distinguish between Chinese foreign nationals”: Annie Nakao, “Spy Scandal Hurts Asian Americans,” San Francisco Examiner, May 26, 1999.

366 “The problem is guilt by racial association”: Ibid.

366 laptop computer out to be repaired: Author interview with Brian Sun.

366 “The Lab treated me as a suspect”: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in-house report given to author.

366 “interested obsessively”: Vernon Loeb, “Espionage Stir Alienating Foreign Scientists in U.S.; Critics of Distrust Fear a Brain Drain,” Washington Post, November 25, 1999.

367 “The term going around now”: Andrew Lawler, “Silent No Longer: ‘Model Minority’ Mobilizes,” Science, November 10, 2000, p. 1072.

367 “subjective, arbitrary and capricious”: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in-house report given to author. The study was conducted by Dick Ling, Joel Wong, Kalina Wong, and several Asian American scientists who wished to remain anonymous. Officials at the laboratory have criticized the study as unreliable because not all Asian American employees were included. “We have never claimed that our studies are absolutely correct since LLNL refused to release the list of APIAs (Asian Pacific Islander Americans) for our studies,” Dick Ling wrote to the author. “We have compiled the APIA list through personal knowledge and employees’ last names.”

367 earned as much as $12,000 less: Ibid.

367 15 to 20 percent: Ibid.

367 “the same appropriate yardsticks”: Ibid.

367 “Subconsciously, you become the enemy”: Author interview with Lawrence Livermore scientist, December 27, 2000.

368 “In hindsight, there are some things I might have done differently”: Wen Ho Lee with Helen Zia, p. 327.

368 not one single Chinese graduate student: Dan Stober, “Lee Case Leaves Ethnic Chinese Shunning Lab Jobs,” San Jose Mercury News, February 20, 2000.

368 half of the ten finalists: Ibid.

368 class action lawsuit: James Glanz, “Weapons Labs Close to Settling a Bias Lawsuit,” New York Times, March 26, 2000.

369 the largest group of foreign students: Vernon Loeb, “Espionage Stir Alienating Foreign Scientists in U.S.; Critics of Distrust Fear a Brain Drain,” Washington Post, November 25, 1999.

369 about half of all foreign scientists with doctorates: Ibid.

369 not one of the twenty-four applicants was American: Ibid.

369 Feng Gai: Ibid.

369 “felt his every move would be monitored”: David Pines, “Why Science Can’t Be Done in Isolation,” Newsweek, September 27, 1999.

370 shrink the population to 700 million: Jasper Becker, p. 235.

371 “Owing to the current political situation”: Kay Johnson, “The Revival of Infant Abandonment in China,” in Amy Klatzkin, ed., A Passage to the Heart: Writings from Families with Children from China (St. Paul, Minn.: Yeong and Yeong Book Company, 1999), p. 224.

371 “In a dim room”: Jurgen Kremb, “Der Kinder-Gulag von Harbin,” Der Spiegel, No. 37, September 11, 1995, as cited in Human Rights Watch, Death by Default: A Policy of Fatal Neglect in China’s State Orphanages (New York, Washington, Los Angeles, London, Brussels: Human Rights Watch, 1996), p. 68.

371 two hundred children: A magazine, June/July 1997, p. 35.

371 donate $3,000: Richard Tessler, Gail Gamache, and Liming Liu, West Meets East: Americans Adopt Chinese Children (Westport, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1999), p. 39.

372 “China’s Market in Orphan Girls”: New York Times Magazine, April 11, 1993.

372 more than thirty-three thousand infants: According to Families with Children from China, in the fiscal year 2002 there have been 33,637 adoptions from China to the United States since 1985.

372 42.7 years: Richard Tessler, Gail Gamache, and Liming Liu, p. 70.

372 65 percent: Ibid.

372 $15,000 to $20,000: Interview with Jean H. Seeley, September 23, 1999; Richard Tessler, Gail Gamache, and Liming Liu, pp. 39, 42.

372 $70,000-to-$90,000 range: Richard Tessler, Gail Gamache, and Liming Liu, p. 70.

373 “She spent eight months in purgatory”: Christine Kukka, “The Labor of Waiting,” in Amy Klatzkin, ed., A Passage to the Heart, pp. 19-20.

373 “I thought that if I got a child”: Shanti Fry, “Surviving Waiting Parenthood: Some Completely Useless Advice from One Who’s Been There,” in Amy Klatzkin, ed., A Passage to the Heart, p. 3.

373 “Say good-bye to China”: Jean H. Seeiey, “Adventures in Adoption” essay, in correspondence between Jean H. Seeley and author.

373 “Why are you kissing that child?”: Martha Groves, “Why Are You Kissing That Child?,” in Amy Klatzkin, ed., A Passage to the Heart, p. 264.

374 “a chink baby”: Richard Tessler, Gail Gamache, and Liming Liu, p. 149.

374 “Couldn’t get a white one, huh?”: Ibid.

374 “killed a lot of your cousins”: Ibid.

374 gifts from the birth parents: A magazine, June/July 1997, p. 36.

374 “You’re mean”: John Bowen, “The Other Mommy in China,” in Amy Klatzkin, ed., A Passage to the Heart, p. 311.

374 “we shop at Asian markets”: Richard Tessler, Gail Gamache, and Liming Liu, p. 141.

374 “Lo Mein”: Richard Tessler, Gail Gamache, and Liming Liu, p. 114.

375 “I began to see children and their ‘differences’ in a new light”: Patty Cogen, “I Don’t Know Her Name, But I’d Like to Enroll Her in Preschool,” in Amy Klatzkin, ed., A Passage to the Heart, p. 166.

375 200 million to 250 million people: Ling Li, “Mass Migration Within China and the Implications for Chinese Emigration,” and Jack A. Gold-stone, “A Tsunami on the Horizon: The Potential for International Migration,” in Paul J. Smith, ed., Human Smuggling: Chinese Migrant Trafficking and the Challenge to America’s Immigration Tradition (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1997), pp. 34, 58.

375 “That’s why I left in a hurry”: Ko-lin Chin, Smuggled Chinese: Clandestine Immigration to the United States (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), p. 23.

375 “In China today”: Los Angeles Times, June 13, 1993.

376 “Those friends and relatives would all want money from you”: James W Gin, oral history interview, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project.

376 $22,204, compared to $370: Newsday, June 21, 1993.

376 “Everyone went crazy”: Sing Tao Daily, December 2, 1996, as cited in Ko-lin Chin, p. 9.

377 Estimates range from ten thousand to one hundred thousand: Ko-lin Chin, p. 6.

377 “It’s like trying to pin jello to a wall”: Brian Duffy, “Coming to America,” cover story, U.S. News and World Report, June 21, 1993, p. 27.

377 survey conducted by Ko-lin Chin: Alex Tizon, “The Rush to ‘Gold Mountain’: Why Smuggled Chinese Bet Everything on a Chance to Live and Work in the U.S.,” Seattle Times, April 16, 2000.

377 among the forty billionaires: Ibid.

377 Almost six thousand Chinese crewmen: L. Ling-chi Wang, “Politics of Assimilation and Repression,” p. 272. He cites the number of 5,834, given by an annual report of the U.S. Immigration Service.

378 “During the Cultural Revolution”: Ko-lin Chin, p. 24.

378 “I was victimized under the one-child policy”: Ibid., p. 24.

378 “I heard that everything was so nice in America”: Ibid., p. 14.

378 “Before I came, I thought America was a very prosperous country”: Ibid., p. 25.

378 “going to America as going to heaven”: Ibid., p. 24.

378 “For us, it doesn’t mean freedom”: Paul J. Smith, ed., Human Smuggling, p. xii.

378 up to $8 billion a year: Associated Press, January 28, 2000.

378 $60,000 to $70,000: Shawn Hubler, “The Changing Face of Illegal Immigration Is a Child’s,” Los Angeles Times, January 31, 2000.

379 locked in a motel basement: Allentown Pennsylvania Morning Call, August 2, 1993.

379 forced to hide in a pigsty: Ko-lin Chin, p. 52.

379 review of internal INS documents: Author’s visit to Immigration and Naturalization Service headquarters in Washington, D.C.

379 one in five illegal Chinese: Asia, Inc., May 1993.

379 Description of smuggling activities from Canada or Mexico: Kenneth Yales, “Canada’s Growing Role as a Human Smuggling Destination and Corridor to the United States,” in Paul J. Smith, Human Smuggling, pp. 156-168; Ko-lin Chin, “Safe House or Hell House? Experience of Newly Arrived Undocumented Chinese,” in Paul J. Smith, Human Smuggling, p. 169.

380 “It is arduous and taxing”: Sunday Telegraph (London), June 25, 2000.

380 rotting, crumbling wood: Malcolm Glover and Lon Daniels, “Smuggler Main Ship Hunted on High Seas,” San Francisco Examiner, June 3, 1993, p. 1.

380 bail water out of sinking ships: Ko-lin Chin, p. 71.

380 considered dynamiting it: Ibid., p. 71.

380 “the most incredibly screwed-up”: Jan Ten Bruggencate, “147 Illegals Endured a Ship of Ghouls,” Honolulu Advertiser, August 23, 1995.

380 Golden Venture: Newsweek, June 21, 1993; Seattle Times, April 16, 2000.

381 died of asphyxiation in a sealed trailer: Sunday Telegraph (London), June 25, 2000.

381 five Chinese corpses: Ibid.

381 fifty-eight Chinese suffocated: Ibid.

381 fans, mattresses, and cell phones: Kim Murphy, “Smuggling of Chinese Ends in a Box of Death, Squalor,” Los Angeles Times, January 12, 200C.

381 “awash in human waste”: Chelsea J. Carter, “More Chinese Illegal Immigrants Arrive in Shipping Containers,” Associated Press, April 10, 2000.

381 twelve days and nights: Los Angeles Times, January 24, 2000.

381 fifteen Chinese stowaways: Scott Sunde, “Chinese Smugglers Switch to New Tactics,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, February 10, 2000.

382 strapping themselves to the landing gear: Michelle Malkin, “Dying to Be an American,” Washington Times, January 18, 2000, p. A12.

382 withheld food and water from all females: New York Post, June 24, 1993; Ko-lin Chin, Smuggled Chinese, p. 74.

382 water spiked with sleeping pills: Ko-lin Chin, Smuggled Chinese, p. 74.

382 sexually assaulted many of the male passengers: Anthony M. DeStefano, “Chinese Turned into Sex Slaves,” Newsday, August 23, 1995, as cited in Paul J. Smith, Human Smuggling, p. 11; Honolulu Advertiser, August 23, 1995.

382 charged a hundred dollars for a single international phone call: Ko-lin Chin, “Safe House or Hell House?,” in Paul J. Smith, ed., Human Smuggling, p. 180; Ko-lin Chin, Smuggled Chinese, p. 104.

382 signed IOUs sealed with their own blood: Honolulu Advertiser, August 23, 1995.

382 shackled and handcuffed: Ko-lin Chin, in Paul J. Smith, ed., pp.183-84.

382 FBI broke into a Brooklyn apartment: Peter Kwong, The New Chinatown, pp. 179-80.

383 eight gangsters from Fuzhou: Ibid., pp. 184-85.

383 raped and assaulted for months: Ko-lin Chin, Smuggled Chinese, p. 110.

383 “After being there for a period of time”: Ko-lin Chin, in Paul J. Smith, ed., Human Smuggling, p. 187.

383 “they can make a fortune”: Seattle Post-Intelligencer, January 12, 2000.

383 some sweatshop owners paid no wages: Downtown Express, June 21, 1993.

383 “To tell you the truth”: Ko-lin Chin, Smuggled Chinese, pp. 130-31.

383 surpassed even that of Wall Street: Ronald Skeldon, ed., Reluctant Exiles?, p. 262; L. Ling-chi Wang, “Politics of Assimilation and Repression,” p. 515.

384 broken sprinkler systems: Alan Finder, “Despite Tough Laws, Sweatshops Flourish,” New York Times, February 6, 1995, p. A1.

384 ninety dollars a month: Peter Kwong, The New Chinatown, p. 180.

384 “Most of our villagers considered America heaven”: Dan Barry, “Chinatown Fires May Stem from a Hoax to Get Housing,” New York Times, November 29, 1995.

384 typically worked off their debt to the snakeheads in four years: Author interview with Ko-lin Chin, January 8, 2003.

384 “They are hard-working and ambitious”: Ibid.

384 “They now drive Mercedes-Benzes”: Ibid.

385 “If smugglers want the money”: Alex Fryer, “Chinese Stowaways in America,” Seattle Times, January 23, 2000.

385 Gao Liqin: Seth Faison, “Brutal End to an Immigrant’s Voyage of Hope,” New York Times, October 2, 1995, p. A1; Randy Kennedy, “Murder Charges Sought in Immigrant’s Slaying,” New York Times, September 21, 1995.

385 “If you work hard and stay out of trouble”: New York Times, October 2, 1995.

385 “You can hide for a few years”: Ashley Dunn, “After the Golden Venture, the Ordeal Continues,” New York Times, June 5, 1994.

385 “You have friends”: Ibid.

386 cheap, gaudy replicas of European castles: Antoaneta Bezlova, “Town Is Changed as Chinese Seek Fortunes Abroad,” USA Today, February 16, 2000; Interpress Service, January 24, 2000; Los Angeles Times, June 21, 1993.

386 wore gold jewelry and carried cell phones: Marlowe Hood, “Sourcing the Problem: Why Fuzhou?,” in Paul J. Smith, ed., Human Smuggling, p. 82.

386-87 half-constructed palatial homes: Seattle Times, April 16, 2000; Elisabeth Rosenthal, “Despite High Risk, Chinese Go West; Emigrants Pay Snakehead Smugglers to Get to the Promised Land,” International Herald Tribune, June 27, 2000.

387 “So no one in the village works”: International Herald Tribune, June 27, 2000.

387 “populated only by old people”: Marlowe Hood, “Sourcing the Problem: Why Fuzhou?,” in in Paul J. Smith, ed., Human Smuggling, p. 80.

387 paying a $1,000 fee, plus airfare, to have their infants safely delivered: Somini Sengupta, “Squeezed by Debt and Time, Mothers Ship Babies to China,” New York Times, September 14, 1999.

387 “I am sacrificing myself to bring happiness to my family”: Ko-lin Chin, Smuggled Chinese, p. 18.

387 “Look at your salary”: Seattle Times, April 16, 2000.

Chapter Twenty. An Uncertain Future

390 “Asian Americans feel like we’re a guest in someone else’s house”: Mia Tuan, Forever Foreigners or Honorary Whites? The Asian Ethnic Experience Today (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998), p. 4.

390 astronauts: In 2003, the two Chinese American astronauts active in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration were Dr. Leroy Chiao and Dr. Edward Tsang Lin. In 1985, Dr. Taylor Wang flew on STS-51B Challenger, the first operational Spacelab mission.

390 “Funny, you don’t sound like a Wong”: Author correspondence with Ben Wong, West Covina City Council member, December 2000.

390-91 one in every six medical doctors: Nightline, ABC News, June 28, 1999.

391 “don our accents”: Author correspondence with Rosalind Chao.

391 “People like Asian-American dolls in costumes”: A magazine, August/September 2000, p. 10.

391 “Are you in the Chinese Air Force?”: Ted W. Lieu, “A Question of Loyalty,” Washington Post, June 19, 1999.

392 “In those early days at CBS”: Author interview with Connie Chung, August 28, 2000.

392 “Connie Chink”: Civil Rights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the 1990s, p. 44.

392 “How can you let a gook design this?”: Maya Lin—A Strong Clear Vision, 105-minute documentary, written and directed by Freida Lee Mock, produced by Freida Lee Mock and Terry Sanders, American Film Foundation.

392 “How did it happen that an Asian-American woman was permitted”: Franklin Ng, “Maya Lin and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial,” in Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1994, p. 214.

392 “There are Americans in it”: Howard Chua-Eoan, “Profiles in Outrage: America Is Home, but Asian Americans Feel Treated as Outlanders with Unproven Loyalties,” Time, September 25, 2000, p. 40; A magazine, summer 1994, p. 24.

392 “American beats Kwan”: Joanne Lee, “Mistaken Headline Underscores Racial Assumptions,” Editor & Publisher, April 25, 1998, p. 64.

393 “American outshines Kwan”: Seattle Times, February 22, 2002; ESPN The Magazine, May 1, 2002.

393 which country he would support: Los Angeles Times, March 2, 2000; Time, September 25, 2000, p. 40.

393 “There is a subtle stereotyping”: Time, September 25, 2000.

393 “Most strikingly I was asked a couple of times”: Al Kamen, “DOE Trips on Security Blanket,” Washington Post, May 25, 2001; Sam Chu Lin, “Rep. Wu Refused Entry to Energy Department,” article provided by Lin during correspondence with author. (“I just find that incredibly ironic,” David Wu said of the incident, “because I was going down there at their invitation to try to help them with their Asian Pacific American Heritage celebration.”)

393 “subtle racism”: Roxanne Roberts, “An Asian American Gala, with the Emphasis on American,” Washington Post, May 11, 2001.

395 “the ability to threaten our homes with long-range nuclear warheads”: Leslie Wayne, “Infamous Political Commercial Is Turned on Gore,” New York Times, October 27, 2000.

395 Patrick Oliphant: Cartoon on April 9, 2001, syndicated by Andrews McMeel Universal. Letter of complaint from Victor Panichkul, national president of Asian American Journalists Association, to John P. McMeel, chairman of Andrews McMeel Universal, April 11, 2001.

395 “put MSG in everything”: Jonah Goldberg, “Back to Realpolitik; Out with Hysterics,” National Review, April 4, 2001.

395 “Why don’t you go to China”: Correspondence from Theresa Ma to author, September 22, 2001.

396 In Springfield, Illinois: William Wong, “A Great Wall of Unease; In Spy Plane’s Wake, Crude Jokes and Racist Stereotypes Make Chinese Americans Queasy,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 18, 2001.

396 Fox News host: Statement by George M. Ong, president of the Organization of Chinese Americans, April 11, 2001.

396 interned by the federal government: Statement by Larry Golden, professor of Political Studies and Legal Studies, University of Illinois at Springfield.

396 “The official sported a black wig”: Amy Leang, “Walk, Not Just Talk the Talk,” ASNE Reporter, April 2001; Lloyd Grove, “Regrets, No Apology,” Washington Post, April 13, 2001.

396 80 percent of Americans viewed the PRC as “dangerous”: Business Week, April 16, 2001.

396 national telephone survey: Sonya Hepinstall, “Survey: Chinese Americans Still Have a Long Way to Go,” Reuters, April 25, 2001. (The study, commissioned by the Committee of One Hundred in collaboration with the Anti-Defamation League, was conducted by Marttila Communications Group and Yankelovich in 2001.)

398 David Ho’s quote: Time, September 25, 2000, p. 40.

400 Information about Cy Wong: Author interview with Cy Wong.

400 “From time to time”: Cy Wong, “East Meets South: Cy Wong, the Great-Grandson of a Chinese Immigrant, Traveled to Louisiana to Research His Colorful History,” Los Angeles Times, September 26, 1993.

400 “Many of the Chinese people I interviewed”: Lisa See, On Gold Mountain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995; Vintage, 1996), p. xx.

401 number of children born to Chinese-Caucasian couples more than tripled: Joyce Nishioka, “U.C. Berkeley Hosts Hapa Conference,” Asian Week, May 26, 1999, p. 8.

401 some 750,000 to 1 million multiracial Asian Americans in the United States: Janet Dang and Jason Ma, “HAPAmerica: The Coming of Age of Hapas Sets the Stage for a New Agenda,” Asian Week, April 19, 2000.

401 Information on Hapa movement: Asian Week, June 10, 1998, and April 19, 2000.

402 drew arrows to three boxes: Author interview with Cy Wong.